Minor project report on temple architectur

MINOR PROJECT REPORT
ON
Temple Architecture of India

Session: 2010-2013

UNDER THE GUIDANCE OF: SUBMITTED BY:-
Punam Ahlawat Megha Aggarwal

Asst. Professor Enrollment No.02514905010

Dept. Of Business Administration Course: BBA (T&TM) 3rd Sem.

MAHARAJA SURAJMAL INSTITUTE
(Affiliated to Guru Gobind Singh Indraprastha University)

(Recognized by UGC U/S2 (F))

C-4 JANAK PURI, NEW DELHI-58

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the research project initiated to certify that is the innovative effort of
“MEGHA AGGARWAL” ROLL NO-02514905010 and it has been accomplished
under my guidance.

Certified that this project report “TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE OF INDIA”

Is the bonafide work of "MEGHA AGGARWAL” who carried out the project work
under my supervision.

SIGNATURE SIGNATURE

Megha Aggarwal Punam Ahlawat

SUPERVISOR

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

A project can never become a success with efforts of only one individual. It requires a
group of people to complete a project at its best. And it’s my friends, my teacher and my
family member who have helped me to complete my project report.

The present work is just an effort to throw some light on “the different architectural
styles of temples of India”. The work would not have been possible to come to the
present shape without the guidance, supervision and help of number of people.

With deep sense of gratitude I acknowledge the encouragement and guidance received
from Mrs. Punam Ahlawat, ASST.PROFESSOR, DEPT. OF BUSINESS
ADMINISTRATION and other staff members.

I convey my heartfelt thanks to all those people who helped and supported me during the
course, of completion of my Project Report.

MEGHA AGGARWAL

ENROLL. NO. 02514905010

Course: BBA (T&TM) 3rd Sem.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

S.No. Chapters Particulars Page no.

1. Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION

Indian temple architecture
Objectives
Limitations
Research methodology
Source of data collection

2. Chapter 2 PROFILE

History
Hindu temple architecture
o Nagara style
o Dravida style
o The vesara style
Strategies to enhance religious tourism through
corporate market responsibility
Role of religious tourism in balanced economic
growth in India
Protecting temples

3. Chapter 3 Analysis and interpretation of statistical
data

4 Chapter 4 Conclusions and Recommendations

Conclusion
Recommendations
Bibliography

INDIAN TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE

India “Land of Temples” - A land of intense spirituality and religious faith reflected in
the profusion of temples present in this subcontinent. Temples are found everywhere in
India from large monumental structures to small stone buildings, each having certain
significance and greatly influencing the lives of the people who regard the temple as a
place where they could be close to god.

Fig 1. 1 (Indian map showing different religious places)

Almost all Indian art has been religious, and almost all forms of artistic tradition have
been deeply conservative. The Hindu temple developed over two thousand years and its
architectural evolution took place within the boundaries of strict models derived solely
from religious considerations. Therefore the architect was obliged to keep to the ancient
basic proportions and rigid forms which remained unaltered over many centuries.

On the other hand, the architect and sculptor were allowed a great deal of freedom in the
embellishment and decoration of the prescribed underlying principles and formulae. The
result was an overwhelming wealth of architectural elements, sculptural forms and
decorative exuberance that is so characteristic of Indian temple architecture and which
has few parallels in the artistic expression of the entire world.

A Mandir, Devalayam, Devasthanam, or a Hindu temple is a place of worship for
followers of Hinduism. A characteristic of most temples is the presence
of murtis (statues) of the Hindu deity to whom the temple is dedicated. They are usually
dedicated to one primary deity, the presiding deity, and other deities associated with the
main deity. However, some temples are dedicated to several deities, and others are
dedicated to murtis in an aniconic form.

Nomenclature, orthography and etymology

Fig 1. 2 (Jagannath Temple, Rathayatra Puri, Orissa, India)

Many Hindu temples are known by different names around the world, depending upon
the language. The word mandir or mandiram is used in many languages, including Hindi,

and is derived from a Sanskrit word, mandira, for 'house' (of a deity by implication).
Temples are known as Mandir, Devasthanam, Kshetralayam, Punyakshetram,
or Punyakshetralayam in Telugu,asDeula/Mandira in Oriya, Devastanam in Kannada and
Mondrian in Bengali, as Kshatriya or Jambalaya in Malayalam.

History

Fig 1.3 (The Subrahmanya temple at Saluvankuppam, near Mahabalipuram in Tamil Nadu. The brick
shrine dates to the Sangam period and is one of the oldest Hindu temples to be unearthed .)

The oldest temples that were built of brick and wood no longer exist. Stone later became
the preferred material. Temples marked the transition of Hinduism from the Vedic
religion of ritual sacrifices to a religion of Bhakti or love and devotion to a personal
deity.

Temple construction and mode of worship is governed by ancient Sanskrit scriptures
called agamas, of which there are several, which deal with individual deities. There are
substantial differences in architecture, customs, rituals and traditions in temples in
different parts of India.

During the ritual consecration of a temple, the presence of the universal all-
encompassing Brahman is invoked into the main stone deity of the temple, through ritual,
thereby making the deity and the temple sacred and divine.

Architecture and Alignment

Earth has its energy centers that correspond to universal data centers of life and
awareness. The temple, through which contacts or relations are established among the
states of being (humans, spirits, and gods), is thus a combination of the data of yoga,
astrology, and sacred geography. In the temple structure, there are diagrams similar to the
ones described for chakras according to yoga experience, with proportions similar to
those deriving from the position of the stars, by which the influence can be explained.
The characteristics of site and orientation are connected to the living structure of the
Earth. The Hindu temple is thus not a place where the faithful may gather but a sacred
building constructed to receive subtle influences.

Customs and Etiquette

Fig 1.4(Chennakesava Temple of Vishnu at Belur, Karnataka, India)

The customs and etiquette when visiting Hindu temples have a long history and are filled
with symbolism, solemn respect and veneration of Brahma's creation. Worshipers in

major temples typically bring in symbolic offerings for the prayer or 'puja'. This
includes fruits, flowers, sweets and other symbols of the bounty of the natural world.
Temples in India are usually surrounded by small stores called 'dukan' (Hindi) which
offer them typically wrapped in organic containers such as banana leaves.

When inside the temple, it is typical to keep both hands folded together as a sign of
respect. The inner sanctuary, where the murtis reside, is known as the garbhagruh. It
symbolizes the birthplace of the universe, the meeting place of the gods and mankind,
and "the threshold between the transcendental and the phenomenal worlds." It is in this
inner shrine that devotees offer prayers and salutations to the presiding deities. Devotees
may or may not be able to personally present their offerings at the feet of the deity. In
most South Indian temples, only the pujaris are allowed to enter into the garbhagruh. In
North Indian temples, however, it is more common for devotees to be allowed entrance.

The mantras spoken are typically "Om Namo Narayana" or "Om Namah Shivaya" which
mean "Obeisance to Narayana (Vishnu)" or "Salutations to Shiva". These are followed by
a series of shlokas or verses from the holy texts such as the Bhagavad
Gita, Upanishads or Vedas. Upon the conclusion of prayer, devotees get down on their
knees or even fall flat on their stomach and bow before the symbol of the deity. If a priest
or 'Pujari' is present, he is likely to provide sacred symbolically blessed food called
'Prasad' to the devotee. He may also apply a holy red mark called 'tilak' to the forehead of
the devotee symbolizing blessings.

Finally the worshiper or visitor walks clockwise around the sanctum sanctorum, stop
once on each side, close their eyes and pray to the All Loving Being. The worshiper may
receive a sprinkling of the water from the holy river Ganges while the 'Pujari' states "Om
Shanti" which means "peace be unto all".

During religious holidays, temples may be swarmed with devotees chanting and praying
loudly. There may be facilitators called 'paandaas' who help visitors navigate through the
crowds and complete the 'puja' or prayer rituals quickly.

Temple management staff typically announce the hours of operation, including timings
for special 'pujas'. These timings, due to the vast diversity in Hinduism, vary from temple

to temple. For example, some temples may perform aarti once or twice per day, while
other temples, such as those part of Swaminarayan movement, may perform aarti five
times per day. Additionally, there may be specially allotted times for devotees to perform
circumambulations (or pradakshina) around the outside of the temple. There are also
timings for devotional songs or music called bhajans, which are accompanied by
a dholak or tabla soloist and/or harmonium soloist. There are dates and times for
devotional dances such as the classical BharataNatyam dance performed by
accomplished performers.

Visitors and worshipers to Hindu temples are required to remove shoes and other
footwear before entering. Most temples have an area designated to store footwear.
Additionally, it may be customary, particularly at South Indian temples, for men to
remove shirts and to cover pants and shorts with a traditional cloth known as
a Vasthiram.

The Hindu religion teaches that all life-forms are created by Brahma and that humankind
needs to share the world with the animal kingdom. It is common to see stray
dogs, cows, monkeys, and birds congregated at temples.

The concept of spirituality in the system of sacred architecture in India is something that
goes beyond the mere static relations between inert objects and space as found in other
architectural traditions. The relationship of objects with one another and space in India's
sacred architecture extends to include higher entities said to be in charge of various
aspects of universal affairs, all of whom carry out their work in accordance with the will
of God.

Temple Finances

Most ancient stone temples were the result of royal patronage and built to benefit of the
whole community, they were expressions of the devotion and piety of the ruler and his
people.

The temples were maintained through donations from royal patrons and private
individuals. They were given money, gold, silver, livestock and income from grants of
land which sometimes included whole villages.

Temple Location

The temple should be built at a suitable place, like a Tirtha. The ideal location is a a
beautiful place where rivers flow, on the banks of a lake or by the seashore; on hill tops,
mountain slopes, or in a hidden valley. The site of the temple may be selected in a forest,
a grove, or in a beautiful garden. Temples should also be built in villages, towns and
cities or on an island, surrounded by water.

The temple itself should always face east since that is the most auspicious direction.
From the east appear the rising sun, the destroyer of darkness and the giver of life.

Temple Management and erosion of Autonomy by control of states and
Law

Fig 1.5

The Archeological Survey of India has control of most ancient temples of archaeological
importance in India. In India theoretically, a temple is managed by a temple
board committee that administers its finances, management and events. However since

independence, the autonomy of individual Hindu religious denominations to manage their
own affairs with respect to temples of their own denomination has been severely eroded.
State governments of many states in India (and especially all the states in South India)
have gradually increased their control over all Hindu temples. Over decades, by enacting
various laws which have been fought both successfully and unsuccessfully up to the
Supreme court of India, politicians of the ruling parties especially in the southern states
control every aspect of temple management and functioning.

OBJECTIVES

The main aim of the project is-

To study about the different architectural styles of temples of India.

To study about the role of temple tourism/religious tourism in the
balanced economic growth of India.

To study about the different strategic plans to enhance the conditions
of Indian marketers near sacred places.

To study about the inflow and outflow of outbound and inbound
tourists over the period of time

To study about the different religious places or temples of India.

LIMITATIONS

Inspite of having the above advantages, this project report suffered with
several disadvantages which are written as follows –

(A). RESEARCH METHODOLOGY – the research methodology being used in
making this project is secondary data, any leakages in data collected may
affect the project report.

(B). LIMITED SOURCES – the proper information about few destinations was not
easily available which caused a lots of inconvenience to me.

(C). TIME CONSUMING –temple architecture is very broad in terms of tourist
destinations and this sometimes cause a huge problem since we can’t get it as
to what info. to pick and which not.

(D). INACCURATE DATA – As the data has been collected from secondary
sources, the information gathered may suffer with the problem of data
inaccuracy.

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Research can be defined as systematized effort to gain knowledge. A research is carried
out by different methodology, which has their own pros and cons.

Research methodology is a way to solve research problem along with the logic behind
them. Thus when we talk of the research methodology we not only take of research
method but also context of our research study and explain why we are using a particular
method or techniques and why we are not using other so that research result are capable
of being evaluated either by the researchers himself or by others. Research methodology
means the method carried out to study the problem.

Research methodology has following steps:

Step: 1 to decide the objective of the study.

Step: 2 to design research design.

Step: 3 to determine the source of data.

Step: 4 to design data collection form.

Step: 5 to determine sample size and sample design.

Step: 6 to organize and conduct fieldwork.

Step: 7 to process and analyze the collected data.

Step: 8 to prepare the research report.

SOURCE OF DATA COLLECTION

Secondary data:

Secondary data is any data, which have been gathered earlier for some other purpose.

Among the above mentioned types of data was used for the study and analysis of the
objective of this project, also the secondary to data proved to be helping hand in framing
up the industry scenario and also the relevant topics in the entire project report.

Advantages of Secondary data

1. It is economical. It saves efforts and expenses.

2. It is time saving.

Disadvantages of Secondary Data

1. Accuracy of secondary data is not known.

2. Data may be outdated.

History

Historians say Hindu
Temples did not exist during
the Vedic period (1500 - 500
BC). The remains of the
earliest temple structure were
discovered in Surkh Kotal, a
place in Afghanistan by a
French archeologist in 1951. It
was not dedicated to a god but
to the imperial cult of King
Kanishka (127 - 151 AD). The
ritual of idol worship which
became popular at the end of
the Vedic age may have given
rise to the concept of temples
Fig 2. 1
as a place of worship.

The Earliest Hindu Temples

The earliest temple structures were not made of stones or bricks, which came much later.
In ancient times, public or community temples were possibly made of clay with thatched
roofs made of straw or leaves. Cave-temples were prevalent in remote places and
mountainous terrains.

According to historian, Nirad C Chaudhuri, the earliest structures that indicate idol
worship date back to the 4th or 5th century AD. There was a seminal development in
temple architecture between the 6th and the 16th century. This growth phase of Hindu
temples charts its rise and fall alongside the fate of the various dynasties that reigned
India during the period majorly contributing and influencing the building of temples,
especially in South India. Hindus consider the building of temples an extremely pious act,

bringing great religious merit. Hence kings and wealthy men were eager to sponsor the
construction of temples, notes Swami Harshananda, and the various steps of building the
shrines were performed as religious rites.

Temples of South India (6th - 18th Century AD)

The Pallavas (600 - 900 AD) sponsored the building of the rock-cut chariot-shaped
temples of Mahabalipuram, including the famous shore temple, the Kailashnath and
Vaikuntha Perumal
temples in Kanchipuram
in southern India. The
Pallavas style further
flourished - with the
structures growing in
stature and sculptures
becoming more ornate
and intricate - during the
rule of the dynasties that
followed, particularly the
Cholas (900 - 1200 AD),

Fig 2. 2 (Kailashnath Temple, Kanchipuram)
The Pandyas temples (1216 - 1345 AD), the Vijayanagar kings (1350 - 1565 AD) and the
Nayaks (1600 - 1750 AD).

The Chalukyas (543 - 753 AD) and the Rastrakutas (753 - 982 AD) also made major
contributions to the development of temple architecture in Southern India. The Cave
Temples of Badami, the Virupaksha temple at Pattadakal, the Durga Temple at Aihole
and the Kailasanatha temple at Ellora are standing examples of the grandeur of this era.
Other important architectural marvels of this period are the sculptures of Elephanta Caves
and the Kashivishvanatha temple.

During the Chola period the South Indian style of building temples reached its pinnacle,
as exhibited by the imposing structures of the Tanjore temples. The Pandyas followed in
the footsteps the Cholas and further improved on their Dravidian style as evident in the
elaborate temple complexes of Madurai and Srirangam. After the Pandyas, the
Vijayanagar kings continued the Dravidian tradition, as evident in the marvelous temples
of Hampi. The Nayaks of Madurai, who followed the Vijayanagar kings, hugely
contributed to architectural style of their temples, bringing in elaborate hundred or
thousand-pillared corridors, and tall and ornate 'gopurams' or monumental structures that
formed the gateway to the temples as evident in the temples of Madurai and
Rameswaram.

Temples of East, West and Central India (8th - 13th Century AD)

In Eastern India, particularly in Orissa between 750-1250 AD and in Central India
between 950-1050 AD many gorgeous temples were built. The temples of Lingaraja in
Bhubaneswar, the Jagannath temple in Puri and the Surya temple in Konarak bear the
stamp of Orissa's proud ancient heritage. The Khajuraho temples, known for its erotic
sculptures, the temples of Modhera and Mt. Abu have their own style belonging to
Central India. The terracotta architectural style of Bengal also lent itself to its temples,
also notable for its gabled roof and eight-sided pyramid structure called the 'aath-chala'.

Temples of Southeast Asia (7th - 14th century AD)

Southeast Asian countries, many of which were ruled by Indian monarchs saw the
construction of many marvelous temples in the region between 7th and 14th century AD
that are popular tourist attractions till his day, the most famous amongst them being the
Angkor Vat temples built by King Surya Varman II in the 12th century. Some of the
major Hindu temples in Southeast Asia that are still extant include the Chen La temples
of Cambodia (7th - 8th century), the Shiva temples at Dieng and Gdong Songo in Java
(8th - 9th century), the Pranbanan temples of Java (9th - 10th century), the Banteay Srei
temple at Angkor (10th century), the Gunung Kawi temples of Tampaksiring in Bali

(11th century), and Panataran (Java) (14th century), and the Mother Temple of Besakih in
Bali (14th century).

The temple is a representation of the macrocosm (the universe) as well as the Macrocosm
and microcosm (the inner space).

The Magadha Empire rose with the Shishunaga dynasty in around 650 BC. The
Ashtadhyayi of Panini, the great grammarian of the 5th century BC, speaks of images that
were used in Hindu temple worship. The ordinary images were called pratikriti and the
images for worship were called archa (see As. 5.3.96–100). Patanjali, the 2nd century BC
author of the Mahabhashya commentary on the Ashtadhyayi, tells us more about the
images.

Deity images for sale were called Shivaka etc., but an archa of Shiva was just called
Shiva. Patanjali mentions Shiva and Skanda deities. There is also mention of the worship
of Vasudeva (Krishna). We are also told that some images could be moved and some
were immovable. Panini also says that an archa was not to be sold and that there were
people (priests) who obtained their livelihood by taking care of it.

Panini and Patanjali mention temples which were called prasadas. The earlier Shatapatha
Brahmana of the period of the Vedas informs us of an image in the shape of Purusha
which was placed within the altar.

The Vedic books describe the plan of the temple to be square. This plan is divided into 64
or 81 smaller square, where each of these represents a specific divinity.

For more than 4,000 years, India the land of the Vedas and the most ancient civilization is
one of the most spiritually enriched places on this planet. India, its people, beliefs,
cultural diversity and its very soil encourage and nurture spiritualism, allowing a number
of religions to thrive, flourish and prosper.

Every major religion in the world, as well many of their off-shoots and facets, get support
and nourishment from India. Religions like Hinduism, Jainism, Buddhism and Sikhism

were conceived in India, and others sought refuge in India after being persecuted in their
own countries.

Apart from religions, numerous saints, philosophers, spiritual leaders and founders of
religions also sought and received sanctuary enlightenment in India’s soil and spirit. This
trend continues even today after hundreds of years, the reason being as the people across
the world veer towards the materialistic way of life, whereas in India people still give
preference to spiritual fulfillment .People across the globe travel to India to find the
solutions to their problems in materialistic world.

Hindu Temples of Today

Today, Hindu temples across the globe form the
cynosure of India's cultural tradition and spiritual
succor. There are Hindu temples in all almost
countries of the world, and contemporary India is
bristled with beautiful temples, which hugely
contribute to her cultural heritage. In 2005,
arguably the largest temple complex was
inaugurated in New Delhi on the banks of river Fig 2.3 (Akshardham Temple in Delhi)
Yamuna. The mammoth effort of 11,000 artisans and volunteers made the majestic
grandeur of Akshardham temple a reality, an astounding feat which the proposed world's
tallest Hindu temple of Mayapur in West Bengal is aiming accomplish.

HINDU TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE

The Hindu temples developed over two thousand years depict excellent architectural
evolution which took place within the boundaries of strict models derived from religious
considerations.

In Hindu tradition, the Temple architecture is a religious architecture which is connected
to astronomy and sacred geometry. Normally, the temple is referred as a place of sanctity
representing the macrocosm or the universe and the microcosm or the inner space.

The temple architecture has kept the ancient basic proportions and rigid forms unaltered
over centuries.

It is very conservative and a particular form of decorative details persisted for centuries
even though the original purpose and the context are lost. Even the architect and the
sculptor were given a great deal of freedom in the embellishment and decoration of the
prescribed underlying principles and formulae which resulted in an overwhelming wealth
of architectural elements, sculptural forms and decorative exuberance.

India's temple architecture developed from the sthapathis' and shilpis' creativity. In
general these are from the Vishwakarma (caste). A small Hindu temple consists of an
inner sanctum, the garbha griha or womb-chamber, in which the image is housed, often
circumambulation, a congregation hall, and possibly an antechamber and porch. The
sanctum is crowned by a tower-like shikara.

The broad geographical, climatic, cultural, racial, historical and linguistic differences
between the northern plains and the southern peninsula of India resulted even in distinct
temple architectural styles. The Shastras, or the ancient texts architecture, classify the
temple architectural styles into three different categories such as the Nagara or the
Northern style, the Dravida or the Southern style, and the Vesara or the Hybrid style.

NAGARA OR THE NORTH INDIAN TEMPLE STYLE

Developed around 5th century, the Nagara style is characterized by a beehive shaped
tower called a shikhara, in northern terminology made up of layer upon layer of
architectural elements such as kapotas and gavaksas, all topped by a large round cushion-
like element called an amalaka. Even though the plan is based on a square, the walls are
broken up so that the tower offers the impression of being circular. Later developments
involved the central shaft being surrounded by many smaller reproductions which created
a spectacular visual effect resembling a fountain. The best example for this is the
Chandella temples.

In the North Indian style, the shrine is a square at the centre, but there are projections on
the outside leading to cruciform shape. When there is one projection on each side, it is
called triratha, 2 projections - pancharatha, 3 projections - saptharatha, 4 projections -
navaratha. These projections occur throughout the height of the structure. This style is
found mostly in Orissa, Rajasthan and Gujarat.

The temples of Orissa are the ones which can be described as the typical Nagara style.
These temples escaped the destruction due to invasion. The temples as well as the
literature laying down the rules and mode of construction have been well preserved in
Orissa.

In this style, the structure consists of two buildings, the main shrine taller and an
adjoining shorter mandapa. The main difference between the two is the shape of the
Shikhara. In the main shrine, a bell shaped structure ads to the height. As is usual in all
Hindu temples, there is the kalasa at the top and the ayudha or emblem of the presiding
deity.

Some of the temples of this style are:

 The Parasurameswara temple at Bhuvaneshwar
 Brahmesvara temple in Bhuvaneshwar
 Lingaraja temple
 Anantha Vasudeva temple
 Rajarani temple
 Sun temple at Konarak
 Jagannath temple at Puri

Sun temple at Konarak

Konarak Sun Temple is located, in the state
of Orissa near the sacred city of Puri. The
sun Temple of Konarak is
dedicated to the sun God or Surya. It is a
masterpiece of Orissa's medieval
architecture. Sun temple has been declared
a world heritage site by UNESCO.

The Konarak temple is widely known not only for Fig 2. 4 (sun temple of Konarak)
its architectural grandeur but also for the intricacy and profusion of sculptural work. The
entire temple has been conceived as a chariot of the sun god with 24 wheels, each about
10 feet in diameter, with a set of spokes and elaborate carvings. Seven horses drag the
temple. Two lions guard the entrance, crushing elephants. A flight of steps lead to the
main entrance. Arka is the Sun God.

The Nata Mandir in front of the Jagamohana is also intricately carved. Around the base of
the temple, and up the walls and roof, are carvings in the erotic style.

Architecture of the Temple

The massive structure of the temple, now in ruins, sits in solitary splendor surrounded by
the drifting sands. The entire temple has been designed in the shape of a chariot carrying
the Sun God across the heavens. The huge intricate wheels of the chariot, which are
carved around the base of the temple, are the major attractions of the temple. The spokes
of these wheels serve as sundials, and the shadows formed by these can give the precise
time of the day. The pyramidal roof of the temple, made of sandstone, soars over 30 m in
height. Like the temples at Khajuraho, the Sun Temple at Konarak is also covered with
erotic sculptures.

Jagannath Temple at Puri

The architecture of the temple follows the
pattern of many Orissa temples of the
classical period. The main shikhara, or
tower, rises above the inner sanctum
where the deities reside. Subsidiary
shikharas rise above ante-halls. The
temple complex is surrounded by a wall, Fig 2. 5 (Jagannath temple)

on each side of which is a gopura or gate, over which rises a pyramid-shaped roof. Being
the largest temple in the state, it has a complex covering several square blocks with
dozens of structures including a mammoth kitchen.

The main temple structure of this architectural and cultural wonder is 65m (214 feet) high
and is built on elevated ground, making it look more imposing. Comprising an area of
10.7 acres, the temple complex is enclosed by two rectangular walls. The outer enclosure
is called Meghanada Prachira, 200m (665 ft) by 192m (640 ft). The inner wall is called
Kurmabedha, 126m (420 ft) by 95m (315 ft). There are thirty-six traditional communities
(Chatisha Niyaga) who render a specific hereditary service to the deities. The temple has
as many as 6,000 priests.

There is a wheel on top of the Jagannath Temple made of an alloy of eight metals (asta-
dhatu). It is called the Nila Chakra (Blue Wheel), and is 3.5m (11 ft 8 in) high with a
circumference of about 11m (36 ft). Every day, a different flag is tied to a mast attached
to the Nila Chakra. Every Ekadasi, a lamp is lit on top of the temple near the wheel.
There are four gates: the eastern Singhadwara (Lion Gate), the southern Ashwadwara
(Horse Gate), the western Vyaghradwara (Tiger Gate), and the northern Hastidwara
(Elephant Gate). There is a carving of each form by the entrance of each gate. The Lion
Gate, which is the main gate, is located on Grand Road. Thirty different smaller temples
surround the main temple. The Narasimha Temple, adjacent to the western side of the
Mukti-mandapa, is said to have been constructed before this temple even.

Lingaraja Temple, Orissa
Surrounded by high walls on four sides, the
Lingaraja temple is one of the most famous
temples in Orissa. It is one of the best and splendid
examples of the architectural excellence which the
artists had attained during 11th century. This
temple is also known as the Bhubaneswar temple.
The outer walls of the temple exhibit exemplary
carvings. The beautifully sculpted images of various Fig 2. 6 (Lingaraja Temple Bhubaneswar)

God and Goddess are unmatched. The temple tower can be seen from a long distance.
The temple complex has three parts and each part has one temple each. Towards south of
the entrance to main temple is image of Lord Ganesha, at the back is the image of
Goddess Parvati and to north is Lord Kartikya. There are about 600 temples in Orrisa, the
biggest and finest being the Lingaraj Temple. Lingaraj temple was built in 617-657 A.D
and its height is about 54 meters. It was Jajati Keshari who laid the foundation of the
Lingaraj temple and his great grandson completed the work. This temple was constructed
in the 11th AD at the site of an old seventh century shrine. The 'nata mandapa' (dance
hall) and 'bhoga mandapa' (offerings hall), were later added to the temple, that has
evolved over different historical periods.

By the time, the Lingaraja temple was built, the Jagannath cult had become widespread,
throughout Orissa. The temple is dedicated to Lord Siva the ‘Lingam’ here is unique in
that it is a ‘hari hara’ lingam-half Siva and half Vishnu. there are 150 shrines within the
immense Lingaraja complex ,many of them extremely interesting in their own right. This
is exemplified by the fact, that the presiding deity, here, is the Svayambhu Linga - half
Shiva, half Vishnu, a unique feature of the temple. Almost all the Hindu gods and
goddesses are represented in this temple, mirroring the inherent element of harmony
within the religion.

History

Lingaraja temple was built in 617-657 A.D and its height is about 54 meters. The
Lingaraja temple is said to have been built first by the ruler Yayati Kesari in the 7th
century who shifted his capital from Jaipur to Bhubaneswar. Bhubaneswar remained as
the Kesari capital, till Nripati Kesari founded Cuttck in the 10th century. Inscriptions
from the period of the Kalinga King Anangabhima III from the 13th century are seen
here. Structurally, the Parasurameswara temple at Bhubaneswar is the oldest, dating back
to the middle of the 8th century, and the Lingaraja is temple is assigned to the 10th
century. The nata Mandir and the bhog Mandir of the Lingaraja temple are of later origin.

Architecture

The outer walls of the temple exhibit unparalled carvings. The beautifully carved and
sculpted images of various God and Goddess are unrivalled. The temple complex has
three compartments and each one has a temple each. Towards south of the entrance to
main temple is image of Lord Ganesha, at the back is the image of Goddess Parvati and
to north is Lord Kartikya. The Lingaraja temple has got various pillars and halls which
add to its beauty. The Lingaraja temple has got various pillars and halls which add to its
beauty. At the main gate is the temple of Lord Ganesha followed by Nandi pillar. Its
towering spire-like beauty dominates the Bhubaneswar skyline. It represents the peak of
Kalinga style of architecture spanning over 25 centuries of progressive history. This 11th
century temple is the culmination of architectural beauty and sculpted elegance. The
temple is dedicated to "Tri Bhubaneshwar", or Lord of the three worlds also known as
Bhubaneswar. The granite block representing "Tri Bhubaneshwar" is bathed daily with
water, milk and Bhang (Marijuana). It is enclosed and has four features - a sanctuary, a
dancing hall, an assembly hall and a hall of offerings. There are many smaller shrines
around the temple in the enclosed area.

The Legends

Legend has it that Shiva revealed to Parvati that Bhubaneshwar - or Ekamra thirtha was a
resort favoured by him over Benares. Parvati in the guise of a cowherd woman, decided
to look at the city herself. Two demons Kritti and Vasa desired to marry her. She
requested them to carry her upon their shoulders, and crushed them under her weight.
Shiva, then created the Bindu Saras lake to quench her thirty, and took abode here as
Krittivasas or Lingaraja.

DRAVIDA OR SOUTH INDIAN TEMPLE STYLE

Developed around 7th century, the Dravida or the
Southern style has a pyramid shaped tower consisting
of progressively smaller storey of small pavilions, a
narrow throat, and a dome on the top called a shikhara.
The horizontal visual thrust is given by the repeated
storey.

Less obvious differences between the two main temple
types can be seen in the ground plan, the selection and
positioning of stone carved deities on the outside walls
and the interior, and the range of decorative elements.
The northern style dominated the vast areas of India
from the Himalayas to the Deccan and varied
distinctly from region to region. But the southern style
occupying a much smaller geographical area was very
consistent in its development and more predictable in Fig 2. 7 A typical Dravidian gate pyramids
called Gopuram-Thiruvannamalai temple-
architectural features.
Tamil Nadu

Dravidian architecture was a style of architecture that emerged thousands of years ago
in Southern part of the Indian subcontinent or South India. They consist primarily of
pyramid shaped temples called Koils which are dependent on intricate carved stone in

order to create a step design consisting of many statues of deities, warriors, kings, and
dancers. The majority of the existing buildings are located in the Southern Indian states
of Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Kerala, and Karnataka. Various kingdoms and empires
such as the Pallavas, Cholas, Pandyan, Chera, Chalukyas, Rashtrakutas, Hoysalas, and
Vijayanagara Empire amongst the many others have made a substantial contribution to
the evolution of Dravidian architecture through the ages. Dravidian styled architecture
can also be found in parts of Northeastern Sri Lanka, Maldives, and various parts of
Southeast Asia.

Composition and structure

Fig 2. 8(The Annamalaiyar Temple in Thiruvannaamalai, India)

Dravidian style temples consist almost invariably of the four following parts, arranged in
differing manners, but differing in themselves only according to the age in which they
were executed:

1. The principal part, the temple itself, is called the Vimanam. It is always square in
plan and surmounted by a pyramidal roof of one or more stories; it contains the
cell where the image of the god or his emblem is placed.
2. The porches or Mantapams, which always cover and precede the door leading to
the cell.

3. Gate-pyramids, Gopurams, which are the principal features in the quadrangular
enclosures that surround the more notable temples.
4. Pillard halls (Chaultris or Chawadis) are used for many purposes and are the
invariable accompaniments of these temples.

Besides these, a temple always contains tanks or wells for water – to be used for sacred
purposes or the convenience of the priests – dwellings for all the grades of the priesthood
are attached to it, and other buildings for state or convenience.[1]

Influence from different periods

In Southern India seven kingdoms and empires stamped their influence on architecture
during different times:

Sangam period

Fig 2. 9 The Subrahmanya Murugan temple of Saluvankuppam, in Saluvankuppam near Mahabalipuram in
Tamil Nadu.

The brick shrine dates to the Sangam period and is one of the oldest Hindu temples to be
unearthed. From 1000BCE-300CE, the greatest accomplishments of the kingdoms of the
early Chola, Chera and the Pandyan kingdoms included brick shrines to
deities Murugan, Shiva, Amman and Thirumal (Vishnu) of the Tamil pantheon. Some
were built Several of these have been unearthed near Adichanallur, Kaveri
poompuharpattinam and Mahabalipuram, and the construction plans of these sites of

worship were shared to some detail in various poems of Sangam literature. One such
temple, the Saluvankuppam Murukan temple, unearthed in 2005, consists of three layers.
The lowest layer, consisting of a brick shrine, is one of the oldest of its kind in South
India, and is the oldest shrine found dedicated to Murukan. It is one of only two brick
shrine pre Pallava Hindu temples to be found in the state, the other being
the Veetrirundha Perumal Temple at Veppathur dedicated to Vishnu. The dynasties of
early medieval Tamilakkam expanded and erected structural additions to many of these
brick shrines. Sculptures of erotic art, nature and deities from the Madurai Meenakshi
Amman Temple, Chidambaram Thillai Nataraja Temple and
the Srirangam Ranganathaswamy Temple date from the Sangam period.

Pallavas

Fig 2. 10 The Rathas in Mahabalipuram-Tamil Nadu

The Pallavas ruled from AD (600–900) and their greatest constructed accomplishments
are the single rock temples in Mahabalipuram and their capital Kanchipuram, now
located in Tamil Nadu.

Pallavas were pioneers of south Indian architecture. The earliest examples of temples in
the Dravidian style belong to the Pallava period. The earliest examples of Pallava
constructions are rock-cut temples dating from 610 – 690 CE and structural temples
between 690 – 900 CE. The greatest accomplishments of the Pallava architecture are
the rock-cut temples at Mahabalipuram. There are excavated pillared halls and monolithic

shrines known as Rathas in Mahabalipuram. Early temples were mostly dedicated to
Shiva. The Kailasanatha temple also called Rajasimha Pallaveswaram
in Kanchipuram built by Narasimhavarman II also known as Rajasimha is a fine example
of the Pallava style temple. Mention must be made here of the Shore Temple constructed
by Narasimhavarman II near Mahabalipuram which is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

Contrary to popular impression about the succeeding empire of the Cholas pioneering in
building large temple complexes, it was the Pallavas who actually pioneered not only in
making large temples after starting construction of rock cut temples without using mortar,
bricks etc. The shining examples of such temples are the Thiruppadagam and
Thiruooragam temples that have 28 and 35 feet (11 m) high images of Lord Vishnu in his
manifestation as Pandavadhoothar and Trivikraman forms of himself. In comparison the
Siva Lingams in the Royal Temples of the Cholas at Thanjavur and Gangaikonda
Cholapurams are 17 and 18 feet (5.5 m) high. Considering that the Kanchi Kailasanatha
Temple built by Rajasimha Pallava was the inspiration for Raja Chola's Brihadeeswara at
Thanjavur, it can be safely concluded that the Pallavas were among the first emperors in
India to build both large temple complexes and very large deities and idols. Many Siva
and Vishnu temples at Kanchi built by the great Pallava emperors and indeed their
incomparable Rathas and the Arjuna's penance Bas Relief (also called descent of the
Ganga) are proposed UNESCO World Heritage Sites. The continuous Chola, Pallava and
Pandiyan belt temples (along with those of the Adigaimans near Karur and Namakkal), as
well as the Sethupathy temple group between Pudukottai and Rameswaram uniformly
represent the pinnacle of the South Indian Style of Architecture that surpasses any other
form of architecture prevalent between the Deccan Plateau and Kanniyakumari. Needless
to add that in the Telugu country the style was more or less uniformly conforming to the
South Indian or Dravidian idiom of architecture.

Pandya

Srivilliputtur Andal Temple is the official symbol of
the Government of Tamilnadu. It is said to have been
built by Periyaazhvar, the father-in-law of the Lord,
with a purse of gold that he won in debates held in the
palaceof Pandya KingVallabhadeva.

The primary landmark of Srivilliputtur is 12-tiered
Fig 2. 11 (Srivilliputtur Andal Temple)
tower structure dedicated to the Lord of Srivilliputtur,
known as Vatapatrasayee. The tower of this temple rises 192 feet (59 m) high and is the
official symbol of the Government of Tamil Nadu. It is said to have been built by
Periyaazhvar, the father-in-law of the Lord, with a purse of gold that he won in debates
held in the palace of Pandya King Vallabhadeva. The Government of Tamil Nadu uses
this temple tower as part of its symbol.

Cholas

The Chola kings ruled from AD (848–
1280) and included Rajaraja Chola I and
his son Rajendra Chola who built temples
such as the Brihadeshvara
Temple of Thanjavur and Brihadeshvara
Temple of Gangaikonda Cholapuram,
the Airavatesvara Temple of
Darasuram and the Sarabeswara (Shiva)
Temple, also called the Kampahareswarar
Fig 2. 12 (Thanjavur Temple-Tamilnadu) Temple at Thirubhuvanam, the last two
temples being located near Kumbakonam.

The first three among the above four temples are titled Great Living Chola
Temples among the UNESCO World Heritage Sites.

The Cholas were prolific temple builders right from the times of the first king Vijayalaya
Chola after whom the eclectic chain of Vijayalaya Chozhisvaram temple near
Narttamalai exists. These are the earliest specimen of Dravidian temples under the
Cholas. His son Aditya I built several temples around the Kanchi and Kumbakonam
regions.

Temple building received great impetus from the conquests and the genius of Aditya
I Parantaka I,Sundara Chola, Rajaraja Chola and his son Rajendra Chola I. The maturity
and grandeur to which the Chola architecture had evolved found expression in the two
temples of Tanjavur and Gangaikondacholapuram. In a small portion of the Kaveri belt
between Tiruchy-Tanjore-Kumbakonam, at the height of their power, the Cholas have
left over 2300 temples, with the Tiruchy-Thanjavur belt itself boasting of more than 1500
temples. The magnificent Siva temple of Thanjavur built by Raja Raja I in 1009 as well
as the Brihadeshvara of Gangaikonda Cholapuram, completed around 1030, is both
fitting memorials to the material and military achievements of the time of the two Chola
emperors. The largest and tallest of all Indian temples of its time, the Tanjore
Brihadisvara is at the apex of South Indian architecture. In fact, two succeeding Chola
kings Raja Raja II and Kulothunga III built the Airavatesvara Temple at Darasuram and
the Kampahareswarar Siva Temple at Tribhuvanam respectively, both temples being on
the outskirts of Kumbakonam around AD 1160 and AD 1200. All the four temples were
built over a period of nearly 200 years reflecting the glory, prosperity and stability under
the Chola emperors.

Contrary to popular impression, the Chola emperors patronized and promoted
construction of a large number of temples that were spread over most parts of the Chola
empire. These include 40 of the 108 Vaishnava Divya Desams out of which 77 are found
spread most of South India and others in Andhra and North India. In fact, the
Sri Ranganatha swamy Temple in Srirangam, which is the biggest temple in India and the
Chidambaram Natarajar Temple (though originally built by the Pallavas but possibly

seized from the Cholas of the pre-Christian era when they ruled from Kanchi) were two
of the most important temples patronized and expanded by the Cholas and from the times
of the second Chola King Aditya I, these two temples have been hailed in inscriptions as
the tutelary deities of the Chola Kings. Of course, the two Brihadeshvara Temples at
Thanjavur and Gangaikonda Cholapurams as well as the other two Siva temples, namely
the Airavatesvara Temple of Darasuram and the Sarabeswara (Shiva )Temple which is
also popular as the Kampahareswarar Temple at Thirubhuvanam, both on the outskirts
of Kumbakonam were the royal temples of the Cholas to commemorate their innumerable
conquests and subjugation of their rivals from other parts of South India, Deccan Ilangai
or Sri Lanka and the Narmada-Mahanadi-Gangetic belts. But the Chola emperors
underlined their non-partisan approach to religious iconography and faith by treating the
presiding deities of their other two peerless creations, namely the Ranganathaswamy
Temple dedicated to Lord Vishnu at Srirangam and the Nataraja Temple
at Chidambaram which actually is home to the twin deities of Siva and Vishnu (as the
reclining Govindarajar) to be their 'Kuladheivams' or tutelary (or family) deities. The
Cholas also preferred to call only these two temples which home their tutelary or family
deities as Koil or the 'Temple', which denotes the most important places of worship for
them, underlining their eq. The above-named temples are being proposed to be included
among the UNESCO World Heritage Sites, which will elevate them to the exacting and
exalting standards of the Great Living Chola Temples.

The temple of Gangaikonda Cholapurams, the creation of Rajendra Chola I, was intended
to exceed its predecessor in every way. Completed around 1030, only two decades after
the temple at Thanjavur and in much the same style, the greater elaboration in its
appearance attests the more affluent state of the Chola Empire under Rajendra. This
temple has a larger Siva linga than the one at Thanjavur but the Vimana of this temple is
smaller in height than the Thanjavur vimana.

The Chola period is also remarkable for its sculptures and bronzes all over the world.
Among the existing specimens in museums around the world and in the temples of South
India may be seen many fine figures of Siva in various forms, such as Vishnu and his
consort Lakshmi, and the Siva saints. Though conforming generally to the iconographic

conventions established by long tradition, the sculptors worked with great freedom in the
11th and the 12th centuries to achieve a classic grace and grandeur. The best example of
this can be seen in the form of Nataraja the Divine Dancer.

Badami Chalukyas

Fig 2. 13 (Virupaksha temple, Pattadakal, Karnataka built in 740)

The Badami Chalukyas also called the Early Chalukyas, ruled from Badami, Karnataka in
the period AD 543 – 753 and spawned the Vesara style called Badami Chalukyas
Architecture. The finest examples of their art are seen
in Pattadakal, Aihole and Badami in northern Karnataka. Over 150 temples remain in
the Malaprabha basin.

The most enduring legacy of the Chalukya dynasty is the architecture and art that they
left behind. More than one hundred and fifty monuments attributed to the Badami
Chalukya, and built between 450 and 700; remain in the Malaprabha basin in Karnataka.

The rock-cut temples of Pattadakal, a UNESCO World Heritage
Site, Badami and Aihole are their most celebrated monuments. Two of the famous
paintings at Ajanta cave no. 1, "The Temptation of the Buddha" and "The Persian
Embassy" are attributed to them. This is the beginning of Chalukya style of architecture
and a consolidation of South Indian style.

Rashtrakutas

Fig 2. 14 (Kailash Temple)

The Rashtrakutas who ruled the deccan from Manyakheta, Gulbarga district, Karnataka
in the period AD 753 – 973 built some of the finest Dravidian monuments
at Ellora (the Kailasanatha temple), in the rock cut architecture idiom. Some other fine
monuments are the Jaina Narayana temple at Pattadakal and the Navalinga temples at
Kuknur in Karnataka.

The Rashtrakutas contributed much to the culture of the Deccan. The Rashtrakuta
contributions to art and architecture are reflected in the splendid rock-cut shrines at Ellora
and Elephanta, situated in present day Maharashtra. It is said that they altogether
constructed 34 rock-cut shrines, but most extensive and sumptuous of them all is the
Kailasanatha temple at Ellora. The temple is a splendid achievement of Dravidian art.
The walls of the temple have marvellous sculptures from Hindu
mythology including Ravana, Shiva and Parvati while the ceilings have paintings.

The project was commissioned by King Krishna I after the Rashtrakuta rule had spread
into South India from the Deccan. The architectural style used was dravidian. It does not
contain any of the Shikharas common to the Nagara style and was built on the same lines
as the Virupaksha temple at Pattadakal in Karnataka.

Western Chalukyas

Fig 2. 15 (Dodda Basappa temple, Dambal, Gadag district, Karnataka)

The Western Chalukyas also called the Kalyani Chalukyas or Later Chalukyas ruled the
deccan from AD 973 – 1180 from their capital Kalyani in modern Karnataka and further
refined the Chalukyan style, called the Western Chalukya architecture. Over 50 temples
exist in the Krishna River-Tungabhadra doab in central Karnataka. The Kasi
Vishveshvara at Lakkundi, Mallikarjuna at Kuruvatii, Kalleshwara temple at Bagali and
Mahadeva at Itagi are the finest examples produced by the Later Chalukya architects.

The reign of Western Chalukya dynasty was an important period in the development of
architecture in the deccan. Their architectural developments acted as a conceptual link
between the Badami Chalukyas Architecture of the 8th century and the Hoysalas
architecture popularised in the 13th century. The art of Western Chalukyas is sometimes
called the "Gadag style" after the number of ornate temples they built in
the Tungabhadra – Krishna River doab region of present day Gadag district in
Karnataka. Their temple building reached its maturity and culmination in the 12th
century, with over a hundred temples built across the deccan, more than half of them in
present day Karnataka. Apart from temples they are also well known for ornate stepped
wells (Pushkarni) which served as ritual bathing places, many of which are well
preserved in Lakkundi. Their stepped well designs were later incorporated by the
Hoysalas and the Vijayanagara Empire in the coming centuries.

Hoysalas

Fig 2. 16 (Symmetrical architecture on Jagati, Somanathapura, Karnataka)

The Hoysalas kings ruled southern India during the period AD (1100–1343) from their
capital Belur and later Halebidu in Karnataka and developed a unique idiom of
architecture called the Hoysala architecture in Karnataka state. The finest examples of
their architecture are the Chennakesava Temple in Belur, Hoysaleswara
temple in Halebidu, and the Kesava Temple in Somanathapura.

The modern interest in the Hoysalas is due to their patronage of art and architecture
rather than their military conquests. The brisk temple building throughout the kingdom
was accomplished despite constant threats from the Pandyas to the south and the Seunas
Yadavas to the north. Their architectural style, an offshoot of the Western Chalukya style,
shows distinct Dravidian influences. The Hoysala architecture style is described
as Karnata Dravida as distinguished from the traditional Dravida, and is considered an
independent architectural tradition with many unique features.

Vijayanagar

The whole of South India was ruled
by Vijayanagar Empire from AD (1343–
1565), who built a number of temples and
monuments in their hybrid style in their
capital Vijayanagar in Karnataka. Their
style was a combination of the styles
developed in South India in the previous
centuries. In addition, the Yali columns
(pillar with charging horse), balustrades
(parapets) and ornate pillared manatapa are
their unique contribution. King Krishna
Deva Raya and others built many famous

Fig 2. 17 (Virupaksha Temple at Hampi, temples all over South India in Vijayanagar
Karnataka)
Architecture style.

Vijayanagara architecture is a vibrant combination of
the Chalukya, Hoysala, Pandya and Chola styles, idioms that prospered in previous
centuries. Its legacy of sculpture, architecture and painting influenced the development of
the arts long after the empire came to an end. Its stylistic hallmark is the ornate pillared
Kalyanamantapa (marriage hall), Vasanthamantapa (open pillared halls) and
the Rayagopura (tower). Artisans used the locally available hard granite because of its
durability since the kingdom was under constant threat of invasion. While the empire's
monuments are spread over the whole of Southern India, nothing surpasses the vast open
air theatre of monuments at its capital at Vijayanagara, a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

In the 14th century the kings continued to build Vesara or Deccan style monuments but
later incorporated Dravida-style gopurams to meet their ritualistic needs. The Prasanna
Virupaksha temple (underground temple) of Bukka Raya I and the Hazare Rama temple
of Deva Raya I are examples of Deccan architecture. The varied and intricate

ornamentation of the pillars is a mark of their work. At Hampi, though
the Vitthala temple is the best example of their pillared Kalyanamantapa style,
the Hazara Ramaswamy temple is a modest but perfectly finished example. A visible
aspect of their style is their return to the simplistic and serene art developed by the
Chalukya dynasty. A grand specimen of Vijayanagara art, the Vitthala temple, took
several decades to complete during the reign of the Tuluva king.

THE VESARA OR THE HYBRID OR THE DECCAN
TEMPLE STYLE

This is also in conformity with the prevalence of Vesara style of architecture in
the Deccan and central parts of South Asia vis-à-vis Nagara style prevalent in North
India and Dravida style prevalent in South India The Western Indian and the Deccan
temples, basically evolved from the North Indian style.
Accordingly, the Vesara style contains elements of both Dravida and Nagara styles.
The Vesara style is also described in some texts as the 'Central Indian temple architecture
style' or 'Deccan architecture'. However many historian agree that the vesara style
originated in the what is today Karnataka. The trend was started by the Chalukyas of
Badami (500-753AD) who built temples in a style that was essentially a mixture of
the Nagara and the Dravida styles, further refined by the
Rashtrakutas of Manyakheta (750-983AD) in Ellora, Chalukyas of Kalyani(983-1195
AD) in Lakkundi, Dambal, Gadag etc. and epitomized by the Hoysalas (1000-1330 AD).
The Hoysalas temples at Belur, Halebidu and Somanathapura are supreme examples of
this style. These temples are now proposed as a UNESCO world heritage site. It is
understaood that the Virupaksha temple at Aihole and Pattadakal in northern Karnataka
served as an inspiration for the design of the famous Khajuraho temples at Madhya
Pradesh. Early temples constructed in this style include temples
at Sirpur, Baijnath, Baroli and Amarkantak. The temple complex at Khajuraho, a World
Heritage Site, is a typical example of the Vesara style.

Early temples of this style are:

Lakshmana temple at Sirpur
Vaidyanatha Mahadeva temple at Baijnath
Sikara temple at Baroli
Kesavanarayana temple at Amarkantak
Viratesvara temple at sohagpur

The temples at Kajuraho represent the typical Vesara style. The Chandellas used the
coloured sandstone (pink, buff colour or pale yellow) to construct these temples. Granite
stone temples also exist. These temples dedicated to Saiva, Vaishnava and Jaina sects do
not show great variation in style between one another.

The prime temples of this style are:
Lakshmana temple
Parsvanatha temple
Visvanatha temple
Kandariya Mahadeva temple
Charsath yogini temple (rough granite)
Lalguan Mahadeva temple (Partly granite & sandstone)
Brahma temple
Matangesvara temple
Vamana temple
Jawari temple
Devi Jagadambi temple
Adinatha temple

Brahma Temple

Fig 2. 18 (Brahma Temple in Pushkar City)

Jagatpita Brahma Mandir is a Hindu temple situated at Pushkar in the Indian
state of Rajasthan, close to the sacred Pushkar Lake to which its legend has an indelible
link. The temple is one of very few existing temples dedicated to the Hindu creator-god
Brahma in India and remains the most prominent among them.

Although the present temple structure dates to the 14th century, the temple is believed to
be 2000 years old. The temple is mainly built of marble and stone stabs. It has a distinct
red pinnacle (shikhara) and a hamsa bird motif. The temple sanctum sanctorum holds the
central images of Brahma and his second consort Gayatri.

This temple has very close connection with the famous Gurjar community.The priests in
this temple are from Gurjar (Gujar or Gujjar) community as the 2nd wife of Brahma,
Gayatri, belonged to the Gurjar community.

The temple is governed by the Sanyasi (ascetic) sect priesthood. On Kartik Poornima, a
festival dedicated to Brahma is held when large number of pilgrims visit the temple, after
bathing in the sacred lake.

Legend

According to the Hindu scripture Padma Purana, Brahma saw the demon Vajranabha
(Vajranash in another version) trying to kill his children and harassing people. He
immediately slew the demon with his weapon, the lotus-flower. In this process, the lotus
petals fell on the ground at three places, creating three lakes: the Pushkar Lake or Jyeshta
Pushkar (greatest or first Pushkar), the Madya Pushkar (middle Pushkar) Lake, and
Kanishta Pushkar (lowest or youngest Pushkar) lake. When Brahma came down to the
earth, he named the place where the flower ("pushpa") fell from Brahma's hand ("kar") as
"Pushkar".

Brahma then decided to perform a yajna (fire-sacrifice) at the main Pushkar Lake. To
perform his yajna peacefully without being attacked by the demons, he created the hills
around the Pushkar — Ratnagiri in the south, Nilgiri in the north, Sanchoora in the west
and Suryagiri in the east — and positioned gods there to protect the yajna performance.
However, while performing the yajna, his wife Savitri (or Sarasvatiin some versions)
could not be present at the designated time to perform the essential part of the yajna as
she was waiting for her companion goddesses Lakshmi, Parvati and Indrani. Annoyed,
Brahma requested god Indra (the king of heaven) to find a suitable girl for him to wed to
complete the yajna.

Indra could find only a Gujar's daughter (in some legends, a milkmaid) who was
sanctified by passing her through the body of a cow. Gods Vishnu, Shiva and the priests
certified her purity; it was her second birth and she was named Gayatri. Brahma then
married Gayatri and completed the yajna with his new consort sitting beside him, holding
the pot of amrita (elixir of life) on her head and giving ahuti (offering to the sacrificial
fire).

When Savitri finally arrived at the venue she found Gayatri sitting next to Brahma which
was her rightful place. Agitated, she cursed Brahma that he would be never worshiped,
but then reduced the curse permitting his worship in Pushkar. Savitri also cursed Indra to
be easily defeated in battles, Vishnu to suffer the separation from his wife as a human, the
fire-god Agni who was offered the yajna to be all-devouring and the priests officiating

the yajna to be poor. Endowed by the powers of yajna, Gayatri diluted Savitri's curse,
blessing Pushkar to be the king of pilgrimages, Indra would always retain his heaven,
Vishnu would be born as the human Rama and finally unite with his consort and the
priests would become scholars and be venerated. Thus, the Pushkar temple is regarded
the only temple dedicated to Brahma. Savitri, thereafter, moved into the Ratnagiri hill
and became a part of it by emerging as a spring known as the Savitri Jharna (stream); a
temple in her honour exists here.

History

Pushkar is said to have over 500 temples (80 are large and the rest are small); of these
many are old that were destroyed or desecrated by Muslim depredations
during Mughal emperor Aurangzeb's rule (1658–1707) but were re-built subsequently; of
these the most important is the Brahma temple. Though the current structure dates to the
14th century, the original temple is believed to be 2000 years old. The temple is
described to have been built by sage Vishwamitra after Brahma's yagna. It is also
believed that Brahma himself chose the location for his temple. The 8th century Hindu
philosopher Adi Shankara renovated this temple, while the current medieval structure
dates to Maharaja Jawat Raj of Ratlam, who made additions and repairs, though the
original temple design is retained.

Pushkar is often described in the scriptures as the only Brahma temple in the world,
owing to the curse of Savitri, and as the "King of the sacred places of the Hindus".
Although now the Pushkar temple does not remain the only Brahma temple, it is still one
of very few existing temples dedicated to Brahma in India and the most prominent one
dedicated to Brahma. International Business Times has identified Pushkar Lake and the
Brahma temple as one of the ten most religious places in the world and one of the five
sacred pilgrimage places for the Hindus, in India.

Architecture

Fig 2. 19 Left: Front facade of Brahma temple in Pushkar. Right: Idol of Brahma inside the Brahma temple
at Pushkar

The temple, which is set on high plinth, is approached through a number of marble steps
leading to an entrance gate archway, decorated with pillared canopies. The entry from the
gate leads to a pillared outdoor hall (Mandapa) and then the sanctum sanctorum
(Garbhagriha). The temple is built with stone slabs and blocks, joined together with
molten lead. The red shikhara (spire) of the temple and symbol of a hamsa (a swan or
goose) - the mount of Brahma – are distinct features of the temple. The shikara is about
700 feet (210 m) in height. The hamsa motif decorates the main entry gate. Marble floor
(in black and white checks) and walls inside the temple have been inlaid with hundreds of
silver coins by devotees (with their names inscribed), as mark of offering to Brahma.
There is a silver turtle in the mandap that is displayed on the floor of the temple facing
the Garbhagriha, which is also built in marble. The marble flooring has been replaced
from time-to-time.

Brahma's central icon (murti) made of marble was deified in the garbhagriha in 718 AD
by Adi Shankara. The icon depicts Brahma, seated in a crossed leg position in the aspect
of creation of the universe (the Vishvakarma form). The central image is called
the chaumurti ("four-faced idol"). It is of life size with four hands, four faces, each
oriented in a cardinal direction. The four arms hold the akshamala (rosary),
the pustaka (book), the kurka (kusha grass) and the kamandalu (water pot). Brahma is

riding on his mount, the hamsa. The four symbols held by Brahma in his arms: the rosary,
Kamandalu, book and the sacrificial implement kusha grass represent time, the causal
waters from which the universe emerged, knowledge and the system of sacrifices to be
adopted for sustenance of various life-forms in the universe. Gayatri's image sits along
with Brahma's in centre to his left. Savatri alias Sarasvati sits to the right of Brahma,
along with other deities of the Hindu pantheon. Images of the peacock, Sarasvati's mount,
also decorate the temple walls. Images of the preserver-god Vishnu, life-sized dvarapalas
(gate-keepers) and a gilded Garuda (eagle-man, mount of Vishnu) are also seen in the
temple.

Worship

Fig 2. 20 (Pushkar Lake)

The temple is visited by pilgrims and also by the holy men and sages, after taking a
ceremonial sacred bath in the Pushkar Lake. It is also a practice that visits to the Brahma
temple is followed by worship of his consort Gayatri, followed by visits to other temples
as convenient.

The temple is open for worship between 6:30 am and 8:30 pm during winter and 6:00 am
to 9:00 pm during summer, with an interval in afternoon between 1:30 pm to 3:00 pm
when the temple is closed. Three aratis are held in the temple: Sandhya arati in the
evening about 40 minutes after sunset, Ratri Shayan arati (night-sleep arati) about 5
hours past sunset and Mangala arati in the morning, about 2 hours before sunrise.

The priests at the Brahma temple refer to a strictly followed religious practice. House-
holders (married men) are not allowed to enter the sanctum sanctorum to worship the
deity. Only ascetics (sanyasis) can perform the puja to the deity. Hence, all offerings by
pilgrims are given, from the outer hall of the temple, through a priest who is a sanyasi.
The priests of the temple, in general in Puskkar, belong to the Parashar gotra (lineage).

Once a year, on Kartik Poornima, the full moon night of the Hindu lunar
month of Kartik (October – November), a religious festival is held in Brahma's honour.
Thousands of pilgrims come to bathe in the holy Pushkar Lake adjacent to the temple.
Various rites are also held at the temple during the fair. The day also marks the
famous Pushkar Camel Fair, held nearby. Special rights are performed on all Poornima
(full moon days) and amavasyas (new moon days).

Chennakesava Temple, Belur - Karnataka

In the border areas between the two major styles, particularly in the modern states of
Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh, there was a good deal of stylistic overlap as well as
several distinctive architectural features. A typical example is the Hoysala temple with its
multiple shrines and remarkable ornate carving. In fact such features are sometimes so
significant as to justify classifying distinct sub-regional groups.

The type of raw materials available from region to region naturally had a significant
impact on construction techniques, carving possibilities and consequently the overall
appearance of the temple. The soft soap-stone type material used by the Hoysala
architects of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries allowed sculptors working in the
tradition of ivory and sandalwood carving to produce the most intricate and ornate of all
Indian styles. Hard crystalline rocks like granite typical of the area around
Mamallapuram prevented detailed carving and resulted in the shallow reliefs associated
with Pallava temples of the seventh and with centuries. In areas without stone, such as
parts of Bengal, temples constructed of brick had quite different stylistic characteristics.

Royal patronage also had a very significant effect on the stylistic development of
temples, and as we have already seen, regional styles are often identified by the dynasty
that produced them. For example we speak of Pallava, Chola, Hoysala, Gupta, Chalukya
and Chandella temples.

It might be assumed that temple styles would be different for the various Hindu cults. In
fact, this was never the case in India. Even Jain temples such as those at Khajuraho were
often built in almost identical styles to the Hindu temples.

From the eighth century onward with the development of ever more sophisticated rituals
and festivals, the Hindu temple especially in the south started to expand and become
more elaborate. There were more mandapas for various purposes such as dancing,
assembly, eating, or, for example. To house Nandi, Shiva’s sacred mount; more
subsidiary shrines and other structures; and more corridors and pillared halls such as the
’thousand-pillared halls’.

Bhaktavatsalar Temple, Tirukkalunkundram – Tamil Nadu

But the most significant visual difference between the later northern and southern styles
are the gateways. In the north the shikhara remains the most prominent element of the
temple and the gateway is usually modest. In the south enclosure walls were built around
the whole complex and along these walls, ideally set along the east-west and north-south
axes, elaborate and often magnificent gateways called gopurams led the devotees into the
sacred courtyard. These gopurams led the devotees into the superstructures and capped
with barrel-shaped roofs were in fact to become the most striking feature of the south
Indian temple. They become taller and taller, dwarfing the inner sanctum and its tower
and dominating the whole temple site. From the Vijayanagara period (fourteenth to
sixteenth century) onward, these highly embellished and often brightly painted structures
become extremely numerous. The width of the storeys of pavilions and other
architectural elements were carefully adjusted to create a concave contour which is a

distinctive characteristic of the Dravida temples seen throughout the south, particularly in
Tamil Nadu

STRATEGIES TO ENHANCE RELIGIOUS TOURISM
THROUGH CORPORATE MARKET RESPONSIBILITY
(CRP)

Definitely, the marketers would get benefit out of the booming religious tourism as they
could find new territories to sell their products and services. They would also take part in
developing these Places along with local development authorities.

a) Marketers could participate in providing basic sanitary facilities along with they could
promote their products viz. If X company sponsors the Free or Paid Rest room facilities,
its products would only be sold.

b) Marketers could also participate in constructing rooms for devotees to stay and
promote their products

c) Marketers could offer free/paid transportation facilities which will carry the promotion
of their products/services

d) Pharmaceutical companies could sponsor free medical camps in which their products
could be promoted

e) Food products companies could set up their outlets to sell products with subsidized
/actual prices

f) Clothing/Garment companies could set up their stalls to promote their products and
services It clearly shows that there is enough room for marketers to participate in
Corporate Market Responsibility which offers the dual benefit of offering services to the
society as well to promote their products/services. This would definitely provide a
lucrative mind space in potential target group in which would not have done by spending
millions on conventional promotion tools.

Hence, it is the marketers and the state and central government could join their hands to
concentrate on these locations in order to generate business and employment
opportunities as well to promote their products/services. If this done, the government
would not worry about offering minimum 100 days employment opportunities, they will
take care of themselves. The government could seek help from marketers to offer
necessary infrastructure support viz. transportation, water and sanitation, power and other
basic facilities which ensure the influx and pleasant stay of pilgrims.

ROLE OF RELIGIOUS TOURISM IN BALANCED
ECONOMIC GROWTH IN INDIA

Religious tourism plays a vital role in narrowing economic imbalance. Most of the
places, especially rural areas and the areas which have no core competence or business,
survive due to religious tourism. It provides business and employment opportunities to
local population helps to take care of their requirements. For instance, 'Sulli Karadu' a
small dry rural area near Coimbatore, TamilNadu, India, well known for a rural deity
which is very powerful, ought to be worshipped by offering Camphor in big quantities
which is available in nearby shops. Devotees stand in mile long queue to offer their
offerings. It provides livelihood to local population who sell camphor to the devotees
which is supplied by camphor manufacturers. Also, it was interpreted that the whole
exercise was orchestrated by the camphor manufacturers to sell their products which has
been banned by TamilNadu Endowment Board to camphor in temples, by quoting the
reason that would spoil the environment. However, this is a classical example on the
religious tourism which fed the whole village. Also, a place called "Thadi Kombu" near
Madurai, well known for a deity viz. "Shorna Bairavar" which is very powerful to collect
the bad debts, it is the believe that if a pilgrim visit the place for 8 times in a particular
day of the month, his/her prayers would be answered. This generates employment
opportunities in the sleeping semi-urban small town, also generated business for bus
owners who take devotees for charter trips on that particular day from far off places.
These are all the examples of small places which generates business and employment
opportunities for the local population, let alone, many famous places like "Palani",

Madurai, Rameswaram, Kanyakumar, etc. in Tamil Nadu, and well known, "Sabari
Malai" in kerala, which generates millions and provides employment opportunities to
many. The whole kerala belt has been benefiting from lakhs for devotees visit sabari
malai during particular seasons.These provide tremendous opportunities for marketers to
focus on these locations to market their products and services. It is the dual benefit of
catering location population as well to promote the products/services.

PROTECTING TEMPLES

It must be understood that all objects, whether natural or manmade have their lifespan.
But by doing proper, periodical maintenance & protecting them from vandals, the
possibility of providing extended lifespan to these inanimate structures always remain.
When these places of interest are not maintained, the chances are that they’ll fail to live
up to their 'intended' life span is dim. So, proper maintenance not only preserves them for
their entire life period, but also gives them a "Bonus" lifetime.

When a person thinks about India, he can either think about the well-built, well-
maintained Delhi Metro, which is one of the best in Asia. The Delhi Metro has world
class infrastructure, security & service & wears the look of a corporate major. But on the
other end lies the poorly maintained, poorly equipped, sub-standard Indian Railways.
Though the largest employer in the world & the most profitable government company,
the railways leaves much to be desired when it comes to safety, standard, infrastructure
etc., Though both are owned & operated by the govt., there is a contrasting difference
between these two. The government is treating our ancient monuments too with the same
attention it gives to the railways! The Archaeological Survey of India, responsible for the
exploration & maintenance of these monuments is dangerously under-staffed & poorly
funded. So, the ASI devoted most of its manpower & money power to the high-end
monuments such as Taj Mahal, Red Fort etc., starving our antique Indian temples of any
funds Though India is a Hindu dominated country, it doesn't mean that our temples
should be preserved well! In Tamilnadu for instance, temples are maintained by the
'Hindu Aranilaya Thurai' which is shredded by politics. Even the world's most revenue-
rich temple, in Tripathi does not offer any better prospects. People who pay a high some

of money to "see" the God are allowed a closer peep, whereas the freely serviced poor
people are forced to wait in their queue's for several hours, if not days! The housing &
lodging facilities there are very poor. Transportation is bleak, but collection is great!
Many temples in India refuse to receive any funding from the governments & solely rely
on philanthropists. They do not want to rely on governments claiming to be secular! So,
with very little funding, poor knowledge of history & its greatness from the part of the
temple boards, which priorities the religious aspect of the temple more than its cultural &
historical value will do anything, but improve the status of these "iconic" symbols of the
world's oldest religion. There needs to be an effective co-ordination between the
government, a well-funded ASI, the temple authorities & of course the devotees. The
government should rein in on "illegal" roadside temples & encourage historically
significant temples. The temple board should also allow non-Hindu & foreign visitors to
come in & visit the temple by charging them a fee & diverting it to welfare works. By
allowing tourists, the historical significance of the temple & its image will be defeated.
So if these great monuments have to be maintained properly and if the Temples have to
viewed by tourists and great tourist destinations it is up to the People and Government of
India to Protect these Architectural Masterpieces by Educating the general public about
their importance and Proper funding to maintain them.

CHAPTER- 3
DATA ANALYSIS AND
INTERPRETATION

India, a tourism hotspot in the world, has a large bouquet of visitor attractions to boast
of. Its widespread diversity has always attracted both foreigners as well as its’ own
citizens alike, to explore its mirth and gaiety that it has to offer the world. Every nook
and cranny of the country offers exquisite as well as exclusive tourism resource which
echoes heritage as well as tradition of that particular area. There is hardly any country in
the world which offers such wide variety of tourism.

The total domestic and foreign visitors to the country for the year 2005 stood at 382 Mn
and 3.92 Mn respectively. For the year 2004 the total domestic and foreign visitors to the
country stood at 366 Mn and 3.46 Mn respectively However, India’s percentage share in
total world tourist visits still remains paltry at 0.39% and its share in the total world
tourism receipts stands at a miniscule 0.69% (2005 fig.)

According to statistics from the Indian Ministry of Tourism, the state of Andhra Pradesh
consistently receives the highest number of domestic tourists in the country. What's the
attraction?

They all visit the Lord Venkateswara temple (a form of Lord Vishnu) in Tirupati. In fact,
more than 100,000 Indians visit the temple every day. Bollywood stars Abhishek
Bachchan andAishwarya Rai even prayed at temple after their marriage in 2007.

The temple is a particularly important one for Hindus, as scriptures say that in these dark
times of the Kali Yuga, Lord Venkateswara is the god who can grant liberation. The
benefits of pilgrimage to the hill that the temple is located on are also mentioned in the
scriptures.

Foreign Tourist Arrivals (1997-2010)

Fig 3.1

Fig 3.2

From the above figures 3.1 and 3.2 we are able to known the inflow of foreign tourist in
India during the year 1997 till 2010. The data shows a significant growth in the tourist
inflow in this period. This shows that the Foreign countries are so mesmerized in seeing
India’s diversity that it has led to increase the number of visitors to India.

Share of Top 10 States/UTs of India in Number of Foreign Tourist
Visits in 2010

Fig 3.3

Fig 3.4

The figures 3.3 and 3.4 show the number of foreign tourist visit in different states of India
during the year 1997-2010. From the above data we can reveals that the most
PROMINENT TEMPLES of India are situated in central, north and west of India and
visitors tend to visit to those places to a great extent.

Number of Domestic Tourist Visits to TEMPLES OF INDIA, 1997-2010

Fig 3.5

Fig 3.6

The figures 3.5 and 3.6 shows the consistent and unbelievable rise in the inflow of
domestic tourist visit between the year 1997-2010.the amount of tourist has increased
from 159.88 to 740.219(in millions). This shows that the domestic tourists are an
important source of promoting the TEMPLES of India since the numbers are increasing
to a great extent.

Number of Foreign Tourist Visits to TEMPLES OF INDIA 1997-2010

Fig 3.7

Fig 3.8

The figures 3.7 and 3.8 show the number of foreign tourist arrivals in India. Nowadays
Foreigners are becoming an important source of PROMOTING the temples of India. The
travel experience of foreigners here is just too good, that it is increasing with every
coming year.

Share of Top 10 Countries of the World and India in International
Tourist Arrivals in 2010

Fig 3.9

Fig 3.10

As we can see from the data above, foreign countries are the LEADING VISITORS to
other countries as compared to India which clearly implies THE DOMINANCY of the
famous temple architectural designs of India, is one of the reasons to visit India.

Chapter 4

CONCLUSION AND
RECOMMENDATION

CONCLUSION

We as Indians have always had and will continue to have an obsession for Temples.
Temples have been a part of the Indian tradition since times Immemorial. The Concept of
improving the Tourism in India has always enthralled me and that’s the reason for me to
choose Temple Tourism as a Topic for my minor project. It is an absolute pleasure to
know about the cultural diversity of our country. Any other kind of tourism has to be
developed to increase the popularity among people but when it comes to temple tourism
the situation is totally different we’ve got the Temples with such an amazing architectural
designs with us, it’s just a question of preserving the temples and promoting the temple
tourism among the tourists. India is famous for its temples and its architecture and that is
the reason that among the different kinds of tourism in India, pilgrimage tourism is
increasing most rapidly.

However there are spaces for improvement, it is possible to serve the domestic as well as
the foreign tourist in a better way say for example, by improving the safety and security
of tourists in India. Despite short- and medium-term setbacks such as shortage of hotel
rooms, According to World Travel and Tourism Council, India will be a tourism hotspot
from 2009–2018, because of India's 5,000 years of history, its length, breadth and the
variety of geographic features make its tourism basket large and varied. India’s heritage
and cultural is expected to significantly boost tourism in India.

RECOMMENDATION
India is a holy land inhabited by people of various faith and religions. The country
associates itself with an affluent historical as well as religious backdrop of Hinduism and
other religions. It is a country where people have immense faith in God and His powers
to cure human beings of all their problems and ailments. The country boasts of a rich
cultural heritage, which is truly reflected in its well-preserved temples that reflect superb
architectural skills and hold deep religious significance. Indian temples serve as the
haven of peace, solace and tranquility. It is a hub of many beautiful and sacred temples.
Devotees visit to these temples from all over the world. From North to South and East to
West, you will get some big and famous temples of India. The list of big temples in India
include about 400-500 temples and every temple has a story behind it.

India temples have amazing architecture which attracts tourists a lot. Indian temples are
biggest tourist places. Temple tourism is growing at a very fast rate in India. Every year a
big number of devotees visit to temples in India. But even though there are some loop
holes and if Indian Government wants to develop the Temple Tourism in India and wants
to increase the inflow of tourists the government should take some steps to make the
country more hospitable to foreign travelers.

Below are some suggestions as to how to accomplish that-

Government should establish a board which will protect and preserve temples of
India & also put special efforts to promote temple tourism in other parts of the
world.
The ministry of tourism should work for the improvement of the infrastructure
and hospitality services. Hotels aided with world class facilities i.e. with all the
comforts and convenience should be develop thought the India.
The markets which are near by the temples should be improved and made
standardized, also the local people should me made educated so that they know
that how they should behave with the tourist, and how they are benefited from
their arrivals.

In order to develop temple tourism in India in a systematic manner new tourism
policies should be developed by the ministry of tourism, the focus of which can
be
o Setting up of guest houses
o Rationalization in tax rates in hospitality sector
o Tourist friendly visa regime
o Procedural changes in making available land for construction of hotels, etc
The government should put their focus on the transportation system of India.
There is a high requirement to enforce some new traffic laws in India, so that the
condition of Indian traffic should be improved. All this will help the visiting
tourists to have an easier time traveling from place to place.
There should be an improved safety and security system for the tourists in the
county, so as to make them feel more secure in the country.
Now a day, every customer desire to be treated as a special one and wants
everything according to their requirements. So it should to kept in mind that
whenever a client will visit to a travel agency, a customer friendly approach
should be adopted to increase their level of satisfaction, and also it should be tried
that the tour packages should be made or designed according to the customers
requirement i.e. The option of Customized tours should be provided to the
customers.
Government should create awareness among people regarding temple tourism
through different methods like making small documentary films on different
temples showcasing their great architectural design, there history, or may be
through internet like through publishing videos on the net.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

http://www.templenet.com/temparc.html
http://temples.newkerala.com/Temples-of-India/Temple-Architecture-of-India.html
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindu_temple
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dravidian_architecture
http://www.hindupedia.com

Minor project report on temple architectur

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Minor project report on temple architectur