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Organizational Behaviour
- 1. Robbins & Judge Organizational Behavior INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIOR CHAPTER 2
- 2. Chapter Learning Objectives After studying this chapter, you should be able to: Contrast the two types of ability. Define intellectual ability and demonstrate its relevance to OB. Identify the key biographical characteristics and describe how they are relevant to OB. Define learning and outline the principles of the three major theories of learning. Define shaping, and show how it can be used in OB. Show how culture affects our understanding of intellectual abilities, biographical characteristics, and learning.
- 3. Ability An individual’s capacity to perform the various tasks in a job. Made up of two sets of factors: Intellectual Abilities The abilities needed to perform mental activities. General Mental Ability (GMA) is a measure of overall intelligence. Wonderlic Personnel Test: a quick measure of intelligence for recruitment screening. No correlation between intelligence and job satisfaction. Physical Abilities The capacity to do tasks demanding stamina, dexterity, strength, and similar characteristics.
- 6. Nine Basic Physical Abilities Strength Factors Dynamic strength Trunk strength Static strength Explosive strength Flexibility Factors Extent flexibility Dynamic flexibility Other Factors Body coordination Balance Stamina
- 7. Contrast Intellectual from Physical Ability Insert Exhibit 2.3
- 8. Examples of Nine Physical Abilities
- 9. Biographical Characteristics Objective and easily obtained personal characteristics. Age Older workers bring experience, judgment, a strong work ethic, and commitment to quality. Gender Few differences between men and women that affect job performance. Race (the biological heritage used to identify oneself) Contentious issue: differences exist, but could be more culture-based than race-based.
- 10. Other Biographical Characteristics Tenure People with job tenure (seniority at a job) are more productive, absent less frequently, have lower turnover, and are more satisfied. Religion Religion is wrongly becoming issue in the workplace in this post-9/11 world. Sexual Orientation Federal law does not protect against discrimination (but state or local laws may). Domestic partner benefits are important considerations. Gender Identity Relatively new issue – transgendered employees.
- 13. Discrimination Discrimination is treating somebody unfavorably because of: Their racial or ethnic origin Their age A disability Their religion or other beliefs Their sexual orientation. If a job ad says No disabled people need apply or No blacks, that is obviously direct discrimination. But a ban on wearing hats at work could be indirect discrimination against some religions. Unless it’s for safety reasons, for instance.
- 14. UnfovorableTreatment At work, treatment amounting to discrimination may involve: Unjustly denying somebody a job Unjustly denying somebody promotion or a job transfer Harassment – intimidating a person, being hostile to them, or treating them in a degrading or humiliating way just because they are seen as different. Harassment isn’t necessarily spectacular. Constant degrading jokes or gossip about somebody can be demeaning. Victimization - treating someone badly or differently for making a complaint about discrimination or supporting a colleague who has made a complaint.
- 15. Stereotypes and How They Function in Organizational Settings A stereotype is a belief about a certain group of people. “Discrimination” is to note a difference between things. Unfair discrimination is assuming stereotypes about groups and refusing to recognize differences. Discrimination is the behavior or actions, usually negative, towards an individual or group of people, especially on the basis of sex/race/social class, etc. Prejudice is an unjustified or incorrect attitude (usually negative) towards an individual based solely on the individual’s membership of a social group. For example, a person may hold prejudiced views towards a certain race or gender etc. (e.g. sexist).
- 16. Learning Any relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs as a result of experience Learning components:
- 17. Theories of Learning Classical Conditioning A type of conditioning in which an individual responds to some stimulus that would not ordinarily produce such a response. Operant Conditioning A type of conditioning in which desired voluntary behavior leads to a reward or prevents a punishment. Social-Learning Theory People can learn through observation and direct experience.
- 18. Classical Conditioning Pavlov’s Dog Drool Key Concepts: Unconditioned stimulus A naturally occurring phenomenon. Unconditioned response The naturally occurring response to a natural stimulus. Conditioned stimulus An artificial stimulus introduced into the situation. Conditioned response The response to the artificial stimulus. This is a passive form of learning. It is reflexive and not voluntary – not the best theory for OB learning.
- 20. Operant Conditioning B. F. Skinner’s concept of Behaviorism: Operant conditioning is a type of learning where behavior is controlled by consequences. Key concepts in operant conditioning are positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, positive punishment and negative punishment.
- 21. Positive Reinforcement Positive reinforcement is giving something pleasant after a behavior. This increases the probability that the behavior will continue. Examples are: Having a job and going to work every day to receive a paycheck. A teacher complimenting students when they answer correctly will increase that behavior. In the Skinner Box experiment, a rat got food as a reward for acceptable behavior, such as pressing a lever.
- 22. Negative Reinforcement Negative reinforcement is taking away something unpleasant as a result of the behavior that is acceptable. This is also meant to increase the behavior. Examples are: A teacher exempts student from the final test if they have perfect attendance. So, the teacher is taking away something unpleasant to increase behavior. In the Skinner box experiment, a loud noise continuously sounded inside the cage until the rat did what Skinner wanted him to do. When he did, the noise stopped, so the unpleasant noise was taken away.
- 23. Positive Punishment Positive punishment is used to decrease a behavior and is presenting something unpleasant after the behavior. Examples are: An employee exhibits bad behavior at work and the boss criticizes him. The behavior will decrease because of the boss’s criticism.
- 24. Negative Punishment Negative punishment is also used to decrease a behavior and is removing something pleasant after the behavior. Examples are: An employee is habitually late for work so begins losing the privilege of listening to music while working. The behavior will decrease because of losing a privilege.
- 25. Why Is Operant Conditioning Useful in the Workplace? Productivity Good employee morale can be directly linked to increased productivity in the workplace, and operant conditioning can be useful in keeping both high. Form of verbal praise or pay increases, will elicit a desired response, which in the workplace is optimal productivity. Project Teams When one team member fails to meet his or her individual projects goals, the entire project can suffer, potentially leading to conflict among team members, punishment from superiors and the loss of repeat business from clients. Keeping all employees accountable for their actions and rewarding high performing teams is one form of operant conditioning that can help ensure projects are completed on time and within a set budget. 2- 25
- 27. Social-Learning Theory People can learn through observation and direct experience. The influence of models is central to this theory. Much of what we have learned comes from watching models – parents, teachers, peers, movies, TV programs, bosses, players, etc. Key Concepts: Attentional processes Must recognize and pay attention to critical features to learn. Retention processes Model’s actions must be remembered to be learned. Motor reproduction processes Watching the model’s behavior must be converted to doing. Reinforcement processes Positive incentives motivate learners.
- 28. Shaping: A Managerial Tool Systematically reinforcing each successive step that moves an individual closer to the desired response. Four Methods of Shaping Behavior: Positive reinforcement Providing a reward for a desired behavior (learning) Negative reinforcement Removing an unpleasant consequence when the desired behavior occurs (learning) Punishment Applying an undesirable condition to eliminate an undesirable behavior (“unlearning”) Extinction Withholding reinforcement of a behavior to cause its cessation (“unlearning”)
- 29. Schedules of Reinforcement: A Critical Issue Two Major Types: Continuous Reinforcement A desired behavior is reinforced each time it is demonstrated Intermittent Reinforcement A desired behavior is reinforced often enough to make the behavior worth repeating but not every time it is demonstrated Multiple frequencies
- 30. Types of Intermittent Reinforcement Ratio Depends on the number of responses made. Interval Depends on the time between reinforcements. Fixed Rewards are spaced at uniform time intervals or after a set number of responses. Variable Rewards that are unpredictable or that vary relative to the behavior.
- 32. Behavior Modification (OB Mod) The application of reinforcement concepts to individuals in the work setting Follows the Five-Step Problem-Solving Model
- 33. Example of steps in O.B. MOD Step 1: Identify. Coming to work on time Step 2; Measure. Each member of the work group is late at-least three times a week Step 3: Analysis. Workers know that they should come to work on time but receive no positive reinforcement for doing so or punishment for coming late Step 4: intervention. Positively reinforce workers for coming on time as follows: A worker is allowed one Friday afternoon off each month he/she is never late Step 5. Evaluate. Workers always come on time
- 34. Problems with OB Mod and Reinforcement OB Mod ignores thoughts and feelings. OB Mod may not explain complex behaviors that involve thinking and feeling. Stimuli may not be consciously given as a means of shaping behavior. Modern managers and OB theorists are using cognitive approaches to shaping behavior.
Editor's Notes
- The seven most frequently cited dimensions making up intellectual abilities are number aptitude, verbal comprehension, perceptual speed, inductive reasoning, deductive reasoning, spatial visualization, and memory. Exhibit 2.2 describes these dimensions.If you score high on verbal comprehension, you’re more likely to also score high on spatial visualization. Evidence strongly supports the idea that the structures and measures of intellectual abilities generalize across cultures.
- . Strength factors include dynamic strength, trunk strength, static strength, and explosive strength. Flexibility factors include both components of extent flexibility and dynamic flexibility. Other strength factors include body coordination, balance, and stamina.
- Everybody brings differences to an organization where they work. These differences can create energy and excitement in the workplace, but they can also cause conflict. So it is important that we have an understanding of how diversity works in organizations. When we look at the workplace we can recognize two levels of diversity. Surface-level diversity represents the characteristics that are easily observed such as race, gender, age etc. Deep-level diversity represents the aspects that are more difficult to see at first glance such as values, personality, and work preferences.
- 52% of Pakistan population less than 24 years of age. In about 10 years, nearly half of Pakistan's 188 million people are set to live in cities, compared to only a third today. Analyst Michael Kugelman talks to DW about the South Asian nation's major urban challenges. http://www.dw.com/en/pakistans-urbanization-a-challenge-of-great-proportions/a-18163731 Industrial sector contributes about 24% and agriculture provides about 19% of GDP government of Pakistan has enacted a law in order to provide for employment, rehabilitation and welfare of disabled persons in the country. The "Disabled Persons (Employment and Rehabilitation) Ordinance" was enacted in 1981 as a presidential ordinance. This law was promulgated during the "International Year for Disabled Persons" in 1981 to provide support to the disabled persons in finding employment in government as well as commercial and industrial establishments. After devolution of the subject of labour in 2011, the provinces of Punjab and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa have adopted the 1981 Ordinance. Sindh has enacted its own law, i.e., The Sindh Differently Able Persons (employment, rehabilitation and welfare) Act, 2014. Government of Pakistan has also ratified 'ILO Convention on Vocational Rehabilitation and Employment of Disabled Persons'. Similarly in the last year, it has also ratified the UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities. In the context of employment, a more clear definition of disability is provided in the ILO Convention, ratified by Pakistan in 1994. To this convention, disabled person means "an individual whose prospects of securing; retaining and advancing in suitable employment are substantially reduced as a result of a duly recognized physical or mental impairment". What are employment related provisions of the law? According to Section 10 of the above Ordinance, one percent quota was reserved for disabled persons (special persons) in all public and private sector establishments. This quota was later enhanced to 2% in 1998 through an administrative order, issued by Establishment Division. This is however not a statutory amendment. The employers provide the information as to whether an establishment is employing required 2% disabled persons, to the Provincial Departments through Annual Manpower Survey forms. The law actually does not place limit on the number of disabled persons in an establishment rather it provides that at least two percent of employees should be Persons With Disabilities (PWDs) which means that an employer may employ more than 2% of its total workers from among the disabled ones but never less than that limit. The current applicable quota for disabled persons in the public and private sector for all provinces is 2% except in Punjab where the quota was raised to 3% in 2015. The law requires that terms and conditions of employment of disabled persons can't be less favorable than those of other persons employed in an establishment. Therefore a disabled person can't be hired on lower wages and benefits. The law also provides that in calculating the percentage of the posts in an establishment for the purpose of employment of disabled persons, the fraction of 0.5 and above will count as a whole number. Consider this example: Total number of employees in an establishment: 130Quota reserved under the law: at least 2% of total employeesIn the normal case, the third disabled person would be employed only when total number of employees is 150. However, in view of above provision, third disabled person can be hired even when number of total employees is 130. What if an Employer is not employing the required percentage of disabled persons? The law requires that an establishment, which does not employ a disabled person, has to pay for the Disabled Persons Rehabilitation Fund each month the sum of money it would have paid as salary or wages to a disabled person had he had been employed. An establishment, which opts out of the employment of disabled persons, will deposit each month to the above fund at least 14,000 rupees, if it employs a total of 100 workers. The fund thus collected is utilized for establishment of training centers for disabled persons, financial assistance to disabled persons who are unable to undertake any employment, disbursement of stipends or scholarships to disabled persons receiving training, welfare of disabled persons and providing artificial limbs, surgical therapy and medical treatment to disabled persons. http://www.paycheck.pk/main/labour-laws/illness-work/employing-disabled-person/employment-of-persons-with-disabilities
- In 2010 “The Protection against Harassment of Women at the Workplace Act” was signed by President Asif Ali Zardari. http://www.fos-pah.gov.pk/
- "Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and my own specified world to bring them up in and I'll guarantee to take any one at random and train him to become any type of specialist I might select - doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant-chief and, yes, even beggar-man and thief, regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations and the race of his ancestors” (Watson, 1924, p. 104). Most emotional reactions are learned through the process of higher-order conditioning. Suppose somebody has learned to respond anxiously to criticism. If this person is then criticized several times by the boss, that individual may learn to respond anxiously in the boss's presence, even when the boss is not being critical, because the boss has been paired with the aversive (unpleasant or painful) stimulus of criticism. Through higher-order conditioning, the boss will eventually become a conditioned stimulus that elicits anxiety. It is called "higher-order" because the stimulus used in the pairing or conditioning is itself conditioned, i.e., the employee's anxiety. Higher-order conditioning is one way in which some people learn to display strong emotional reactions to certain minority groups or nationalities-even though they have had little or no personal contact with these groups.Higher-order conditioning also refers to the way in which words can have different connotations to different people.For conditioning to occur, a person need not be aware of the process, nor is the selection of the conditioned stimulus a conscious choice in most cases. (People who understand the laws of learning, however, can employ these laws to condition themselves in ways they choose. Anything that is present in the situation when a person experiences an aversive stimulus might become paired with that stimulus, and thus condition the same emotional response. For example, in the case of the critical boss, the office in which the critical remarks were made might also come to elicit anxiety in the person who was the object of the boss's criticism.People who experience a lot of vague anxiety might be conditioned to respond with anxiety to many stimuli of which they are unaware. The color green might elicit anxiety in someone who, as a child, was severely spanked on a green carpet; small rooms might elicit anxiety because the spanking occurred in a small room, so that when in the presence of green or in a small room, this individual might feel vaguely anxious and be unaware that small rooms and the color green are the conditioned stimuli that are eliciting this anxiety.