English sncesente

1. Articles
English language has two articles, “the and a/an”. An article is used for a noun. An article like an
adjective modifies a noun.
For example, a book, the book, a cup, the cup, an umbrella, the umbrella
The article “the” is called definite article and the article “a/an” is called indefinite article.
Types of Articles
There are two articles in English language.
1. Indefinite article: a/an
2. Definite article: the
An article is used before a noun or an adjective modifying a noun.
Definite Article: (the)
The definite article "the" is used for a definite, specific or particular noun.
Example. He bought the shirt.
The article “the” before the noun “shirt” in above sentence means that the shirt, he bought, is a
specific or particular shirt and not any shirt.
Indefinite Article: (a/an)
The definite article “a/an” is used for indefinite, non-specific or non-particular (common) noun.
Example. He bought a shirt.
The article “a” before shirt in above sentence means that the shirt he bought is any shirt and not a
specific shirt.
Rules for using Indefinite Article (a/an)
The article form “a” is used before a word (singular) beginning with a consonant, or a vowel with a
consonant sound.
e.g. a book, a cat, a camera, a university, a European
The article form “an” is used before a word (singular) beginning with a vowel (a, e, i, o, u) or
consonant with vowel sound (or beginning with mute h ).
e.g. an apple, an elephant, an umbrella, an hour,
1. Before a singular noun which is countable
e.g. He bought a book. She is eating an apple.
2. Before a singular noun which refers to a class of things.
e.g. An orange is rich in vitamins.

2. 3. Before a name of a profession
e.g. She wants to be a doctor
He is an engineer.
4. For certain expressions of quantity
e.g. a lot of, a few, a couple, a dozen
5. For certain numbers.
e.g. a hundred, a thousand, a million
6. Before a singular, countable noun in exclamation.
e.g. What a beautiful flower!
What a nice shirt!
7. Article a/an is not used before uncountable nouns
e.g. water, milk, sand etc
Rules for using definite Article (the)
The article “the” can be used both before a singular and plural noun according to the following
grammatical rules. e.g. the book, the books
1. Before the place, object or group of object which is unique or considered to be unique and
geographical region and points on globe.
e.g. the earth, the moon, the sky, the stars, the north pole, the equator
2. For a noun which becomes definite or particular because it is already mentioned and is being
mentioned a second time.
e.g. The teacher helped a student and the student became happy.
3. For a noun made specific or definite in a clause or a phrase.
e.g. The old lady, The girl with blue eyes, The boy that I saw, The nice red shirt
4. Before superlatives, and first, second,.. etc, and only
e.g. The best day, The only method, the second month,
5. Before a phrase composed of a proper and common noun
e.g. The New York city, The river Nile, The library of Congress
6. Before the names of organizations
e.g. The Association of Chartered Accountants, The World Health Organization
7. Before names of scientific principles, theories, laws etc. e.g. the Pythagorean theorem, the laws
of Newton, The Fahrenheit Scale. But no article will be used for these names if written in forms
like, Newton’s Law, Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures, Hook’s Law of Elasticity
8. Article “the” is not used for names of universities if written in forms like Oxford University, Yale
University, Columbia University. But article “the” is used if names of university are written in
forms like The University of Oxford, The University of Yale, The University of Toronto.
9. Article “the” is not used for names of countries of places. e.g. New York, America, Mexico,
Japan, London. Butarticle “the” is used for a name, if it expresses a group of place, states, or land.
e.g. The United States, The Philippines, The Netherlands

3. Sentence
A group of words which expresses a complete idea or thought is called a sentence.
Example
He bought a car.
The above group of word expresses a complete idea. Such combination of words is called a sentence.
Now, look at another group of words “book a read him”. This group of words does not make a
complete sense so it cannot be called a sentence.
A sentence is a combination of words including a subject and a verb which express a complete idea. A
sentence begins with a capital letter and ends with a period, question mark or exclamation mark.
Examples
He goes to school. She is eating an apple.
My name is John. What are you doing?
Who are you? What a beautiful flower!
Subjectand Predicate
A sentence is group of words which expresses a complete thought
i.e. He ate an apple.
A sentence consists of two parts i.e. subject and predicate.
Sentence = Subject + Predicate
Subject
The part of sentence which performs some action in a sentence is called Subject. A subject is
sometimes also defined as the part of sentence which is being spoken about in sentence (especially in
sentences having a static verb). A subject has a close relationship to what is being discussed in
sentence. A subject can be a noun, pronoun, noun clause or noun phrase.
Examples
He is flying a kite. John is driving a car.
She ate an apple. I wrote him a letter.

4. Predicate
The part of sentence which tells about the subject is called predicate.
Examples
He is flying a kite. John is driving a car.
She ate an apple. I wrote him a letter.
Subject refers to the actor of a sentence. The part of a sentence about which something is told in
a sentence is the subject of sentence. While the part of a sentence that tells something about subject
is the predicate of sentence.
Example.
In the above example, “she” is a subject because it performs an action of washing clothes. We can
also say that “she” is a subject because something (that she is washing her clothes) is told about it in
sentence. While the rest part of the sentence “is washing her clothes” is predicate of sentence
because it tells something (washing her clothes) about the subject.
Kinds of Sentence
Sentence
A group of word that expresses a complete idea or thought is called a sentence.
Example.
He bought a book.
The above group of words “He bought a book” expresses a complete though hence it is a sentence. A
sentence begins with capital letter and ends with a period, question mark or exclamation mark.
Kinds of sentences
There are four kinds of sentences.
Assertive or Declarative Sentence
A sentence that makes a statement or assertion is called an assertive or declarative sentence.
Assertive sentence ends with a period.
Examples
He goes to school. He likes to play chess. They are singing a song.

5. Interrogative Sentence
A sentence that asks a question is called an interrogative sentence. Interrogative sentence ends with
question mark.
Examples.
Where are you going? Do you use your laptop?
Imperative Sentence
A sentence that expresses a request, command or advice is called an imperative sentence.
Examples
Open the door. (an order)
Please help me. (a request)
Exclamatory Sentence
A sentence that expresses strong feelings or emotions is called an exclamatory sentence. These
sentences express surprise, joy, sorrow, appreciation, love excitement, frustration, anger etc. An
exclamatory sentence ends with exclamation mark.
Examples
What a beautiful flower it is!
How nicely she is singing!
That is fantastic!
Hurrah! We won the match!
Phrase and Clause
Comparison
Definitions
A clause is defined as a group of related words that contains a subject and predicate (verb).
e.g. he came.
A phrase is defined as a group of related words that does not contain a subject and a verb.
e.g. on the table.
Consider the following example.
He is laughing at a joker.
The above sentence has two parts “he is laughing” and “at a joker”.
The first part of the sentence “he is laughing” is a clause because it has a subject (he) and a predicate
(is laughing).
The second part of the sentence “at a joker” is a phrase because it does not contain subject and verb.

6. The difference between a clause and a phrase is that a clause consists of both subject and verb, but a
phrase lacks a subject and verb.
Examples.
The underlined part of each of following sentences shows a clause, while the rest part (non-
underlined) of each sentence shows a phrase.
He reached school in time.
I was standing near a wall.
They are singing in a loud voice.
She made tea for the guests.
He a bought a book for his friend.
I will meet him in my office.
You look handsome in this picture.
Clause
“A clause is a group of related words containing a subject and a predicate”
For example, he laughed.
A clause refers to a group of related words (within a sentence or itself as an independent sentence)
which has both subject and predicate.
Example
I will meet him in office.
The part of above sentence “I will meet him” is a clause because it has a subject(I) and a
predicate(will meet him). On the other hand, the rest part of above sentence “in office” lacks both
subject and predicate(verb) such group of word is called phrase.
A clause may stand as a simple sentence or may join another clause to make a sentence. Therefore, a
sentence consists of one, two or more clauses.
Examples.
• He is sleeping. (one clause)
• The kids were laughing at the joker. (one clause)
• The teacher asked a question, but no one answered. (two clauses)
• I am happy, because I won a prize. (two clauses)
• I like Mathematics, but my brother likes Biology,
because he wants to become a doctor. (three clauses)
Clauses are divided into main clause (also called independent clause) and subordinate clause
(also called dependent clauses).

7. Types of Clauses
There are two major types of clauses main (or independent) clause and subordinate (or
dependant) clause.
Main Clause and Subordinate Clause – Comparison
He is buying a shirt which looks very nice.
The above sentence has two clauses “He is buying a shirt” and “which looks very nice”. The clause
“He is buying a shirt” expresses a complete thought and can alone stand as a sentence. Such a
clause is called main or independent clause.
While the clause “which looks very nice” does not express a complete thought and can’t stand as a
sentence. It depends on another clause (main clause) to express complete idea. Such a clause is
called subordinate or dependent clause.
Main or Independent Clause
“Main (or independent) clause is a clause that expresses a complete thought and can stand as a
sentence.
Examples
I met the boy who had helped me.
She is wearing a shirt which looks nice.
The teacher asked a question but no one answered.
He takes medicine because he suffers from fever.
He became angry and smashed the vase into peaces.
In the above sentences each underlined part shows main clause. It expresses complete though and
can stand as a sentence that is why a main or an independent clause is normally referred as a
simple sentence.
Subordinate or dependent Clause
Subordinate (or independent) clause is a clause which does not express complete thought and
depends on another clause (main clause) to express complete thought. Subordinate clause does
not express complete idea and can’t stand as a sentence. A sentence having a subordinate clause
must have a main clause.
Example
He likes Chinese rice which tastes good.

8. The clause “which tastes good” in above sentence is a subordinate clause because it does not
express complete thought and can’t stand as a sentence. It depends on main clause (he likes
Chinese rise) to express complete thought.
Examples.
I met the boy who had helped me.
I bought a table that costs $ 100.
He takes medicine because he suffers from fever.
The teacher asked a question but no one answered.
Subordinate (or dependent) clauses are further divided into tree types,
1. Noun Phrase, 2. Adjective Phrase, 3. Adverb Phrase
Types of Subordinate Clause
Functions of Subordinate Clause.
A subordinate (dependent) clause may function as a noun, an adjective or an adverb in sentence.
On the basis of their function in a sentence, subordinate clauses can be divided in to following
types.
1. Noun Clause
2. Adjective Clause.
3. Adverb Clause
Noun Clause
“A dependent clause that functions as a noun in a sentence is called noun clause.”
A noun clause performs same function like a noun in a sentence.
Example
What he did made a problem for his family.
In above sentence the clause “what he did” functions as a noun, hence it is a noun clause. A noun
clause works as a noun that acts as a subject, object, or predicate in a sentence. A noun clause
starts with words “that, what, whatever, who, whom, whoever, whomever”.
Examples
Whatever you learn will help you in future. (noun clause as a subject)
What you said made me laugh. (noun clause as a subject)
He knows that he will pass the test. (noun clause as an object)
Now I realize what he would have thought. (noun clause as an object)

9. Adjective Clause
“A dependent clause that functions as an adjective in a sentence is called adjective
clause.”
An adjective clause works like adjective in a sentence. The function of an adjective is to modify
(describe) a noun or a pronoun. Similarly a noun clause modifies a noun or a pronoun.
Example
He wears a shirt which looks nice.
The clause “which looks nice” in above sentence is an adjective clause because it modifies noun
“shirt” in the sentence.
An adjective clause always precedes the noun it modifies.
Examples.
I met the boy who had helped me.
An apple that smells bad is rotten.
The book which I like is helpful in preparation for test.
The house where I live consists of four rooms.
The person who was shouting needed help.
Adjective clause begins with relative pronoun (that, who, whom, whose, which, or whose) and is
also relative clause.
Adjective (relative) clauses can be restrictive clause or nonrestrictive clause
Restrictive and Nonrestrictive Clauses
Adjective (relative) clauses can be restrictive clause or nonrestrictive clause. A
restrictive clause limits the meaning of preceding noun or pronoun. A nonrestrictive clause tells us
something about preceding noun or pronoun but does not limit the meaning of preceding noun or
pronoun.
Example
•The student in the class who studied a lot passed the test. (restrictive clause)
•The student in the class, who had attended all the lectures, passed
the test. (nonrestrictive clause)
In the first sentence the clause “who studied a lot” restrict information to preceding noun(student),
it means that there is only one student in the class who studied a lot, hence it is a restrictive
clause.

10. In the second sentence the clause “who had attended all the lectures” gives us information about
preceding noun but does not limit this information to the preceding noun. It means there can be
several other students in the class who had attended all the lectures.
A comma is always used before a restrictive clause in a sentence and also after nonrestrictive
clause if it is within a main clause. “That” is usually used to introduce a restrictive clause while
“which” is used to introduce a nonrestrictive clause.
Example
The table that costs $ 100 is made of steel. (restrictive clause)
The table, which costs $ 100, is made of steel. (nonrestrictive clause)
Adverb Clause
“A dependent clause that functions as an adverb in a sentence is called adverb clause”
An adverb clause like an adverb modifies a verb, adjective clause or other adverb clause in a
sentence. It modifies(describes) the situation in main clause in terms of “time, frequency
(how often), cause and effect, contrast, condition, intensity (to what extent).”
The subordinating conjunctions used for adverb clauses are as follows.
Time: when, whenever, since, until, before, after, while, as, by the time, as soon as
Cause and effect: because, since, now that, as long as, so, so that,
Contrast: although, even, whereas, while, though
Condition: if, unless, only if, whether or not, even if, providing or provided that, in case
Examples.
Don’t go before he comes.
He takes medicine because he is ill.
Although he tried a lot, he couldn’t climb up the tree.
Unless you study for the test, you can’t pass it.
I will go to the school unless it rains.
You are safe as long as you drive carefully.
You can achieve anything provided that you struggle for it.

11. Phrase
“A phrase is defined as a group of related words that lacks both subject and verb.”
A phrase is a part of a sentence. It is a group of words (within a sentence) that does not contain both
subject and verb, and does not express a complete idea.
Example.
He is standing near a wall.
The part of above sentence “near a wall” is a phrase because it does not contain subject and verb, and
does not express a complete idea.
A phrase does not include both subject and verb at a same time and does not make a complete sense,
hence a phrase cannot stand as a sentence on its own.
If a group of words include both subject and verb then it becomes a clause, so the difference in a
clause and a phrase is that a clause contains subject and verb but a phrase does not contain subject
and verb.
Here are some examples of phrases.
He is laughing at a joker.
She is making tea for the guests.
I saw a girl with blue eyes.
He always behaves in a strange way.
The boy in the red shirt is my cousin.
The boy, with a book in his hand, won a prize.
A sentence may consist of one or more phrases.
For example, The boy in the red shirt behaves in a strange way.
A phrase functions as a noun, adverb, or adjective in a sentence, therefore a phrase is also defined as
“a group of words (lacking subject and verb), that functions as a single part of speech, in a sentence.”
Examples
He is wearing a nice read shirt. (as a noun/object)
The people at the party were dancing. (as a noun/subject)
The man in the room is our teacher. (as adjective, modifies noun man)
She gave me a glass full of water. (as adjective, modifies noun glass)
He always behaves in a strange way. (as adverb, modifies verb behave)
He returned in a short while. (as adverb, modifies verb return)
On the basis of their functions and constructions, phrases are divided into various types i.e. noun
phrase, verb phrase, adverb phrase, adjective phrase, appositive phrase, infinite phrase,
participle phrase and gerund phrase.

12. Types of Phrases
A phrase is a group of related words (within a sentence) without both subject and verb. For example,
He is laughing at the joker.
A phrase functions as a noun, verb, adverb, adjective or preposition in a sentence. The function of a
phrase depends on its construction (words it contains). On the basis of their functions and
constructions, phrases are divided into various types i.e. noun phrase, verb phrase, adverb
phrase, adjective phrase, appositive phrase, infinite phrase, participle phrase and gerund
phrase.
Noun Phrase
A noun phrase consists of a noun and other related words (usually modifiers and determiners)
which modify the noun. It functions like a noun in a sentence.
A noun phrase consists of a noun as the head word and other words (usually modifiers and
determiners) which come after or before the noun. The whole phrase works as a noun in a sentence.
Noun Phrase = noun + modifiers (the modifiers can be after or before noun)
Examples.
He is wearing a nice red shirt. (as noun/object)
She brought a glass full of water. (as noun/object)
The boy with brown hair is laughing. (as noun/subject)
A man on the roof was shouting. (as noun/subject)
A sentence can also contain more noun phrases.
For example. The girl with blue eyes bought a beautiful chair.
Prepositional phrase.
A prepositional phrase consists of a preposition, object of preposition(noun or pronoun) and may
also consist of other modifiers.
e.g. on a table, near a wall, in the room, at the door, under a tree
A prepositional phrase starts with a preposition and mostly ends with a noun or pronoun. Whatever
prepositional phrase ends with is called object of preposition. A prepositional phrase functions as an
adjective or adverb in a sentence.
Examples.
A boy on the roof is singing a song. (As adjective)
The man in the room is our teacher. (As adjective)
She is shouting in a loud voice. (As adverb)
He always behaves in a good manner. (As adverb)

13. Adjective Phrase.
An adjective phrase is a group of words that functions like an adjective in a sentence. It consists of
adjectives, modifier and any word that modifies a noun or pronoun.
An adjective phrase functions like an adjective to modify (or tell about) a noun or a pronoun in a
sentence.
Examples.
He is wearing a nice red shirt. (modifies shirt)
The girl with brown hair is singing a song. (modifies girl)
He gave me a glass full of water. (modifies glass)
A boy from America won the race. (modifies boy)
Prepositional phrases and participle phrases also function as adjectives so we can also call them
adjective phrases when they function as adjective. In the above sentence “The girl with brown hair is
singing a song”, the phrase “with brown hair” is a prepositional phrase but it functions as an adjective.
Adverb Phrase
An adverb phrase is a group of words that functions as an adverb in a sentence. It consists of adverbs
or other words (preposition, noun, verb, modifiers) that make a group w ith works like an adverb in a
sentence.
An adverb phrase functions like an adverb to modify a verb, an adjective or another adverb.
Examples
He always behaves in a good manner. (modifies verb behave)
They were shouting in a loud voice. (modifies verb shout)
She always drives with care. (modifies verb drive)
He sat in a corner of the room. (modifies verb sit)
He returned in a short while. (modifies verb return)
A prepositional phrase can also act as an adverb phrase. For example in above sentence “He always
behaves in a good manner”, the phrase “in a good manner” is a prepositional phrase but it acts as
adverb phrase here.
Verb Phrase
A verb phrase is a combination of main verb and its auxiliaries (helping verbs) in a sentence.
Examples.
He is eating an apple.
She has finished her work.

14. You should study for the exam.
She has been sleeping for two hours.
According to generative grammar, a verb phrase can consist of main verb, its auxiliaries, its
complements and other modifiers. Hence it can refer to the whole predicate of a sentence.
Example. You should study for the exam.
Infinitive Phrase
An infinitive phrase consist of an infinitive(to + simple form of verb) and modifiers or other words
associated to the infinitive. An infinitive phrase always functions as an adjective, adverb or a noun in a
sentence.
Examples.
He likes to read books. (As noun/object)
To earn money is a desire of everyone. (As noun/subject)
He shouted to inform people about fire. (As adverb, modifies verb shout)
He made a plan to buy a car. (As adjective, modifies noun plan)
Gerund Phrase
A gerund phrase consists of a gerund(verb + ing) and modifiers or other words associated with the
gerund. A gerund phrase acts as a noun in a sentence.
Examples
I like writing good essays. (As noun/object)
She started thinking about the problem. (As noun/object)
Sleeping late in night is not a good habit. (As noun/subject)
Weeping of a baby woke him up. (As noun/subject)
Participle Phrase
A participle phrase consists of a present participle (verb + ing), a past participle (verb ending
in -ed or other form in case of irregular verbs) and modifiers or other associate words. A participle
phrase is separated by commas. It always acts as an adjective in a sentence.
Examples
The kids, making a noise, need food. (modifies kids)
I received a letter, mentioning about my exam. (modifies letter)
The table, made of steel, is too expensive. (modifies table)
We saw a car, damaged in an accident. (modifies car)

15. Absolute Phrase
Absolute phrase (also called nominative phrase) is a group of words including a noun or pronoun and a
participle as well as any associated modifiers. Absolute phrase modifies (give information about) the
entire sentence. It resembles a clause but it lack a true finite verb. It is separated by a comma or
pairs of commas from the rest sentence.
Examples
He looks sad, his face expressing worry.
She was waiting for her friend, her eyes on the clock.
John is painting a wall, his shirt dirty with paint.
Kinds of Sentences According to Structure
A sentence may consist of one clause (independent clause) or more clauses (independent and
dependent clauses). An independent clause is also called main clause. A dependent clause is also
called subordinate clause.
On the basis of numbers of clause and types of clauses present in a sentence, sentences are divided in
to four kinds.
Simple Sentence
A simple sentence consists of only one independent clause containing a subject and a verb and
it expresses complete thought. There is no dependent clause.
“An independent clause (also called main clause) is called a simple sentence.”
Examples.
He laughed.
She ate an apple.
They are sleeping.
I bought a book.
Compound Sentence
A compound sentence consists of at least two independent clauses joined by coordinating
conjunctions. There is no dependent clause in compound sentence. The coordinating conjunctions use
to join independent clauses are “for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so”. Independent clauses can also be
joined by a semicolon (;). A comma may or may not be used before the conjunction in compound
sentence.
Examples

16. I like an apple but my brother likes a mango.
I helped him and he became happy.
He failed two times yet he is not disappointed.
I asked him a question; he replied correctly.
Complex Sentence
A complex sentence consists of one independent clause and at least one dependent clause
joined by subordinating conjunction (because, although, since, when, unless etc) or relative pronoun
(that, who, which etc).
Examples
I met the boy who had helped me.
She is wearing a shirt which looks nice.
You can’t pass the test unless you study for it.
If a complex sentence begins with an independent clause, a comma is not used between clauses in a
complex sentence. If a complex sentence begins with dependent clause then a comma is use after
dependent clause in a complex sentence. See the following example.
He is playing well although he is ill.
Although he is ill, he is playing well.
Complex - Compound Sentence
A complex-compound sentence consists of at least two independents and one or more
dependent clauses. It is also sometimes called compound-complex Sentence.
Examples
1. He went to college and I went to a market where I bought a book.
2. I like Mathematics but my bother likes Biology
because he wants to be a doctor.
In the first sentence of above sentence, there are two independent clauses “he went to college” and “I
went to a market”, and one dependent clause “where I bought a book”.

17. Parts of Speech
Noun
Noun is a word which names a person, a place or a thing.
For example chair, table, book, New York, computer, cup, boy, John, hospital, Newton, garden,
room, man, Paris, doctor, and pen are nouns because each of these words is a name of a person, a
place or a thing.
Examples.
Chair, table, book, cup, computer, picture, (names of things)
New York, Paris, Canada, Toronto, school, hospital, cinema, garden, (names of places)
John, Newton, R.H Stephen, Einstein, man, boy, doctor (names of persons)
Types of Noun
There are two main types of noun.
• Common Noun
• Proper Noun
Common Noun.
Name of a common or a non-specific thing, place, or person is called common noun.
Common noun refers to a non-specific or non-particular thing, place or person.
For example book, pen, room, garden man, girl, road, camera, month, day, chair, school, boy, car,
are common nouns because each of these nouns refers to a common thing, place or person.
Proper Noun.
Name of a particular or a specific thing, place or person is called proper Noun.
For example BMW Car, April, Monday, Oxford University, New York, America, John, Newton, Einstein,
R.H Stephen, are proper nouns because each of these nouns refers to a particular thing, place or
person.
If a common noun is specified it becomes a proper noun. For example day is a common noun but if it

18. is specified like Monday or Friday, it becomes proper noun. Similarly car is a common noun but if it is
specified like BMW Car, it becomes proper noun.
Use of CAPITAL LETTER for proper noun.
The first letter of proper noun is always written in capital letter.
Examples.
He lives in Paris.
She studies in Oxford University.
Author of this book is John Stephen.
Laws of motion were presented by Newton
The richest person of the world is Bill Gates.
Use of “THE” for proper noun.
1. The article “the” is used before some proper nouns. Here are some rules for the use of article
“the” before proper nouns.
2. Article “the” is not used before the name of countries, cities, for example New York, Mexico,
Canada, Toronto, London, Paris, America. But if the name of country or city or place
expresses group of places or lands or states, then article “the” will be used before it. For
example, the Philippines, the Netherlands, the United States
3. Article “the” is not used before the name of universities, for example Oxford University, Yale
University, or Columbia University. But if the name of university is written in a order that it
includes the word “of” then article “the” will be used before it, for example, the University of
British Colombia, the university of Oxford, the University of Toronto.
4. Article “the” is used before names composed of both common noun and proper noun, for
example the New York city, the Dominion of Canada, the River Nile
5. “The” is used before the names of laws, principles, theories or devices, for example , the
Pythagorean Theorem, the Fahrenheit Scale, the Law of Newton, the Allais effect. But if the
proper noun is used in possessive form, no article will be used, for example Newton’s Laws of
Motion, Hooke’s Law of Elasticity, Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures.
6. “The” used by the name of ocean, sea, river, dessert or forest (except lakes and fall) for
example the Pacific Ocean, the Mediterranean Sea, the Sahara, the Black Forests.
7. “The” is used before the names of buildings, hotels, libraries having particular names, for
example the Brunel Hotel, the Lahore Museum, the Library of Congress,
8. “The” is used before the name of a geographical region and points on globe, for example the
Middle East, the West, the Equator, the North Pole

19. 9. “The” is usually used before the names of organizations for example, the Association of
Chartered Accountants, the World Health Organization,

Countable and Uncountable Nouns
Countable Nouns.
A noun which can be counted is called countable noun.
For example, "book" is countable noun because we can count it and can say one book, two books,
three books and so on. Pen, chair, cup, room, man, baby, bottle, dog, cat are examples countable
nouns. A countable noun can be singular as well as plural. Article “a” or “an” is used before singular
noun but not before plural noun. If a singular noun starts with consonant letter then “a” is used before
it, i.e. a book, a cat, a pen. If a singular noun starts with............................
(NOUN continued to NEXT PAGE)
Countable and Uncountable Nouns
Countable Nouns.
A noun which can be counted is called countable noun.
Pen is countable noun because we can count it and can say one pen, two pens, three pens or more
pens. Pen, chair, cup, room, man, baby, bottle, dog, cat are examples countable nouns.
Singular and Plural noun (Countable Noun)
A countable noun can be singular as well as plural. Article “a” or “an” is used before singular noun
but not before plural noun.
If a singular noun starts with consonant letter then “a” is used before it, i.e. a book, a cat, a pen. If
a singular noun starts with a vowel letter or with consonant which sounds like vowel in that word, “an”
is used before it i.e. an apple, an umbrella, an onion, an hour.
Plural noun (Countable Noun)
Plural noun means more than one person, place or thing. Word “chair” is a singular noun but word
“chairs” is plural noun.
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1. Plurals are usually formed by adding –s or –es to singular noun for example book–books,
cat–cats, box–boxes, tax–taxes. If a word ends with “y”, the “y” is changed to “I” then –es is
added to make it plural, for example, baby–babies, lady–ladies. There may be some
exceptions.

20. 2. Some plural are formed in different ways for example, man–men, child–children, leaf–leaves,
wife–wives, foot–feet, toot–teeth, datum–data, basis–bases. Such plurals are called irregular
plural forms.
3. Some nouns have same plural and singular form, for example, sheep–sheep, deer–deer,
swine–swine.
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Uncountable Nouns.
Uncountable noun refers to substances which cannot be counted.
For example, water is an uncountable noun because we cannot count it. We cannot say, one water or
two water. Such substances which cannot be counted in terms of numbers are called uncountable
noun.
Examples: Water, milk, bread, honey, rain, furniture, news, information, pleasure, honesty, courage,
weather, music, preparation, warmth, wheat are examples of uncountable nouns.
Use of Uncountable Nouns.
Uncountable nouns are usually treated as singular noun for auxiliary verbs in sentence but articles “a
or an” are usually not used before uncountable nouns.
Examples.
Water maintains its level.
Necessity is the mother of invention
His preparation was not good.
The Weather is very pleasant today.
This information is very helpful in solving the problem.
The warmth of sun causes evaporation of water.
Uncountable nouns may be used as countable noun when it refers to an individual thing. For example
life is uncountable noun but it be used as countable noun if refers to individual, lives.
Example.
It was feared that two lives had been lost.
We can also use word like “some, any, no, little, more etc” before uncountable nouns if needed in
sentence.
Examples.
They have no information about the accused.
There is little milk in the glass.
Changing Uncountable nouns into countable nouns.
We can change uncountable noun into countable noun if we specify a unit or measuring standard
for it. For example “water” is an uncountable noun but we can make it countable by saying one glass
of water or two glass of water etc. In this example we selected a unit that is glass. We can also say

21. one litre of water or one cup of water etc. By selecting such units or measuring standards we can
change uncountable noun in to countable which can be counted in terms of numbers.
Examples.
Uncountable – countable
Bread – a piece of bread.
Wheat – a grain of wheat.
Milk – a glass of milk
Information – a piece of information