The document discusses several theories of audiences and media consumption: 1. Audience theory proposes that all media has a target audience, and sometimes tries to construct audiences. Products can have mass or niche audiences. 2. The Frankfurt School proposed the "effects model" which viewed audiences as passive individuals susceptible to media messages. This view has been disproven as audiences can interact with media in more complex ways. 3. The two-step flow theory developed by Lazarsfeld and Katz suggests that opinion leaders first receive information from media, then pass it along to friends and family with their own interpretation, making personal connections more influential than mass media. 4. More recent theories view audiences as active participants who

1. AUDIENCE THEORY
WHATIS AUDIENCE?
All media products havea target audience. They also sometimes (particularly in
the caseof propaganda) try to constructan audience
Products can have a mass audience or a niche audience. The producer’s texts
need to know the importance of their audience when making products.
THE FRANKFURT SCHOOL
The Frankfurtschoolwerea group of media theorists in the 1920’s and 1930’s
which were concerned about the possibleeffects of mass media. (Surrounding
World War 1 and 2)
The proposed the “effects” model, which considered society to composed of
isolated individuals who weresusceptible to medal messages. TheFrankfurt
schoolcalls this the hypodermic syringe(hypodermic needle)
The contents of the media were injected into the thought of the audiences
who accepted the attitudes opinions and benefits expressed by the medium
without question.
Basic breakdown:
o Linear communication
o Passiveaudience
o No individual difference
o The theory has been deemed incorrect, as there is no scientific proof
however audiences still can interact with the media in a similar way to
what the Frankfurtschoolbelieved.
Believability example; H.G. Wells’ War of the Worlds broadcast(1968)
THE TWO STEP FLOW
Developed by Lazarsfeld and Katz in the 1940’s and 1950’s
The Two Steps;

2. 1. Firstly, opinion leaders get information from a media source
2. Second, opinion leaders then pass the information along with their
interpretation to others (friends, family, acquaintances, fans, etc.)
“More likely to be influenced by individuals than mass media” - Lazarsfeld
A quote from, the people’s choice (1940’s)
Katz wrotea book aboutthe two step flow named, Personalinfluence.
Basic breakdown:
o Audiences are no longer passive, active participants in the
communication process.
o Twitter (2012) Opinion leaders have a larger influence than news
outlets. News finds its way through the prominent opinion leaders
moreover than news outlets.
o Personalopinion is always an issueas when the news outlets are
passivecompared to the opinion leaders who add personalopinion.
o Friends and family has a higher influence than any other source,
advertising campaigns have targeted this in the past.
Strengths:
- Audiences are active and seen as part of a society
Limitations:
- Are there more than two steps in the flow of communication?
Example: GeorgeClooney, Mark Zuckerberg and their influence in the Kony
2012 campaign
AUDIENCES BECOMING ACTIVE
During the 1960’s as thefirstgeneration to grow us with television became
grown-ups itbecame increasingly apparent to media theorists that
audiences made choices about what they did when consuming texts
Far frombeing passivemass, audiences weremade up of individuals who
actively consumetexts for different reasons and in different ways.
This later became the uses and gratification.

3. Blumler and Katz explained this theory and published their own ion 1974.
Explaining why individuals might chooseand use a text.
1. Diversion
- Escape fromeveryday problems and routine
2. Personalrelationships
- Using the media for emotional and other interactions e.g. caring
about game of thrones characters.
3. Personalidentity
- Finding yourself relating to texts, learning behaviour and values from
texts
4. Surveillance
- Information which could be useful for living e.g. weather and news
Since then the list pf uses and gratifications has been extended particularly as
new media forms havecome along
Instantmessaging, mobilephone use, social media
- We messagebecause we wantto relax ,entertainment, inclusion
(senseof belonging to a social group), sociability, fashion, escape,
affection, ‘venting’
For heavy users weremost motivated by affection and sociability
For lesser users it was Fashion.
Gender. Women: chat longer and to be social. Men: chat for less and for
entertainment
Same for: Online gaming. They enjoy, success and socialenjoyment,
DAVID MORLEY
In a very significantstudy of audience responses to a popular news
magazine programmein the early 1980’s, TheNationwideAudience, David
Morley suggests thatthere are three main different kinds of reading
audience members can produce:
- Dominant
The reader shares the programme’s code(system of values, attitudes, beliefs,
and assumptions) and fully accept and agree with them
- Negotiated reading

4. The reader partly shared the programmes codebut reflects their position and
interests
-Oppositional
The reader disagrees with the code and rejects the preferred reading. By
consuming this it only broadens an alternative frame of interpretation