This slide talks about neuroplasticity, the central nervous system, the brain and its structure, the spinal cord, autonomic nervous system, its functions, nervous system and learning, neurotransmitters, working of neurotransmitters, classification, types of neurotransmitters, neurotransmitters in learning and limbic system in learning.
2. Neuroplasticity
The brain's ability to reorganize itself by
forming new neural connections throughout
life. Neuroplasticity allows the neurons (nerve
cells) in the brain to compensate for injury
and disease and to adjust their activities in
response to new situations or to changes in
their environment.
Neuroplasticity is also called brain plasticity
or brain malleability.
Medical Definition of Neuroplasticity -
MedicineNet
https://www.medicinenet.com › neuroplasticity
› definit...
3. Con…
Neuroplasticity, also known as neural plasticity,
or brain plasticity, is the ability of neural networks in
the brain to change through growth and reorganization.
It is when the brain is rewired to function in some way
that differs from how it previously functioned.[1] These
changes range from individual neuron pathways making
new connections, to systematic adjustments like cortical
remapping. Examples of neuroplasticity include circuit
and network changes that result from learning a new
ability, environmental influences, practice,
and psychological stress.
Neuroplasticity - Wikipedia
https://en.wikipedia.org › wiki › Neuroplasticity
4. Neuroplasticity or brain plasticity is defined as
the ability of the nervous system to change its
activity in response to intrinsic or extrinsic stimuli
by reorganizing its structure, functions, or
connections. A fundamental property of neurons
is their ability to modify the strength and efficacy
of synaptic transmission through a diverse
number of activity-dependent mechanisms,
typically referred to as synaptic plasticity[2].
Neuroplasticity - Physiopedia
https://www.physio-pedia.com › Neuroplasticity
5. Brain reorganization takes place by mechanisms
such as "axonal sprouting" in which undamaged
axons grow new nerve endings to reconnect
neurons whose links were injured or severed.
Undamaged axons can also sprout nerve
endings and connect with other undamaged
nerve cells, forming new neural pathways to
accomplish a needed function.
For example, if one hemisphere of the brain is
damaged, the intact hemisphere may take over
some of its functions. The brain compensates for
damage in effect by reorganizing and forming
new connections between intact neurons. In
order to reconnect, the neurons need to be
stimulated through activity.
6. Neuroplasticity sometimes may also
contribute to impairment. For example,
people who are deaf may suffer from a
continual ringing in their ears
(tinnitus), the result of the rewiring of
brain cells starved for sound. For
neurons to form beneficial
connections, they must be correctly
stimulated
7. CENTRAL NERVOUS
SYSTEM
The central nervous system consists
of the brain and spinal cord. It is
referred to as “central” because it
combines information from the entire
body and coordinates activity across
the whole organism.
8. Con…
The CNS consists of the brain and spinal cord.
The brain is protected by the skull (the cranial cavity) and the
spinal cord travels from the back of the brain, down the center
of the spine, stopping in the lumbar region of the lower back.
The brain and spinal cord are both housed within a protective
triple-layered membrane called the meninges.
The central nervous system controls our thoughts,
movements, emotions, and desires. It also controls our
breathing, heart rate, the release of some hormones, body
temperature, and much more.
The retina, optic nerve, olfactory nerves, and olfactory
epithelium are sometimes considered to be part of the CNS
alongside the brain and spinal cord. This is because they
connect directly with brain tissue without intermediate nerve
fibers.
9. The brain
The brain is the most complex organ in the human
body; the cerebral cortex (the outermost part of the
brain and the largest part by volume) contains an
estimated 15–33 billion neurons, each of which is
connected to thousands of other neurons.
In total, around 100 billion neurons and 1,000 billion
glial (support) cells make up the human brain. Our brain
uses around 20 percent of our body’s total energy.
The brain is the central control module of the body and
coordinates activity. From physical motion to the
secretion of hormones, the creation of memories,
and the sensation of emotion.
To carry out these functions, some sections of the brain
have dedicated roles. However, many higher functions
— reasoning, problem-solving, creativity — involve
different areas working together in networks.
10. FOUR LOBES
Temporal lobe (green): important for processing
sensory input and assigning it emotional meaning.
It is also involved in laying down long-term memories.
Some aspects of language perception are also housed
here.
Occipital lobe (purple): visual processing region of
the brain, housing the visual cortex.
Parietal lobe (yellow): the parietal lobe integrates
sensory information including touch, spatial
awareness, and navigation.
Touch stimulation from the skin is ultimately sent to the
parietal lobe. It also plays a part in language
processing.
Frontal lobe (pink): positioned at the front of the brain,
the frontal lobe contains the majority of dopamine-
sensitive neurons and is involved in attention,
reward, short-term memory, motivation, and
planning.
11. Brain regions
Basal ganglia: involved in the control of
voluntary motor movements, procedural
(practical)learning, and decisions about
which motor activities to carry out.
Diseases that affect this area
include Parkinson’s
disease and Huntington’s disease.
Cerebellum: mostly involved in precise
motor control, but also in language and
attention. If the cerebellum is damaged,
the primary symptom is disrupted motor
control, known as ataxia.
12. Con…
Broca’s area: this small area on the left side of
the brain (sometimes on the right in left-handed
individuals) is important in language processing.
When damaged, an individual finds it difficult to
speak but can still understand speech. Stuttering
is sometimes associated with an underactive
Broca’s area.
Corpus callosum: a broad band of nerve fibers
that join the left and right hemispheres. It is the
largest white matter structure in the brain and
allows the two hemispheres to
communicate. Dyslexic children have smaller
corpus callosums; left-handed people,
ambidextrous people, and musicians typically
have larger ones.
13. Con…
Medulla oblongata: extending below the
skull, it is involved in involuntary functions,
such as vomiting, breathing, sneezing, and
maintaining the correct blood pressure.
Hypothalamus: sitting just above the brain
stem and roughly the size of an almond, the
hypothalamus secretes a number of neuro
hormones and influences body temperature
control, thirst, and hunger.
14. Thalamus: positioned in the center of the brain,
the thalamus receives sensory and motor input
and relays(transmit) it to the rest of the cerebral
cortex. It is involved in the regulation of
consciousness, sleep, awareness, and
alertness.
Amygdala: two almond-shaped nuclei deep
within the temporal lobe. They are involved in
decision-making, memory, and emotional
responses; particularly negative emotions.
The Central Nervous System in Your Body -
Verywell Mind
https://www.verywellmind.com › what-is-the-
central-ne...
15. Spinal Cord
The spinal cord connects to the brain via the brain stem and
then runs down through the spinal canal, located inside the
vertebra. The spinal cord carries information from various
parts of the body to and from the brain.
While it varies from one individual to the next, the spinal cord
is about 18 inches in length. At the brainstem, 31 spinal
nerves enter into the spinal cord.
The nerves of the spinal cord consist of:
8 cervical nerves(head, neck, upper limbs&diaphram
sensation in the head, neck, shoulders)
12 thoracic nerves(upper back, chest, abdomen-motor move)
5 lumbar nerves(below thoracic &above sacral) leg, hip knee
5 sacral nerves (lower side-posterier thigh, lower leg, foot,
part of pelvis)
1 coccygeal nerve tail bone(pelvic- uterus, fallopian tube,
bladder)
16. Con…
In the case of some reflex movements,
responses are controlled by spinal
pathways without involvement from the
brain. Examples include the Golgi tendon
reflex, the crossed extensor reflex, and
the stretch reflex.
What Is Central Nervous System?
Definition, Function & Parts
https://www.emedicinehealth.com ›
article_em
17. Autonomic Nervous System
The autonomic nervous system
regulates a variety of body process
that takes place without conscious
effort. The autonomic system is the
part of the peripheral nervous
system that is responsible for
regulating involuntary body functions,
such as heartbeat, blood flow,
breathing, and digestion.
18. 3 BRANCHES
This system is further divided into three branches: the
sympathetic system, the parasympathetic system, and
the enteric nervous system.1
The autonomic nervous system is also made up of a
third component known as the enteric nervous
system, which is confined to the gastrointestinal tract.
The parasympathetic division of the autonomic
nervous system helps maintain normal body functions
and conserves physical resources. This division also
performs such tasks as controlling the bladder, slowing
down heart rate, and constricting eye pupils.
The sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous
system regulates the flight-or-fight responses. This
division also performs such tasks as relaxing the
bladder, speeding up heart rate, and dilating eye pupils.
19. How It Works
The autonomic nervous system operates by
receiving information from the environment
and from other parts of the body. The
sympathetic and parasympathetic systems
tend to have opposing actions in which one
system will stimulate a response where the
other will inhibit(prevent) it.
Traditionally, stimulation has been thought
to take place through the sympathetic
system while inhibition was thought to occur
via the parasympathetic system. However
many exceptions to this have been found.
20. Con…
For example, the sympathetic nervous
system will act to raise blood pressure while
the parasympathetic nervous system will act
to lower it. The two systems work in
conjunction to manage the body’s responses
depending upon the situation and need.
If, for example, you are facing a threat and
need to flee, the sympathetic system will
quickly mobilize your body to take action.
Once the threat has passed, the
parasympathetic system will then start to
dampen these responses, slowly returning
your body to its normal, resting state.
21. Functions
The autonomic system controls a variety of internal
processes including:
Digestion
Blood pressure
Heart rate
Urination and defecation
Pupillary response
Breathing (respiratory) rate
Sexual response
Body temperature
Metabolism
Electrolyte balance
Production of body fluids including sweat and saliva
Emotional responses
22. Con…
The autonomic nerve pathways connect different
organs to the brain stem or spinal cord. There are also
two key neurotransmitters, or chemical messengers,
that are important for communication within the
autonomic nervous system:
Acetylcholine is often used in the parasympathetic
system to have an inhibiting effect.
Norepinephrine often works within the sympathetic
system to have a stimulating effect on the body.
Function of the Autonomic Nervous System - Verywell
Mind
https://www.verywellmind.com › what-is-the-autonomi...
23. NERVOUS SYSTEM AND
LEARNING
The basic workings of the nervous system
depend a lot on tiny cells called neurons.
The brain has billions of them, and they have
many specialized jobs. For example,
sensory neurons send information from the
eyes, ears, nose, tongue, and skin to the
brain. Motor neurons carry messages away
from the brain to the rest of the body.
All neurons, however, relay information to
each other through a complex
electrochemical process, making
connections that affect the way we think,
learn, move, and behave.
24. Con…
Intelligence, learning, and memory. As we grow and
learn, messages travel from one neuron to another over
and over, creating connections, or pathways, in the
brain. It's why driving takes so much concentration
when someone first learns it, but later is second nature:
The pathway became established.
In young children, the brain is highly adaptable. In fact,
when one part of a young child's brain is injured,
another part often can learn to take over some of the
lost function. But as we age, the brain has to work
harder to make new neural pathways, making it harder
to master new tasks or change set behavior patterns.
That's why many scientists believe it's important to keep
challenging the brain to learn new things and make new
connections — it helps keeps the brain active over the
course of a lifetime.
25. Memory is another complex function of the
brain. The things we've done, learned, and
seen are first processed in the cortex. Then, if
we sense that this information is important
enough to remember permanently, it's passed
inward to other regions of the brain (such as
the hippocampus and amygdala) for long-
term storage and retrieval. As these
messages travel through the brain, they too
create pathways that serve as the basis of
memory.
https://kidshealth.org/en/parents/brain-
nervous-system.html
26. Extra
Sensory input is converted into electrical signals
called nerve impulses that are transmitted to the
brain. There the signals are brought together to
create sensations, to produce thoughts, or to add
to memory; Decisions are made each moment
based on the sensory input. This is integration.
Based on the sensory input and integration, the
nervous system responds by sending signals to
muscles, causing them to contract, or to glands,
causing them to produce secretions. Muscles
and glands are called effectors because they
cause an effect in response to directions from the
nervous system. This is the motor output or
motor function.
https://training.seer.cancer.gov/anatomy/nervous/
27. NEURO TRANSMITTERS
In order for neurons to send messages
throughout the body, they need to be able to
communicate with one another to transmit
signals. However, neurons are not simply
connected to one another. At the end of each
neuron is a tiny gap called a synapse and in
order to communicate with the next cell, the
signal needs to be able to cross this small space.
This occurs through a process known as
neurotransmission.
In most cases, a neurotransmitter is released
from what's known as the axon terminal after
an action potential has reached the synapse,
a place where neurons can transmit signals to
each other.
28. WORKING OF
NEUROTRANSMITTERS
When an electrical signal reaches the end of a
neuron, it triggers the release of small sacs
called vesicles that contain the
neurotransmitters. These sacs spill their
contents into the synapse, where the
neurotransmitters then move across the gap
toward the neighbouring cells. These cells contain
receptors where the neurotransmitters can bind
and trigger changes in the cells. After release, the
neurotransmitter crosses the synaptic gap and
attaches to the receptor site on the other
neuron, either exciting or inhibiting the
receiving neuron depending on what the
neurotransmitter is.
29. Con…
takes the right key to open a specific lock, a
neurotransmitter (the key) will only bind to a
specific receptor (the lock). If the
neurotransmitter is able to work on the
receptor site, it triggers changes in the
receiving cell.
Sometimes neurotransmitters can bind to
receptors and cause an electrical signal to be
transmitted down the cell (excitatory). In other
cases, the neurotransmitter can actually
block the signal from continuing, preventing
the message from being carried on
(inhibitory).
31. Classification
Neurotransmitters play a major role in everyday life and
functioning. Scientists do not yet know exactly how
many neurotransmitters exist, but more than 60 distinct
chemical messengers have been identified.
Neurotransmitters can be classified by their function.
Excitatory neurotransmitters: These types of
neurotransmitters have excitatory effects on the neuron,
meaning they increase the likelihood(opportunity) that
the neuron will fire an action potential. Some of the
major excitatory neurotransmitters include epinephrine
and norepinephrine.
Inhibitory neurotransmitters: These types of
neurotransmitters have inhibitory effects on the neuron;
they decrease the likelihood that the neuron will fire an
action potential. Some of the major inhibitory
neurotransmitters include serotonin and gamma-
aminobutyric acid (GABA).
32. Con…
Modulatory neurotransmitters: These
neurotransmitters, often referred to as
neuromodulators, are capable of
affecting a larger number of neurons at
the same time. These neuromodulators
also influence the effects of other
chemical messengers.
Where synaptic neurotransmitters are
released by axon terminals to have a
fast-acting impact on other receptor
neurons, neuromodulators diffuse
across a larger area and are more
slow-acting.
33. TYPES
There are a number of different ways
to classify and categorize
neurotransmitters. In some instances,
they are simply divided into mono
amines, amino acids, and peptides.
Neurotransmitters can also be
categorized into one of six types:
1. Amino Acids
Gamma-amino butyric acid (GABA):
Glutamate
36. NEURO TRANSMITTERS IN
LEARNING
Neurotransmitters are the chemicals that
communicate information throughout our
brain and the rest of the body. These
chemical messengers are constantly
facilitating communication up and down
your nervous system, and they can also
affect mood, sleep, concentration and
may cause adverse symptoms when they
are out of balance.
There are many different types of
chemicals in your nervous system, and
based on how they are counted, a
neuroscientist can identify between 30 to
100 neurotransmitters
37. Dopamine
Dopamine activates your reward
system and provides you with
pleasure. It also empowers emotional
responses and enables you to see
rewards and take action to obtain them.
It is the chemical that makes you feel
good when you check things off a ‘to-
do list’ or when you achieve a
milestone. It is what motivates you to
achieve incremental(improvement)
goals
38. When you have students showing low
or no interest in the information
being presented, it can be attributed
to low amounts of dopamine being
produced
39. Serotonin
that is responsible for maintaining a
stable mood by balancing any
excessive excitatory
neurotransmitter firing in the brain.
High levels of this neurotransmitter
are essential for sleep, and it also
seems to be related to optimism.
Low serotonin levels are also
associated with decreased immune
system function and depression.
40. Con…
It reinforces the sense of
belonging to a group and the
relationships within it (e.g.,
friendships). Serotonin is what
moves you to say things like “I
want to do it ‘for my mom, my
friend, my team, my boss, my wife,
etc.’ this is the what he calls
the ‘Leadership chemical’ and what
creates “a sense of allegiance
(loyalty)and organizational
cohesion.”(unity).
41. Norepinephrine,
Norepinephrine, also called noradrenaline or
noradrenalin, is an excitatory
neurotransmitter that is responsible for
stimulatory processes in the body such as
increasing the blood flow to your brain,
among other things. It helps you be alert
and pay careful attention to your
surroundings (all key factors in learning).
A good way to use Norepinephrine for
learning is implementing activities that
involve risk, challenge, and competition,
such as games and projects.
42. Cortisol
Cortisol is a steroid hormone that is
released in response to stress.
Cortisol works with epinephrine
(adrenaline) to create memories, but
elevated (high) levels can interfere
with learning memory and lower
immune functions.
43. oxytocin,
The cultivation of oxytocin is
essential for creating strong bonds
and improved social interactions.
There is also consensus
(agreement) among scientists that
oxytocin modulates fear, anxiety
and has antidepressant-like effects.
44. enkephalins and
endorphins
It is also important to mention brain
hormones such as enkephalins and
endorphins that play a role in
modulating pain, stress and can
produce the sensation of being
relaxed and calm. Laughter and
exercise are some of the easiest
ways to induce endorphin release
45. Facilitating Learning
Novelty
Sensory Learning
Active Playful Learning
Storytelling
Emotions
Anchoring:
Organization and Chunking
https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/neurotransmitters-learning-
luis-hernandez
Neurotransmitters and Learning
Luis Hernandez
Luis Hernandez
Educational Consultant | Instructional Designer | Author |
Speaker
Published Aug 15, 2018
46. LIMBIC SYSTEM &
LEARNING
The limbic system isn’t a specific organ or
part of the body, but rather a group
of brain structures that work together.
It includes the hippocampus and amygdala,
each of which is actually a pair of organs on
either side of the brain. The hippocampi play
important roles in memory, learning, long-
term information storage, and spatial
reasoning. The amygdalae help the body
process emotions. They also help attach
emotional meaning to memories. Problems
with either of these organs can affect
memory, learning, and emotional
regulation.
48. Con…
The limbic system also includes
the hypothalamus. This organ plays a
role in myriad(many) functions by
releasing hormones that help
sustain homeostasis—the ability of the
body to maintain relatively
consistent(same) conditions. Other
limbic system organs include neurons,
the basal ganglia, portions of
the prefrontal cortex, the cingulate gyrus,
and the ventral tegmental area
49. WORKING -LIMBIC SYSTEM
The limbic system acts as a control centre for
conscious and unconscious functions,
regulating much of what the body does. In
some ways, it connects the mind to body,
bridging the gap between psychological and
physiological experiences. For example, by
activating the fight or flight response, the
limbic system triggers a physical response to
emotional experiences such as fear. The
limbic system acts as a control centre for
conscious and unconscious functions,
regulating much of what the body does.
50. 1. Reward, Motivation, and
Addiction
Research suggests that feelings of motivation and
reward originate in the ventral tegmental area (VTA), a
group of neurons that connects to the nucleus
accumbens in the basal ganglia. Those neurons
release dopamine, a neurotransmitter that supports
feelings of pleasure.
In a healthy brain, dopamine helps people feel
motivated to learn, meet new people, or try new
experiences. Drug and alcohol abuse, however, can
change the functioning of the limbic system. Drugs act
on dopamine, and over time, the release of dopamine
can become addictive. Over time, addiction can
deplete(reduce) the brain’s dopamine stores, making it
difficult to feel pleasure without drugs. This is why many
people with addictions find little relief from activities that
were once pleasurable
51. 2. Emotional Responses
The amygdala and hippocampus work
together to regulate emotions, especially
evolutionarily “old” emotions that play a role in
survival—love for one’s
children, aggression,(fight/argue) fear,
and anxiety(worry).
Together, these two organs also help the brain
interpret the emotional content of memories. The
amygdala assigns emotional meaning to
memories and helps the brain form fear-based
memories. The hippocampus helps form sensory
memories, which are memories associated with
sensory input. When the smell of a crisp apple or
warm beach air brings back memories of a
long-ago summer, the hippocampus is
responsible.
52. 3. Fight or Flight
The limbic system helps the body respond to intense
emotions of fear and anger by activating the fight or
flight response. This response is also sometimes called the
fight, flight, or freeze response, thanks to new evidence
suggesting the role of freezing in response to danger.
When the amygdala perceives a threat, it activates the
limbic system to prepare to handle the threat. The
adrenal glands release hormones such as epinephrine
that raise blood pressure and heart rate, improve blood
flow to muscles and organs, and elevate breathing rate.
In the short-term, the fight or flight response can be life-
saving. Over time, however, chronic stress can activate the
limbic system in a way that damages the body. Long-term
release of epinephrine and other hormones can damage
blood vessels, cause high blood pressure, and change
appetite.
53. 4. Memory
Both the amygdala and hippocampus
help the brain form new memories,
store those memories, retrieve
them, and make sense of their
emotional content. The
hippocampus is particularly important
in long-term memory formation. It
also supports spatial memory and
spatial reasoning.
54. 5. Hormones Affecting Automatic
Functions
Hormones are the body’s chemical
messengers, sending a signal from one
area to the body in response to
environmental input and other
information.
The hypothalamus releases hormones
that play a role in a wide range of
emotions, including pain, hunger, thirst,
pleasure, sexual feelings, anger, and
aggression. It also helps the body maintain a
state of homeostasis by regulating the
autonomic nervous system. Some examples
of this function include:
55. Con…
Getting information from the vagus
nerve about blood pressure and how
full the stomach is. Using this
information, it releases chemicals that
regulate appetite and blood pressure.
Gathering information from the reticular
formation of the brain stem about
temperature and then using that to
manage the body’s response to heat
or cold.
Regulating the body’s internal clock,
the circadian rhythm, based on light,
darkness, and other sensory input.
56. 6. Attention and Learning
By helping the brain form new
memories, the limbic system helps the
body learn and remember information.
It also plays a role in regulating
cognitive attention. Research
suggests, for example, that the
cingulate gyrus focuses the brain’s
attention on emotionally significant
events. The anterior cingulate may
also help with conscious attempts to
control emotions.
57. THERAPY
Therapy, too, may change the limbic system by training
the brain to process information differently, assigning
new emotions to old memories or supporting a client in
managing chronic stress.
Many disorders can damage the limbic system.
Memories and experiences matter, too. Therapy can
help people make sense of these experiences,
ameliorate(improve) some effects of chronic stress, help
a person better manage their emotions, and potentially
even reduce the risk of stress-related disorders such as
cardiovascular disease.
https://www.goodtherapy.org/blog/6-ways-the-limbic-
system-impacts-physical-emotional-and-mental-health-
0316197#:~:text=Attention%20and%20Learning,attenti
on%20on%20emotionally%20significant%20events.
