The document discusses several theories of audience development in media studies: 1) The Frankfurt School's "effects model" from the 1920s-30s viewed audiences as passive recipients susceptible to media messages. 2) The two-step flow theory from the 1940s-50s found people are more influenced by opinion leaders who interpret media for friends/family. 3) Uses and gratifications theory from the 1970s found audiences actively consume media to fulfill different needs like diversion, social interaction, and identity exploration.

1. Audience theory
What isaudience?
 All mediaproductshave atarget audience
 Theyalsosometimes(particularlyinthe case of propaganda) tryto constructan audience.
 Productscan have a mass audience ora niche audience
 The producerstextsneedtoknow the importance of theiraudience whenmakingproducts
Firstaudience theory:the Frankfurtschool
 At the school a group of mediatheoristsinthe 1920’s/30’s were concernedaboutthe
possible effectsof massmedia
 Theyproposedthe ‘effectsmode’whichconsideredsocietytobe composedof isolated
individualswhowere susceptibletomediamessages.
 The Frankfurtschool envisioned the mediaasa hypodermicsyringe
 Linearcommunicationtheory;passive audience andnoindividualdifference.
The secondtheory:the two stepflow
 DevelopedbyLazarsfeldandKatzinthe 40’s/50’s
 Firstopinion –leadersgetinformationfromamediasource
 Secondopinion –leadersthenpassthe informationalongwiththeirinterpretation,to
others(friends,family,acquaintances)
 More likelytobe influencedbyindividual peoplethanthe massmedia
 The people’schoice,40’s – Lazarsfeld.
 Personal influence–Katz
 Opinionleadersplayclose attentiontothe massmedia
 The audience isnolongerpassive
 2012 – people gettheirnewsfrom140 characters ontwitterforexample
 Half of whatthe mediareleasesisdiffusedbythe opinionleaders
 We are more likelytobuyaproduct if our friendsandfamilyhype itandgetitthemselves.
 Strengthsof the theory:audiencesare active andare seenas part of a society
 Limitationsof the theory:more thantwostepsinthe flow of communication?
Movingon fromthe twostepflow
 Duringthe 1960’s as the firstgenerationtogrow up withTV became grownups,itbecame
increasinglyapparenttomediatheoriststhataudiencesmade choicesaboutwhattheydid
whenconsumingtexts.
 Far from beingapassesmass,audienceswere made upof individualswhoactively
consumedtextsfordifferentreasonsand indifferentways.
 Thislaterbecame USES AND GRATIFICATIONStheorybyKatz
Uses andgratifications1974
 ResearchersBlumlerandKatzexpandedthistheoryandpublishedtheirownin1974, stating
that individualsmightchoose anduse atextforthe followingpurposes.
 1) diversion –escape fromeverydayproblemsandroutine
 2)Personal relationships –usingthe mediaforemotional andotherinteraction

2.  3)Personal identity –findingyourself reflectedintexts
 4)Surveillance - informationwhichcouldbe usedforliving
 Instantmessaging–relaxation,entertainment,belongingtosocial groups,sociability,
fashion,escape,affection
 For heavyusers,theywere notmotivatedbysociabilityandaffection.
 For lightusers,theywere usuallymotivatedbyfashion
 Men chat less,more forentertainmentandrelaxation
 Womenchat more,for sociability andinstantmessaging.
 Social mediagratification,venting,trolling.
DavidMorley
 The 1980’s the nationwide audience
 Dominated –readersharesprogramme ‘code’
 Negotiatedreading –readerpartlysharescode
 Oppositional–readerdoesn’tshare code