The document discusses several paradigms in psychology including the genetic, neuroscience, psychodynamic, and cognitive behavioral paradigms. It provides details on key aspects of each paradigm such as their basic assumptions, relevant theories, and implications for understanding psychopathology. Additionally, it notes that factors like emotions and socio-cultural influences cut across multiple paradigms. The document concludes by discussing the diathesis-stress paradigm, which proposes that both genetic predispositions and environmental stressors must be present for disorders to develop.

2. Present By:
Mr. Ahmad Hassan Naeem

3. 
 A paradigm is a conceptual framework or approach within
which a scientist works.
 A set of basic assumptions, a general perspective, that defines
how to conceptualize and study a subject, how to gather and
interpret relevant data, even how to think about a particular
subject.
 A paradigm has profound implications for how scientists
operate at any given time.
 Paradigms specify what problems scientists will investigate and
how they will go about the investigation.
Paradigm

4. 
 Genetic
 Neuroscience
 Psychodynamic
 Cognitive Behavioral
 Factors that cut cross the paradigms(emotion & socio cultural)
Categories of Paradigms

5. 
 Almost all behavior is heritable to some degree, and
despite this, genes do no operate in isolation from
the environment. Instead, throughout the life span,
the environment shapes how our genes are
expressed and our genes also shape our
environment.
Genetic Paradigm

6. 
Genes & Gene expression
Genes
 The carriers of the genetic
information (DNA) passed
from parent to child. 46
chromosomes. 30,000 genes:
the amount of genes don't
matter, but the sequencing
of them is what makes us
unique.
Gene expression
 Genes are essentially
responsible for making
proteins that in turn make
the body and the brain
work. Some of these
proteins switch, or turn, on
and off other genes, a
process called gene
expression.

7. 
Polygenic & Heritability
Polygenic
 Several genes, perhaps
operating at different times
during the course of
development, will be the
essence of genetic
vulnerability.
Heritability
 Refers to the extent to which
variability in a particular
behavior (or disorder) in a
population can be accounted
for by genetic factors.
 Heritability estimates range
from 0.0 to 1.0: the higher the
number, the greater the
heritability.
 Heritability is relevant only for
a large population of people,
not a particular individual.

8. 
Shared and Non-shared
environment
Shared environment
 Factors include those things
that members of a family
have in common, such as
family income level, child-
rearing practices, and
parent's marital status and
quality.
Non shared environment
 Factors are those things
believed to be distinct among
members of a family, such as
relationships with friends or
specific events unique to a
person (baseball team), these
are believed to be important in
understanding why two
siblings from the same family
can be so different.

9. 
 Behavior genetic is the study of the degree to which genes and
environmental factors influence behavior.
Behavior genetics
Genotype
 The total genetic makeup of an individual, consisting of
inherited genes. (physical sequence of DNA) the genotype
cannot be outwardly expressed.
Phenotype
 The totality of observable characteristics, such as level of
anxiety.

10. 
 Seek to find out what exactly is heritable by identifying
particular genes and their functions.
Molecular genetics
Alleles
 Different forms of the same gene.
 The alleles of a gene are found at the same location, or locus, of
a chromosome pair.
Polymorphism
 A difference in DNA sequence on a gene that has occurred in a
population.

11. 
 Means that a given person's sensitivity to an environmental
event is influenced by genes.
Gene-environment interaction
Serotonin transporter gene
 This gene has a polymorphism such that some people have two
short alleles (short-short), some have two long alleles (long-long),
and some have one short and one long allele (short-long). they
found that those individuals who has either the short-short allele
or the short-long allele combinations of the 5-HTT gene and were
maltreated as children were more likely to have major depressive
disorder as adults.

12. 
 The study of how environment can alter gene expression or
function.
Epigenetics
Reciprocal-gene-environment
interaction
 The genetic predisposition for an individual to seek out certain
environments that increase the risk of developing a particular
disorder.

13. 
 Neuroscience Paradigm holds that mental disorders are linked
to aberrant processes in the brain. for example, some
depressants are associated with neurotransmitter problems
within the brain; anxiety disorders may be related to a defect
within the autonomic nervous system that causes a person to be
too easily aroused.
Neuroscience Paradigm

14. 
 The cells within the nervous system;
 Each neuron has four major parts: the cell body, several
dendrites, one or more axons, and terminal buttons.
Neuron
Nerve impulse
 A wave of depolarization that propagates among the neuron
and causes the release of neurotransmitter; action potential.
Synapse
 There is a small gap between the terminal endings of the
sending axon and the cell membrane of the receiving neuron.

15. 
 The terminal buttons of each axon contain synaptic vesicles that
are filled with neurotransmitters. They are chemicals that allow
neurons to send a signal across a synapse to another neuron.
Neurotransmitters
Reuptake
 Not all of the released neurotransmitter is taken up by the
postsynaptic receptor, some remains in the synapse and broken
down by enzymes, and some is taken back into the presynaptic
cell through reuptake, to be used later.

16. 
 Serotonin and Dopamine, involved in depression,
mania and schizophrenia.
 Norepinephrine is a neurotransmitter that
communicates with the sympathetic N.S. where it is
involved in producing states of high arousal and this
involved in anxiety disorders and stress-related
conditions.
 GABA inhibits nerve impulses throughout most
areas of the brain and involved in anxiety disorders.
Key neurotransmitters
implicated in psychopathology

17. 
 Intracellular molecules whose levels are increased by sustained
activity of neurotransmitter, for example, receptors, and which
affect the resting states of ion channels or regulate gene
expression of receptor molecules, thus modulating the cell's
sensitivity to neurotransmitters.
Second messengers
Agonist
 Drugs that stimulates a particular neurotransmitter's receptors.
 Increase response.

18. 
 A drug that works on a neurotransmitter's receptors to dampen
the activity of that neurotransmitter.
 Decrease response.
Antagonist
Corpus callosum
 A band of nerves that connect the two hemispheres of the brain,
it allows the two sides to communicate.

19. 
 The neural tissue (un-myelinate)-made up largely of nerve cell
bodies-that constitutes the cortex covering the cerebral
hemisphere, the nuclei in lower brain areas, columns of the
spinal cord, and the ganglia of the autonomic nervous system.
Gray matter
White matter
 Neural tissue, particularly of the brain and spinal cord,
consisting of tracts or bundles of myelin nerve fibers.

20. 
 Frontal lobe (reasoning, working memory)
 Temporal lobe (sounds)
 Parietal lobe
 Occipital lobe (vision).
Lobes of the brain

21. 
 Cavities deep within the brain, filled with cerebrospinal fluid.
Ventricles
Thalamus
 Relay station for all sensory pathways except the olfactory.
Brain stem
 Comprised of the pons, and the medulla oblongata.
 Neural relay station connecting cerebellum to spinal cord and
with motor tracts of the cerebrum.

22. 
 Receives sensory nerves from the vestibular apparatus of the
ear ad from muscles, tendons and joints. relates to balance,
posture and equilibrium. smooth coordination of the body
when in motion.
Cerebellum
Limbic system
 Important structures that support the visceral and physical
expressions of emotion, quickened heartbeat and respiration,
trembling, sweating, and alterations in facial expressions.
 Anterior cingulate, spatial area, hippocampus, hypothalamus,
amygdala.

23. 
 In neural development, the selective loss of synaptic
connections, especially in the fine-tuning of brain regions
devoted to sensory processing.
Pruning
HPA axis
 It is central to the body's response to stress, and stress figures
prominently in many disorders.
 When a person is faced with stress, hypothalamus releases
corticotropin-releasing factor to pituitary gland, which in turn
releases adrenocorticotropic hormone via bloodstream to adrenal
gland on kidneys.
 Adrenal cortex releases the stress hormone cortisol

24. 
 Also referred to as the stress hormone. it takes about 20-40 min
to reach its peak.
Cortisol
Autonomic Nervous System
 The part of the nervous system that operates very quickly, and
without our awareness.

25. 
 Reductionism refers to the view that whatever is being studied
can and should be reduced to its most basic elements or
constituents.
 In this paradigm we caution against reductionism.
reductionism asserts that psychology and psychopathology will
ultimately be noting more than biology.
Reductionism

26. 
 Includes the theories of psychodynamics and
psychoanalytic.
 More concerned with the treatments of individuals
(psychotherapy) than the theory itself.
Psychodynamic Paradigm

27. 
 Id
 Ego
 Superego
 All vying for the achievement of sometimes irreconcilable
goals. much presumed to be outside of awareness
(consciousness).
Three parts of the psyche

28. 
 Refers to the belief that are maladaptive and contribute to
psychopathology. they are believed to be nearly entirely
outside of an individual's awareness and responsible for other
maladaptive thoughts and emotions.
Pathogenic beliefs
Implicit memory
 Refers to the idea that a person can, without being aware of it,
be influenced by prior learning.
 Example, a person may be shown a list of words so quickly that
he cannot identify the words.
 Later be able to recall those words even though the words were
not consciously perceived during the rapid initial presentation.

29. 
 Stresses the importance of long-standing patterns in close
relationships, particularly within the family, that are shaped by
the ways in which people think and feel.
 The way in which a person comes to understand, whether
consciously or unconsciously, how the self is situated in
relation to other people.
Object relations theory
Attachment theory
 The type or style of an infant's attachement to his or her
caregivers can set the stage for psychological health or
problems later in life.

30. 
 A primarily verbal means of helping troubled individuals
change their thoughts, feelings, and behavior to reduce distress
and to achieve greater life satisfaction.
Psychotherapy
Brief therapy
 Time-limited psychotherapy, usually ego-analytic in orientation
and alsting no more than 25 sessions.

31. 
 Emphasizes the importance of current relationships
in a person's life and how problems in these
relationships can contribute to psychological
symptoms.
 Unresolved grief, role transitions, role disputes,
interpersonal or social deficits.
Interpersonal therapy (IPT)

32. 
 Childhood experiences help shape adult personality.
 There are unconscious influences on behavior.
 The causes and purposes of human behavior are not
always obvious.
Common assumptions of
psychodynamic paradigm

33. 
 General view that people can best be understood by studying
how they perceive and structure their experiences and how this
influences behavior.
Cognitive Behavioral
Paradigm
Behaviorism
 Key influences is the notion that problem behavior is likely to
continue if it is reinforced.

34. 
 The person is sent for a period of time to a location where
positive re-inforcers are not available.
Time-out
Token economy
 Is a procedure in which tokens (such as stickers) are given for
desired behaviors; the tokens can later be exchanged for
desirable items and activities.

35. 
 Involves two components:
 Deep muscle relaxation and gradual exposure to a list of feared
situations, starting with those that arouse minimal anxiety and
progressing to those that are the most frightening.
Systematic desensitization
Exposure
 The basic idea that anxiety can be extinguished if the person
can face the object or situation for long enough with no actual
harm occurring.
 In-vivo =in real life situations.

36. 
 Term that groups together the mental processes of perceiving,
recognizing, conceiving, judging, and reasoning. focuses on
how people structure their experiences, how they make sense of
it, and how they relate their current experiences to past ones.
Cognition
Schema
 A mental structure for organizing information about the world.

37. 
 Incorporates theory and research on cognitive processes. pays
particular attention to private events (thoughts, perceptions,
judgements, self-statements, and tacit/unconscious
assumptions), and attempts to modify and understand their
disturbed behavior.
Cognitive behavior therapy
(CBT)
Cognitive restructuring
 A general term for changing a pattern of thought that is
preseumed to be causing a disturbed emotion or behavior.

38. 
 Proposal that attention, interpretational and recall of
negative and positive information were biased in
depression. the general goal of this therapy is to
provide people with experiences that will alter their
negative schemas, enabling them to have hope rather
than despair.
Beck's cognitive therapy

39. 
 The principle thesis was that sustained emotional
reactions are caused by internal sentences that
people repeat to themselves; these self-statements
reflect sometimes unspoken assumptions-irrational
beliefs-about what is necessary to lead a meaningful
life. goal of this therapy is to eliminate this type of
beliefs.
Rational-emotive behavior
therapy (REBT)

40. 
 Influence how we respond to problems and challenges in our
environment; they help organize our thoughts and actions, both
explicitly and implicitly, they guide our behavior. our emotions
are so widespread influence, we spend a good deal of time
trying to regulate how we feel and how we present our
emotions to others.
 Emotions are believed to be very short-lived states.
 Moods are emotional experiences that endure for a longer
period of time.
Factors that cut across
paradigms
Emotions

41. 
 Sociocultural factors, such as culture, ethnicity, gender,
social support, and relationships, are important factors in the
study of psychopathology.
 Some disorders appear to be universal across cultures, like
schizophrenia or anxiety, yet their manifestations may differ
somewhat and the ways in which society regards them may
also differ.
 Other disorders, like eating disorders or hikikomori, may be
specific to particular cultures.
 Some disorders are more frequently diagnosed in some
ethnic groups compared to others.
Socio-cultural

42. 
 It is not clear whether this reflects a true difference in the
presence of disorder or perhaps a bias on the part of
diagnosticians.
 Social relationships can be important buffers against stress and
have benefits for physical and mental health.
 Current research is also examining whether risk factors
associated with various disorders differ for men and women.
 Sociocultural factors have recently become the focus of people
working in the other paradigms, and this trend will continue.
Continue…..

43. 
 An integrative paradigm that links together genetic,
neurobiological, psychological, and environmental factors.
 This concept was introduced as a way to explain schizophrenia.
 Key of the diathesis-stress model is that both diathesis and
stress are necessary in the development of disorders, and is
unlikely to result from a single factor.
Diathesis-Stress Paradigm

44. 
 A predisposition toward a disease, any characteristic
or set of characteristics of a person that increases his
or her chance of developing a disorder.
Diathesis

45. Thank You
Credit:
Mr. Ahmad Hassan Naeem