The Second Industrial Revolution from 1870-1914 saw major technological innovations like steel, chemicals, electricity and petroleum that transformed industry. This led to increased industrial production and wages, creating a mass consumer society. However, most of the population remained part of the working class living in poor urban conditions. Reform efforts sought to improve workers' lives through laws, unions, and socialist political parties influenced by Karl Marx's ideas. The growth of cities also contributed to new social problems that governments attempted to address through public health initiatives. Overall, this period marked Europe's rise to global economic and political dominance fueled by industrialization, but also saw the emergence of social and political movements advocating for workers' and women's rights.

1. Mass Society & Democracy
1845 CE – 1914 CE

2. Second Industrial Revolution
The first Industrial Revolution gave rise to
textiles, railroads, iron, and coal.
•The Second Industrial Revolution gave rise to steel, chemicals,
electricity and petroleum.
•Steel was the first major change in industry between 1870 and 1914. New
methods of shaping steel made it useful in building lighter, smaller, and
faster machines, engines, railways, ships, and weapons.
•Electricity was a new form of energy that proved to be of great value; it
could be easily converted to other forms of energy, like heat or light, and
moved easily through space because of wires. By 1910, hydroelectric
power stations were providing homes and factories to be tied to a single,
common source of power.
•Thomas Edison and Alexander Graham Bell were both inventors
that used electricity to power their inventions – the light bulb and the
telephone

3. Travel Revolution
Streetcars and Subways were developed as
electricity became a reliable energy source.
This eventually led to the development of the
internal-combustion engine, which is still
used in cars and airplanes.

4. A World Economy
New Patterns
Industrial production grew at a rapid pace because of The Second
greatly increased sales of manufactured goods. Industrial
Revolution,
Europeans could afford to buy more products for
combined with the
several reasons:
growth of
•Wages for workers increased transportation,
fostered a true
•Prices for goods decreased because of reduced
world economy.
transportation costs
European capital
Some nations did not benefit from the Second was invested
Industrial Revolution; Europe was divided into two abroad to develop
economic zones: manufacturing and
markets for
•Great Britain, Belgium, France, the Netherlands,
European goods.
Germany, and western Austro-Hungarian Empire,
and Northern Italy made up the advanced
industrialized core
Europe dominated
•Southern Italy, Austria-Hungary, Spain, Portugal, the world economy
the Balkan Kingdoms and Russia made up a little- by the beginning of
industrialized area that provided food and raw materials the 20th century.
to the rest of Europe

5. Organizing the Working Classes
The desire to improve the working and living conditions
of the working classes led many industrial workers to
form socialist political parties and trade unions.
The theory these parties and unions were built on were
based on earlier theories by Karl Marx.
Karl Marx wrote The Communist Manifesto in 1848
(with Friedrich Engels). In it, they proposed a new
social system, called communism.
Marx believed that all of world history was a series of
“class struggles” between the oppressors – or those
who owned the means of production, like money, or
land, and thus controlled the government and society.
This group was called the bourgeoisie, or the middle
class oppressors.

6. Karl Marx, continued
The other end of society were called the proletariat, or
the working class – the oppressed, in Marx’s view.
Marx predicted the struggle between the two groups
would lead to open revolution where the proletariat
would violently overthrow the bourgeoisie and then form
a dictatorship (government in which a person or group
has the absolute power) to organize the means of
production. Marx believed this revolution would
eventually lead to a classless society, in which everyone
is equal and the state would wither away.
Working-class leaders used Marx’s ideas to develop
political parties. Most important was the German Social
Democratic Party (SPD), which emerged in 1875. The
SPD advocated revolution while competing in elections
for the German parliament, where they believed their
members could improve working-class lives. It
eventually became the largest political party in
Germany.

7. Trade Unions
One problem with socialist political parties were the
Marxist parties sometimes were divided over their goals.
Pure Marxists thought there would need to be violent
revolution to achieve their goals. Another group, called
revisionists, rejected the revolutionary approach and
argued that workers must continue to organize and work
with other parties to gain reforms. They believed as
workers gained the right to vote, they could make reforms
within the system.
Another force working for change were trade unions.
Unions were organized group of workers. In Great Britain,
unions won the right to strike (stop work to pressure an
employer) in the 1870s. Soon after, workers in factories
organized into unions so they could use strikes to achieve
reforms.
By 1900 there were 2 million workers in British trade
unions. By 1914, there were almost 4 million. By 1914,
they had made considerable progress in changing working
conditions for the working class.

8. New Urban Environments Urban Example:
Frankfurt, Germany
By the end of the 19th century, the new industrial
world led to the emergence of a mass society in
which the concerns of the majority of the In Frankfurt,
population – the lower classes – were central. Germany, the
More people lived in cities; in the 1850s, urban working class lived
dwellers made up about 40% of the English in filthy conditions.
population; between 1800 and 1900, London grew The city of Frankfurt
from 960,000 to 6.5 million. began a public
campaign to develop
Urban populations grew as a result of migration a new sewer system
from rural areas to cities. The fast growth rate led so the working poor
to problems like disease and poor living conditions could have clean
for the working poor. water and the city
would have less
Reformers tried to implement laws and disease. Programs
regulations to help the working poor. Things like like this helped the
clean water, building inspections, and working poor live in
providing health services eased some of the better conditions.
problems for the working classes.

9. Social Structure of Mass Society
Wealthy Elites make up 5% of
population.
Middle class is 15% of
population
Working class &
poor are 80% of
population.

10. Social Structures in Mass Society
The wealthy elite controlled up to 40% of
the wealth during the Second Industrial
Revolution (compare that to their control
of 99% of the wealth today). The wealthy
elite included landed aristocrats, bankers,
industrialists, and merchants.
The middle classes were made up of
educated lawyers, doctors, scientists, and
businessmen. Beneath this group were
the lower middle class, made up of small
shopkeepers, traders, and prosperous
farmers or peasants.
The largest group, the working class, was nearly 80% of Europe’s population.
Many were landholding peasants, farm laborers, sharecroppers, skilled and
unskilled laborers, and some artisans. Urban workers experienced
improvement in their lives after 1870. Reforms created better living conditions in
cities, and this, combined with wage increases and a decline in costs made lives
easier for workers.

11. Experiences of Women
In 1800, women were defined mainly by family and household roles. In the 19th
century, new job opportunities created a high demand for low paid white-collar
workers. This, coupled with a shortage of male workers, led many employers to hire
women.
Traditional views of the sexes were strengthened during the Industrial Revolution; men
were the chief wage earners and women were left with the care of the family.
In the middle and upper classes, family was the central institution, with women running
homes and men working. The working class experience was different, however, as
many working-class women worked outside the home in factories, offices, or in other
households as domestic servants.

12. Movement for Women’s Rights
Feminism, or the movement for
women’s rights, grew in the 19th
century. In the 1830s, a number of
women in the United States and
Europe argued for the right of women
to divorce and own property. These
early efforts were not successful.
The fight for property rights was only
the beginning of the movement.
In the late 1800s, women began to demand access to universities and
occupations dominated by men. By the 1850s, women were demanding equal
political rights, as well, including the right to vote. Women would protest and
perform publicity stunts for recognition.
Before World War I, demands for women’s rights were heard throughout Europe
and the United States. Before 1914, however, women only had the right to vote in
Finland and Norway and a few American states. It would take the end of World
War I and the dramatic changes it wrought to force male-dominated governments
to give in on the basic issue of rights for women.

13. Universal Education
Universal education was a product of the mass society of
the late 19th and early 20th century. Between 1870 and
1914, most Western governments set up state-financed
primary schools. Boys and girls between 6 and 12 were Compulsory
required to attend these schools; states took the education also
responsibility of training teachers. created more
opportunities for
Why make a huge commitment to education? During women to work
the Industrial Revolution, unskilled labor was enough to outside the home.
meet factory needs. During the Second Industrial Demands for
Revolution, skilled workers were needed. teachers, mostly
women,
Another motive for education was political. Giving more increased with the
people the right to vote created a need for educated increased
voters. Primary schools were also used to instill patriotism educational
and nationalism. opportunities.
The most immediate result of compulsory education was
an increase in the literacy rate, or the ability to read. This
created opportunities for newspapers and books to be
available to everyone.

14. National States and Democracy
By the end of the 19th century, progress was made in establishing constitutions and representative
governments throughout the major European states.
In 1875, France created the Third Republic, and gained a republican constitution. The new
government had a president and a two-house legislature. The government was led by the prime
minister, who was elected by the legislature.
Italy was a united national state by 1870, but was divided along class lines. The government was
corrupt and unable to deal with many of the country’s problems.
In Germany, the constitution of the new imperial Germany begun by Otto von Bismarck in 1871
provided for a two-house legislature. The lower house was elected based on universal male suffrage.
The emperor controlled the armed forces, foreign policy and the government bureaucracy. Bismarck
worked to keep Germany from becoming a democracy. By the reign of William II, who was emperor
from 1888 to 1918, Germany had the strongest military in Europe.
Austria-Hungary enacted a constitution in 1867, but the emperor ignored it. Austria remained
troubled by conflict throughout the region.
Russia was led by a czar who had absolute power. With industrialization, however, came demands
for representation in government. On January 22, 1905, a massive procession of workers
demonstrated in front of the Winter Palace in St. Petersburg and sent a petition of grievances to the
czar. Troops opened fire on the peaceful demonstration, killing hundreds. This Bloody Sunday,
caused workers throughout Russia to call strikes. Eventually the czar was forced to create the Duma,
a legislative body.

15. International Rivalries Crisis in the Balkans
Otto von Bismarck recognized that Germany’s strong The Balkan provinces were
industry and military upset the balance of power finally free of the Ottoman
established by the Congress of Vienna in 1815. empire by the end of the 19th
century. By 1878, Greece,
Serbia, Romania, and
Fearing the France intended to create an anti-German Montenegro were
alliance, Bismarck made a defensive alliance with Austria- independent states.
Hungary in 1879. Italy joined the alliance in 1882.
In 1908, Austria-Hungary
The united powers of Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy took the drastic step of
were aligned against France, while Bismarck also annexing Bosnia and
Herzegovina. Serbia was
negotiated a separate treaty with Russia and tried to outraged, as they were
remain on good terms with Great Britain. hoping to create a Serbian
kingdom.
In 1890, Emperor William II fired Bismarck and took
control of Germany’s foreign policy. He dropped the The Russians backed the
treaty with Russia and enacted policies that eventually led Serbs and prepared for war.
to Great Britain aligning itself with France and Russia. Germany threatened Russia,
who backed down.
Europe was now divided into the two opposing The Balkans were awash in
camps that would eventually lead to world war. ill-will and divided alliances
prior to World War I.

16. Toward the Modern Consciousness
Science was one of the chief pillars supporting the optimistic
view of the world that many Westerners shared in the 19th
century.
Science, which was based on fact and reason, offered a
certainty of belief in the orderliness of nature. Many believed
that by applying already known scientific laws, humans could
arrive at a complete understanding of the physical world. Many
scientists were working on new discoveries, especially in
physics and medicine.
Marie Curie discovered radium, an element that gave off energy
(radiation). Albert Einstein provided a new view of the
universe with his theory of relativity, which stated that space
and time are not absolute but relative to the observer.
Sigmund Freud proposed a series of theories that raised
questions about the human mind. He believed human behavior
was strongly determined by past experiences. He argued
that painful and unsettling experiences were repressed, or
hidden from a person’s consciousness. He developed
psychoanalysis – a way for therapists to probe deeply into a
patient’s memory.

17. Darwin & Racism
By the late 19th and early 20th century,
Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution was
sometimes applied (inappropriately) to
human society by nationalists and racists.
Known as Social Darwinism, proponents
argued that social progress came from the
“struggle for survival” that advanced the
strong and forced the weak into decline.
Extreme nationalists used the same argument in favor of “national greatness.” The
German general Freidrich von Bernhardi argued that “war is a biological necessity
of the first importance.” to remove the weak. Social Darwinism was seen at its
most extreme in Germany, where nationalism and racism found prominence.
Houston Stewart Chamberlin believed that modern-day Germans were the only
pure successors of the Aryans, who were portrayed as the original creators of
Western Culture.
Social Darwinism eventually led to hostility and discrimination against different
parts of society, but especially of the Jewish peoples.

18. Zionism
Anti-Semitism & Zionism
Hundreds of thousands
Anti-semitism – hostility toward and discrimination of Jews decided to
against Jews – was not new to European civilization. emigrate to escape the
Jews had experienced discrimination since the Middle persecution. Many went
Ages (remember they were blamed for the plague?). to the United States.
Around 25,000 moved to
In the 19th century Jews were increasingly granted legal Palestine, which became
equality in many European countries, after centuries of home for a Jewish
unequal status. Jews were becoming assimilated with nationalist movement
the cultures around them. called Zionism.
However, in Germany and Austria-Hungary, new parties Palestine was the
arose in the 1880s and 1890s that used anti-semitism to ancient home of Israel,
win votes of people that felt threatened by the changing their ancient homeland
economic times. and home of their
dreams.
Eastern Europe had the worst anti-semitism, as Russian
Jews were forced to live in certain regions, were Settlement in Palestine
persecuted, and had pogroms – organized massacres was difficult because it
– that were widespread. was still part of the
Ottoman Empire, which
was opposed to Jewish
immigration.

19. Culture of Modernity
Between 1870 and 1914, many writers and
artists rebelled against traditional literary and
artistic styles. The changes they produced are
called modernism.
Literature was revolutionized by symbolists,
who believed objective knowledge of the world
was impossible. They believed the external
world was a collection of symbols.
In painting, impressionism was a movement
that began in France. Artists rejected traditional
styles in favor of symbolism and examining light
and dark, and other contrasts in the world.
Architecture was revolutionized and
functionalism became the dominant
movement. Functionalism was the idea that
buildings should be functional, or useful.