Semiconductor Diode: Introduction and Application

Semiconductor Diode
ER. SAMIR RAJ BHANDARI
LECTURER

General
History  After the Industrial Age, the 20th Century
is called the Electronic Age due the
development of electronic vacuum tubes.
 Later in the mid 20th Vacuum Tubes were
replaced by Solid State Semiconductor.
 Later Diodes and Transistors
2ER. SAMIR RAJ BHANDARI

Semiconductor
The first working prototype transistor was
invented at Bell Labs in 1947 by John Bardeen,
Walter Brattain and William Shockley
Semiconductors proved to be smaller, lighter,
more reliable and less expensive to build.
Used in places like cell phones, GPS devices,
laptop computers, tablets and our global
communications infrastructure.

Silicon as Semiconductor
Material
Silicon, atomic number 14, with an electron shell
configuration of 2-8-4.
The fact that it has a half-filled valence shell with four
electrons puts it in a special place. As is, it's neither a great
conductor nor a superior insulator. With some attention to
detail, it will become a semiconductor.
Silicon is not the only material that can be used for
semiconductors; however it is the most reliable source.
Figure: Bohr model of Silicon.

Silicon Crystal
All the silicon atoms align in a very specific,
well-ordered manner, without any voids or
breaks in the pattern (mono crystalline
structure)
 As silicon has only four electrons in its valence
shell, four more electrons would be needed to
fill the shell.
In the crystal, any given atom of silicon
effectively “shares” an electron from its four
closest neighbors through a covalent bond
Note the color coding that indicates the
sharing.

Energy Band
Concept
Basically, the Fermi level is the energy level in each
material at which there is a 50% probability that it is
filled with electrons. In other words, levels below this
value tend to be filled with electrons and levels above
tend to be empty.
If the Fermi level lies within a band, the material will
be good a conductor. On the other hand, if the Fermi
level lies between two widely separated bands, the
material will be a good insulator. If the Fermi level is
between bands that are relatively close, the material
is a semiconductor.

An insulator is a material that does not conduct electrical current or
heat. Insulating materials include paper, plastic, rubber, glass and air.
Semiconductor is a substance, usually a solid chemical element or
compound, that can conduct electricity under some conditions but
not others, making it a good medium for the control of electrical
current.
Its conductance varies depending on the current or voltage applied to a
control electrode, or on the intensity of irradiation by infrared (IR), visible
light, ultraviolet (UV), or X rays.
An electrical conductor is a substance in which electrical charge carriers,
usually electrons, move easily from atom to atom with the application of
voltage. Conductivity, in general, is the capacity to transmit something, such
as electricity or heat.

Charge Flow in a
Semiconductor
We think of the movement of electrons as a
movement of negative charge, then the movement
of holes can be thought of as a movement of
positive charge.
We can say that the electron is the carrier of
negative charge while the hole is the carrier of
positive charge.
ER. SAMIR RAJ BHANDARI 9

Types of Semiconductor
 Intrinsic semiconductors: not of particular use as they are neither good conductors nor insulators,
and their conduction is largely dependent on temperature.
We can alter the properties of the material by introducing foreign substances or impurities into the
crystal.
These impurities are also known as dopants. A crystal with an added dopant is referred to as an
extrinsic semiconductor or doped material.
The dopant may be added through a gaseous diffusion process or ion implantation

Types of Extrinsic Semiconductor
There are two different types of semiconductors possible.
N-type material:
N-type material is created by adding pentavalent impurities, that is, a dopant with five electrons in
its outer shell. Examples include phosphorus, arsenic and antimony.
P-type material :
P-type material is created by adding a trivalent impurity, one with three electrons in its outer shell.
Possible trivalent impurities include boron, gallium and indium

Figure: Doped Crystal and Energy level diagram of N- type material
In N-type material, electrons are the majority charge carrier and holes are the minority charge carrier.

Figure: Doped Crystal and Energy level diagram of P- type material
In P-type material,….................. are the majority charge carrier and ….......... are the minority charge carrier.

Review Questions
1. Describe the differences between a conductor, an insulator and a semiconductor.
2. Define the terms Fermi level, valence band, conduction band and band gap.
3. What is the fundamental difference between an intrinsic crystal and an extrinsic
crystal?
4. What is meant by the term doping?
5. What is the effect of donor and acceptor impurities on the Fermi level?

Theory of PN Junction

Assuming the crystal is not at absolute zero,
 The thermal energy in the system will cause some of the free electrons in the N material to “fall” into the
excess holes of the adjoining P material.
 This will create a region that is devoid of charge carriers (remember, electrons are the majority charge
carrier in N material while holes are the majority charge carrier in P material).
 In other words, the area where the N and P materials abut is depleted of available electrons and holes, and
thus we refer to it as a depletion region.
 The excess electrons of the N material are denoted by minus signs while the excess holes of the P material
are denoted with plus signs.
 At the interface, the free electrons have recombined with holes. When an electron recombines, it leaves
behind a positive ion in the N material (shown here as a circled plus sign) and produces a negative ion in the P
material (shown as a circled minus sign).

 The depletion region, also called depletion layer, depletion zone, junction region, space
charge region or space charge layer,
is an insulating region within a conductive, doped semiconductor material where the
mobile charge carriers have been diffused away or have been forced away by an electric field.
 The only elements left in the depletion region are ionized donor or acceptor impurities.
 The depletion region is so named because it is formed from a conducting region by removal of
all free charge carriers, leaving none to carry a current.
 The potential barrier in the PN-junction diode is the barrier in which the charge requires additional
force for crossing the depletion region. In other words, the barrier in which the charge carriers are
stopped by the obstructive force is known as the potential barrier.
 The barrier potential for Si is 0.7eV and for Ge is 0.3 eV
 The barrier potential depends on the following factors:?
1. Doping density
2. Electrical Charge
3. Temperature

Biasing of Diodes
There are two operating regions and three possible “biasing” conditions for the standard Junction
Diode and these are:
1. Zero Biasing – No external voltage potential is applied to the PN junction diode.
2. Forward Biasing – The voltage potential is connected positive, (+ve) to the P-type material
and negative, (-ve) to the N-type material across the diode which has the effect
of Decreasing the PN junction diodes width depletion layer.
3. Reverse Biasing – The voltage potential is connected negative, (-ve) to the P-type material and
positive, (+ve) to the N-type material across the diode which has the effect of Increasing the PN
junction diode’s width or depletion layer.

Zero
Biasing
Condition
When a diode is connected in
a Zero Bias condition, no external
potential energy is applied to the PN
junction. However if the diodes
terminals are shorted together, a
few holes (majority carriers) in the
P-type material with enough energy
to overcome the potential barrier
will move across the junction
against this barrier potential.
The minority carriers are constantly
generated due to thermal energy.

Reverse
Biasing
Condition
a Reverse Bias condition, a
positive voltage is applied to
the N-type material and a
negative voltage is applied to
the P-type material.

 The positive voltage applied to the N-type material
attracts electrons towards the positive electrode and
away from the junction, while the holes in the P-type
end are also attracted away from the junction
towards the negative electrode.
 The net result is that the depletion layer grows wider
due to a lack of electrons and holes and presents a
high impedance path, almost an insulator.
 The result is that a high potential barrier is created
thus preventing current from flowing through the
semiconductor material.
 If the reverse bias voltage Vr applied to the diode
is increased to a sufficiently high enough value, it
will cause the diode’s PN junction to overheat and
fail due to the avalanche effect around the junction
called Junction Breakdown

Froward
Biased
Condition
a Forward Bias condition, a
negative voltage is applied to the N-
type material and a positive voltage
is applied to the P-type material. If
this external voltage becomes
greater than the value of the
potential barrier, the potential
barriers opposition will be
overcome and current will start to
flow.

This is because the negative
voltage pushes or repels
electrons towards the
junction giving them the
energy to cross over and
combine with the holes being
pushed in the opposite
direction towards the
junction by the positive
voltage.
This results in a characteristics
curve of zero current flowing
up to this voltage point,
called the “knee” on the
static curves and then a high
current flow through the
diode with little increase in
the external voltage as
shown below.

V-I
Characteristics
of a Diode

Review Questions
1. What is a depletion region, barrier potential and biasing in a PN diode ?
2. What is forward, reverse biasing and Zero biasing ?
3. What happens to the junction/depletion layer when a diode is biased ?
4. What is the barrier potential for Si and Ge ?
5. What is knee point and breakdown of diode?
6. Explain the VI characteristics of PN Diode. (Most Important)

Piecewise Linear Model of Diode
The Constant Voltage Drop model approximates the forward biased junction
diode voltage as VD = 0. 7 V regardless of the junction diode current.
This of course is a good approximation, but, the junction diode voltage
increases (logarithmically) with increasing diode current.
Isn’t there a more accurate model?
In other words, replace the junction diode with three devices— an ideal diode,
in series with some voltage source and a resistor.

Forward Biased Condition Reverse Biased Condition

Effect of
Temperature
on PN
Junction
An increased temperature
will result in many broken
covalent bonds increasing
the large number of
majority and minority
carriers.
This amounts to a diode
current larger than its
previous diode current.
Figure: Effect of Temperature on PN Junction

Junction Breakdown
“Break down” of a diode occurs during its reverse biased condition.
If we keep on increasing the applied reverse voltage, the depletion width will increase
At a point which we can call as “breakdown point”, the diode will get damaged. At this point, the
diode behave more like a shorted wire and hence current flows through it easily.
The internal resistance of diode at this stage is approximately near zero.
According to Ohms Law, V = IR I.e I = V/R and since resistance is very very low, current increases
many folds with voltage. This is the reason we get a perpendicular line shoot in VI characteristics of
reverse bias.

Types of Breakdown
ZENER BREAKDOWN
Zener breakdown phenomena occurs in a PN
junction diode with heavy doping & thin junction.
Zener breakdown does not result in damage of
diode and occurs at lower voltage.
Since current is only due to drifting of electrons,
there is a limit to the increase in current as well.
AVALANCHE BREAKDOWN
Avalanche breakdown occurs in a PN junction diode
which is moderately doped and has a thick junction.
Avalanche breakdown usually occurs when we apply
a high reverse voltage across the diode.
 Electrons will start drifting and electron-hole pair
recombination occurs across the junction. This results
in net current that rapidly increases.

LED: Light Emitting Diode
A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor device that emits light when
an electric current is passed through it.
Electrons in the semiconductor recombine with holes, releasing energy in the
form of photons when the diode is forward biased.
 The color of the light (corresponding to the energy of the photons) is
determined by the energy required for electrons to cross the band gap of the
semiconductor.

Working Principle
 Light Emitting Diode (LED) works only in
forward bias condition. When Light Emitting
Diode (LED) is forward biased, the free
electrons from n-side and the holes from p-side
are pushed towards the junction.
 When free electrons reach the junction or
depletion region, some of the free electrons
recombine with the holes in the positive
ions in the depletion region.
 In the similar way, holes from p-side recombine
with electrons in the depletion region.
 The free electrons in the conduction band releases
energy in the form of light before they recombine
with holes in the valence band.

Figure 1: LED Label

 LEDs are used in applications as diverse as aviation lighting, automotive
headlamps, advertising, general lighting, traffic signals, camera
flashes, lighted wallpaper, horticultural grow lights, and medical devices.
• Main LED materials
The main semiconductor materials used to manufacture LEDs are:
• Indium gallium nitride (InGaN): blue, green and ultraviolet high-brightness LEDs
• Aluminum gallium indium phosphide (AlGaInP): yellow, orange and red high-
brightness LEDs
• Aluminum gallium arsenide (AlGaAs): red and infrared LEDs
• Gallium phosphide (GaP): yellow and green LEDs

Photo Diode

Working Principle
A photodiode is a PN-junction diode that consumes light
energy to produce electric current. A photodiode is one type
of device, used to convert the light into current or voltage based
on the mode of operation of the device.
Sometimes it is also called as photo-detector, a light
detector, and photo-sensor. These diodes are particularly
designed to work in reverse bias condition.
This diode is very sensitive to light so when light falls on
the diode it easily changes light into electric current.

Applications of Photodiode
 In other consumer devices like clock radios, camera light meters, and streetlights,
photoconductors are more frequently used rather than photodiodes.
 These diodes are used in consumer electronics devices like smoke detectors,
compact disc players, and televisions and remote controls in VCRs.
 Photodiodes are frequently used for exact measurement of the intensity of light in
science & industry. Generally, they have an enhanced, more linear response than
photoconductors.
 These diodes are much faster & more complex than normal PN junction diodes and
hence are frequently used for lighting regulation and in optical communications.

Review Questions
1. Explain the effect of Temperature in a PN diode?
2. Short notes
a.LEDs and Photo Diodes
b.Junction Breakdown
c.Piece wise linear model of Diode

Zener Diode
Zener Diode is a general-purpose diode, which behaves like a normal diode when forward biased.
But when it is reverse biased above a certain voltage known as zener breakdown voltage or zener
voltage or avalanche point or zener knee voltage the voltage remains constant for a wide range of current.
Ordinary diodes will not have any significant current (only leakage current ) when reverse biased below its reverse
breakdown voltage.
 When the reverse bias is increased beyond reverse breakdown voltage its potential barrier breaks down which may
damage the diode due to excess heat produced by the high current flow through the diode unless the current is
Zener diode also exhibits similar properties except that it is designed to have lower breakdown voltage. Ordinary
have breakdown voltages in the order of 100 or above.

Zener Diode as Voltage Regulator
vZener Diode is commonly used for referring voltages for Voltage Regulators and
to protect other electronic devices from voltage surges.
vZener Diodes are widely used as Shunt Voltage Regulators to regulate voltage
across small loads.
vWe will connect the Zener diode parallel to the load such that the applied
voltage will reverse bias it.
vThus if the reverse bias voltage across the Zener diode exceeds the knee
voltage, the voltage across the load will be constant.

Zener Diode
Diode

Review Questions
1. Explain the Zener Diode as voltage regulator?
These topics are more important for numerical, which we will be doing in
our regular classes.

DC Regulated Power Supply
 A regulated power supply converts unregulated AC (Alternating Current) to a
constant DC (Direct Current).
A regulated power supply is used to ensure that the output remains constant
even if the input changes.
A regulated DC power supply is also known as a linear power supply, It is an
embedded circuit and consists of various blocks.
The regulated power supply will accept an AC input and give a constant DC
output.

The figure below shows the block diagram of a typical regulated DC power
supply.

The basic building blocks of a regulated DC power supply are as follows:
1.A transformer
2.A Rectifier
3.A DC filter
4.A regulator

A step-down transformer
 A step-down transformer will step down
the voltage from the ac mains to the required
voltage level.
The turn’s ratio of the transformer is
so adjusted such as to obtain the required
voltage value.
The output of the transformer is given as an
input to the rectifier circuit.

Rectifier
Rectifier is an electronic circuit consisting of diodes which carries out the rectification
process.
Rectification is the process of converting an alternating voltage or current into
corresponding direct (DC) quantity.
The input to a rectifier is AC whereas its output is unidirectional pulsating DC.
Types of Rectifiers
Half wave rectifier: could be used but its power losses are significant
Full wave rectifier: a full wave rectifier or a bridge rectifier/Center Tap is used to rectify both
the half cycles of the ac supply (full wave rectification).

Filter
The rectified voltage from the rectifier is a pulsating DC voltage having very high ripple
content.
We want a pure ripple free DC waveform.
Hence a filter is used.
Different types of filters are used such as
Capacitor filter/Shunt Fiter
LC filter,
 Choke input filter/Series Filter
π type filter.

Regulation
This is the last block in a regulated DC power supply.
The output voltage or current will change or fluctuate when there is a
change in the input from ac mains or due to change in load current at
the output of the regulated power supply or due to other factors like
temperature changes.
This problem can be eliminated by using a regulator.

Disadvantages of unregulated
power supply
1. Poor Regulation – When the load varies, the output does not appear constant. The
output voltage changes by a great value due to the huge change in the current drawn
from the supply. This is mainly due to the high internal resistance of the power supply.
2. AC Supply Main Variations – The maximum variations in AC supply mains is give or take
6% of its rated value. But this value may go higher in some countries (180-280 volts).
When the value is higher it’s DC voltage output will differ largely.
3. Temperature Variation – The use of semiconductor devices in electronic devices may
cause variation in temperature.

Characteristics of Regulated
power supply
Regulated power supply is an electronic circuit that is designed to provide a constant
dc voltage of predetermined value across load terminals irrespective of ac mains
fluctuations or load variations.
1. Load Regulation – The load regulation or load effect is the change in regulated output voltage when
the load current changes from minimum to maximum value.
2. Minimum Load Resistance – The load resistance at which a power supply delivers its full-load rated
current at rated voltage is referred to as minimum load resistance.
3. Source/Line Regulation – The source regulation is defined as the change in regulated output voltage
for a specified rage of lie voltage.
4. Ripple Rejection – Voltage regulators stabilize the output voltage against variations in input voltage.

Review Questions
1. What is regulated power supply? Explain the regulation process or Explain the
block diagram of DC regulated power supply.
2. Short notes:
a.Rectifier and Rectification
b.Advantages of Regulated Power supply
c.Need of regulation.

Half Wave Rectifier
A half wave rectifier is defined as a type of rectifier that only allows one
half-cycle of an AC voltage waveform to pass, blocking the other half-
cycle.
Half-wave rectifiers are used to convert AC voltage to DC voltage, and
only require a single diode to construct.
A complete half-wave rectifier circuit consists of 3 main parts:
1. A transformer
2. A resistive load
3. A diode

Principle of
Half Wave Rectifier
The diagram below illustrates the basic principle of a half-wave rectifier.
When a standard AC waveform is passed through a half-wave rectifier, only half of the AC waveform
remains.
Half-wave rectifiers only allow one half-cycle (positive or negative half-cycle) of the AC voltage
through and will block the other half-cycle on the DC side, as seen below.

During the positive half cycle of the AC voltage,
The diode will be forward biased and the current flows through the
diode.
 During the negative half cycle of the AC voltage,
The diode will be reverse biased, and the flow of current will be
blocked.

The half wave rectifier waveform looks like on the input side (Vin), and
what it looks like on the output side (Vout) after rectification (i.e.
conversion from AC to DC):
The graph shows a
positive half wave
rectifier. This is a half-
wave rectifier which only
allows the positive half-
cycles through the diode,
and blocks the negative
half-cycle.

Advantages of Half Wave Rectifier
The main advantage of half-wave rectifiers is in their simplicity. As they don’t
require as many components, they are simpler and cheaper to setup and
construct.
As such, the main advantages of half-wave rectifiers are:
•Simple (lower number of components)
•Cheaper up-front cost .
(as their is less equipment. Although there is a higher cost over time due to
increased power losses)
Disadvantages of Half Wave Rectifier
The disadvantages of half-wave rectifiers are:
•They only allow a half-cycle through per sinewave, and the other half-cycle is
wasted. This leads to power loss.
•They produces a low output voltage.
•The output current we obtain is not purely DC, and it still contains a lot of ripple
(i.e. it has a high ripple factor)

Performance Parameter of Half
Wave Rectifier
Peak Inverse Voltage of Half Wave Rectifier:
Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV) is the maximum voltage that the diode can withstand during reverse bias condition. If
If a voltage is applied more than the PIV, the diode will be destroyed. Vm is the PIV for halfwave rectifier.
Ripple Factor of Half Wave Rectifier
Ripple’ is the unwanted AC component remaining when converting the AC voltage waveform into a DC waveform. This
undesirable AC component is called ‘ripple’.The ripple factor of half wave rectifier is equal to 1.21 (i.e. γ = 1.21).
Form Factor of Half Wave Rectifier:
Form factor (F.F) is the ratio between RMS value and average value, as shown in the formula below:
The form factor of a half wave rectifier is equal to 1.57 (i.e. F.F= 1.57)

Efficiency of Half Wave Rectifier
Rectifier efficiency (η) is the ratio between the output DC power and the input AC power. The
formula for the efficieny is equal to:
The efficiency of a half wave rectifier is equal to 40.6% (i.e. ηmax = 40.6%
Find the Average/Average DC and the RMS value of
Current/Voltage for half wave

Review Questions
1. Explain the half wave rectifiers with necessary wave forms and derivations.

Full Wave
Rectifiers
A full wave rectifier converts both halves of
each cycle of an alternating wave (AC signal)
into pulsating DC signal.
We can further classify full wave rectifiers
into
◦ Centre-tapped Full Wave Rectifier
◦ Full Wave Bridge Rectifier

Center
Tapped
Full Wave
Rectifier
A center-tapped full wave
rectifier system consists of:
◦ Centre-tapped
Transformer
◦ Two Diodes
◦ Resistive Load

Working Principle
During Positive Half
Cycle
Terminal 1 will be positive, center-tap will be
at zero potential and terminal 2 will be
negative potential.
This will lead to forward bias in diode D1 and
cause current to flow through it
During this time, diode D2 is in reverse bias
and will block current through it.

Working Principle
During Negative Half
Cycle
Terminal 2 will become positive with relative
to terminal 1 and center-tap.
This will lead to forward bias in diode D2 and
cause current to flow through it.
During this time, diode D1 is in reverse bias
and will block current through it.

Output Waveform
During the positive cycle, diode D1
conducts and during negative cycle diode
D2 conducts and during positive cycle.
As a result, both half-cycles can pass
through.
The average output DC voltage here is
almost twice of the DC output voltage of a
half-wave rectifier.

Full Wave Bridge Rectifiers
A full wave bridge rectifier is a type
of rectifier which will use four
diodes or more than that in a bridge
formation.
A full wave bridge rectifier system
consists of:
1.Four Diodes
2.Resistive Load

Working Principle
During Positive Half Cycle
During the positive half-cycle, the terminal 1
becomes positive, and terminal 2 becomes
negative.
This will cause the diodes A and C to become
forward-biased, and the current will flow
through it.
Meanwhile diodes B and D will become
reverse-biased and block current through
them.
The current will flow from 1 to 4 to 3 to 2.

Working Principle
During Negative Half Cycle
During the negative half-cycle, the terminal 1
will become negative, and terminal 2 will
become positive.
This will cause the diodes B and D to become
forward-biased and will allow current through
them.
 At the same time, diodes A and C will be
reverse-biased and will block the current
through them.
The current will flow from 2 to 4 to 3 to 1.

Advantage and Disadvantage
Advantages of Full Wave Rectifiers
Full wave rectifiers have higher rectifying
efficiency than half-wave rectifiers. This means
that they convert AC to DC more efficiently.
They have low power loss because
no voltage signal is wasted in the rectification
process.
The output voltage of center-tapped full wave
rectifier has lower ripples than a halfwave
rectifiers.
Disadvantages of Full Wave Rectifiers
The center-tapped rectifier/bridge is more expensive
than half-wave rectifier and tends to occupy a lot of
space.

Review Questions
1. Explain the full wave rectifiers with necessary wave forms and derivations.
2. Short Questions
a. Compare Bridge and Center tap Rectifier
b. Advantage of full wave over half wave.
c. Merits and Demerits of Full wave rectifiers.

Filters
The devices which converts the pulsating DC into pure DC is called filter.
As the name specifies it filters the oscillations in the signal and provides a pure DC at the
output.
The electronic reactive elements like capacitor and inductors are used to do this work.
Types of Filters
◦ Inductive Filter (L)/Series
◦ Capacitor Filter/Shunt
◦ LC Filter
◦ CLC or π filter

Series
Inductor
Filter
The property of the inductor is that it
opposes any sudden change that occurs
in a circuit an provides a smoothed
output.
In the case of AC, there is change in the
magnitude of current with time.
So the inductor offers some
impendence (opposing force) for AC ((XL
= jwL) and offers shot circuit for DC.
So by connecting inductor in series
with the supply blocks AC and allows DC
to pass.

Shunt
Capacitor
Filter
The elegant quality of the capacitor is it stores the
electrical energy for short time and discharges it.
By controlling the charging and discharging rate of
the capacitor the pure DC can be obtained from the
pulsating DC.
 In simple the capacitor allows AC and blocks DC, so
the capacitor can connect parallel to the power supply
so that the AC is filtered out and DC will reach the
load.

LC Filter
In the above two filters the
reactive components are singly
connected,
However no element will be
perfect in doing the job i.e.
inductor in series may pass small
quantity of AC and Capacitor in
parallel may not block all the AC
component.
So for better filtering two
components are connected as filter
which provides less ripple factor at
the output compared to the above
filter.

π or CLC filter
In L and LC filter the inductor connected in series to the
power supply drops more AC voltage which reduces the
efficiency.
So to avoid this increase the efficiency a capacitor is
connected at the input of the LC filter.
The input capacitor charges & discharges and provides a
ripple DC at the input of inductor.
Then the drop at the inductor is less and provides a ripple
less DC which again filtered by capacitor at the output.

Need of Filter Circuits
1. The need of filter is to purify the ripples/ac component from the
rectified output.
2. Another common need for filter circuits is in high-performance
stereo systems, where certain ranges of audio frequencies need to
be amplified or suppressed for best sound quality and power
efficiency.
3. Blocking certain ranges of frequencies to send to the receiver.

Review Questions
Short Question
◦ Filters
◦ Need of Filter Circuits

Semiconductor Diode: Introduction and Application

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