Artful Discussion John Dewey S Classroom As A Model Of Deliberative Association

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Artful Discussion: John Dewey's Classroom as a Model of Deliberative Association
Author(s): Jason Kosnoski
Source: Political Theory, Vol. 33, No. 5 (Oct., 2005), pp. 654-677
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ARTFUL DISCUSSION
John Dewey's Classroom
as a Model of Deliberative Association
JASONKOSNOSKI
Universityof Michigan,Flint
This essay usesJohnDewey's understandingof classroom discussion to constructa model of
democraticdeliberationthatstresses theimportanceoftheformal aestheticsofdialog. Itclaims
thatqualitiessuchas therhythm
anddirectionofface-to-face political talkaffectsinterlocutors'
effectivenessinpersuadingothersandstimulatinginterest.Becauseparticipantsprimarilyfocus
on respondingtothesubstanceofindividualutterances,themodelemploysDewey's understand-
ing of the teacheras a moderatorwho regulates the spatial and temporalqualityof the entire
deliberation.Althoughsomemightclaim thepresence of suchan authorityfigureendangersthe
deliberators'autonomy,Deweystresses thatgood teachers assist studentsin constructingtheir
own solutions to theirownproblems,and thereforea moderatorcould actively interveneand
respectthenormative
principlesof deliberativedemocracy.Finally,theessay discusses thedis-
tinctive roleimpliedbysuchan association in a larger theoryof deliberativepolitics.
Keywords: Dewey; deliberativedemocracy;pedagogy; aesthetics
1. INTRODUCTION
A consensus appearsto be forming among political theoriststhatJohn
Dewey's politicalthoughtcan be subsumedundertherubricof deliberative
democracy.Inanexampleof thistrend,RobertB. Westbrookclaims, "Ithink
we mightsaythatDewey was anticipatinganidealthatcontemporarydemo-
cratictheoristshavedubbeddeliberativedemocracy.Indeed,I wish thisterm
was intheairwhenIwaswritingJohnDeweyandAmericanDemocracy,forI
thinkit capturesDewey's proceduralideals betterthanthetermI used, 'par-
ticipatorydemocracy.'"' Despite this acknowledgment,a furtherconsensus
hasdevelopedthatDewey,while anearlyandenthusiasticcheerleaderforthe
AUTHOR'SNOTE:IwanttothankCarolineAshby,PageDelano, DannaSchneider,andErnesto
Verdeja
for readingearlydraftsof this essay.
POLITICALTHEORY,
Vol.33 No. 5, October2005 654-677
DOI: 10.1177/0090591704272542
c 2005 Sage Publications
654

Kosnoski/ ARTFULDISCUSSION 655
theory,offers little if any concrete assistancein definingthe practiceof the
face-to-face political discussion he so eloquentlyadvocates.2
But when one
looks closely, in fact, Dewey does offer a detaileddescriptionof reciprocal
problem-solving discussion thatsharesmuchwith accountsof political de-
liberation,andthereforeDewey, if reexamined,canbe usedas a source that
might strengthenandchallenge contemporaryaccounts.
Asserting the previous claim might be met with skepticismbecause his
description of this communication is not contained within his political
thoughtbutinsteadwithin his aesthetic andpedagogicwriting.3This work,
underappreciated
by deliberativedemocrats,canaidthemin theirendeavors
because it providesananalysis of how individualsmaintaininterestin long,
taxing conversations where their original interests become confused as
understandingsaremodified throughinteractionwithothers.Dewey claims
conversationcan motivateparticipationin the face of suchuncertaintyand
frustration
if itmanifestsparticularformal,aestheticcharacteristics.
Further-
more, with improved dialogical aesthetics, he claims individuals will
undergogreatermoraltransformationandpolitical growthas they increas-
ingly interprettheirseemingly privateproblemsin termsof theirpublic ori-
gins andconsequences. Such an analysisdrawsattentionto spatialandtem-
poralconversationalqualities such as how interlocutorsvarythe frequency
andlengthof theirutterancesandthesubstantivedirectionof theirdiscourse.
While such spatialandtemporalqualitiesdo notcomprisethe only constitu-
ents of aesthetically motivating political deliberation,they do representan
area not heretofore well explored by deliberativedemocrats.As I demon-
strate,althoughsome contemporarytheoristshave suggestedthatsuch for-
mal characteristicsmightplay a role in creatinginterestingpolitical discus-
sion, Dewey's perspective remains unique and can play a useful role in
highlighting motivational impediments inhibiting face-to-face delibera-
tion and add rigor to aspects of the theory thatarecurrentlyinadequately
explained.4
Not only does Dewey analyze how spatialandtemporalconversational
dynamics can increase motivation to participatein deliberation,he offers
techniquesto encouragethe aestheticsthatengage participants'interest.He
suggeststhese methodsinhis descriptionof theteacher'srole in theprogres-
sive classroom. Admittedly,claiming thata teachercanbe used as a model
for a figure that might facilitate autonomousdeliberationamong citizens
mightseem counterintuitive.But thisinnovationshouldactuallycome as lit-
tle shockinthatsomecontemporarytheoristssuggestthenecessity of amod-
erator to facilitate fair political discussion. Because of Dewey's non-
hierarchicalpedagogy, his teachers can easily be thoughtof as deliberative
moderatorswho encouragegeneralinterestin discussion,not specific goals

656 POLITICAL
THEORY/ October2005
or values.Teacher-moderators
also expandthe context of deliberativesolu-
tions as theystretchthe students'(or citizens') understandingto encompass
larger and largerspatial and temporal environments and to facilitate the
growthof moraloutlookandpolitical perspective.In this way theirostensi-
bly prosaictasktakesonexplicitpolitical importasinterlocutors'interestand
sympathygrowfromlimitedprivaterealmsinto largerpubliccontexts.
BeforeIbegin,Iwantto stressthatthiscreativereconstructionisjust that.
Dewey didclaimthatpublicschools imbuechildrenwithdemocraticvalues.
His politicaltheoryalso emphasizedtheimportanceof localpoliticaldiscus-
sion, definingdemocracyas"morethanaformof government;it is primarily
a mode of associatedliving, of conjoint, communicatedexperience ... that
secure a liberationof powers" (MW 9: DE, 93).5 But he never explicitly
equatesclassroomdiscussion with deliberativeassociation.Also, his actual
writing on the topic was often vague and overly optimistic concerning the
conflict-resolvingpowersof discussion. Therefore,this essay should notbe
takenas ahistoricalreconstructionof somethingDewey actuallyadvocated
in his philosophicor public writings. Instead,it should be takenin the cre-
ative, experimental,and pragmatic effort to solve contemporarypolitical
problems andto include Dewey in a vibranttheoreticaldebatewhere he is
often citedbutrarelyfully discussed.
The argumentproceeds in four steps. First,I define a primaryif not the
main goal of deliberativedemocracy as the transformationof participants'
political interestsand values through actual communicationwith others. I
thenbrieflydiscusstwo theoristsof deliberativedemocracy,JamesBohman
andSeylaBenhabib,who beginto analyzehow deliberation'sformalproper-
ties mightinspireinterestin transformativedeliberationandsympathywith
others. Second,I contend thatthese theorists, while presentingcompelling
portraitsof deliberation,canbe aidedby Dewey's understanding
of how aes-
theticformgeneratesinterestindiscussion. Ibasemuchof my interpretation
on Dewey's underappreciated
Art as Experience, but also I drawon works
such as ExperienceandNatureand How WeThinkto demonstratehow the
spatial and temporalcharacteristicsof communication play an especially
importantrolein motivatingindividuals' attemptingto modify each other's
views and facilitate sympathetic interest in others. Third, I explore how
Dewey's pedagogicwritingscontaintechniquesforimprovingthe aesthetics
of deliberation.HereI discuss works rarelyexploredby political theorists,
such as School and Society, Interest and Effortin Education, The Educa-
tional Lecturesat Brigham YoungAcademy, andExperience in Education.
In the fourthandfinal stage, I envision the political implicationsof model-
ing deliberativeassociations on Dewey's understandingof aesthetically
inflected classroomdiscussion. I suggest thatparticipationin such groups

would specifically inspire the growth of personalinterestsinto a general
"interestin the public"andgreatersympathywithfellow citizens.
2. DELIBERATION,
CONVERSATION,
AND TRANSFORMATION
JonElster offers a succinct synopsis of the innovativeessence of delib-
erativedemocracywith which most of its theoristswould agree despite its
numerous articulations. He states, "Largely under the influence of
Habermas, the idea that democracy revolves aroundthe transformation
ratherthan the simple aggregation of preferenceshas become one of the
majorpositions in democratictheory."6
Whenthisemphasison transforma-
tion is wedded to the democratic principleof allowing expansive political
autonomy,the amalgamationresults in a procedureof determiningdemo-
craticlegitimacywhereall individualsaffectedby a normorpolicy not only
posses the opportunityto articulatetheirview of theproposalbut must also
listento othersarticulatetheirinterestsandregardthemasworthyof respect
andreasonedresponse.Seyla Benhabibexpressesthisfusionof autonomous
advocacy with reciprocal respect when she defines the normativecore of
deliberativedemocracy as the "constructionof the 'moralpoint of view'
along the model of a moral conversation"governedby the norms of "uni-
versal respect and egalitarianreciprocity."7
Throughstressing that delib-
erative democracy constitutes not simply a decision-making procedure
butalso a "moralpoint of view,"Benhabibemphasizesthateffective politi-
cal dialog altersnot only individualinterestbutalso moralperspectives and
self-interpretations.8
Although some theorists (most notably Habermas)define deliberative
procedureas an ideal againstwhich to judge normsandinstitutions,9many
contemporarydeliberativedemocratsrequirethatindividualsactuallyarticu-
late theirviews in face-to-face public fora,listento simultaneousreactions,
subsequentlyjustify their positions, and experience immediate modifica-
tion of theirown views. Furthermore,manyhavestressedthe importanceof
retreatingfrom Habermas'sstronginjunctionthatonly "reasonable"utter-
ances bereft of particularaesthetic content be allowed in deliberation.'o
Benjamin Barber,an early exponent of deliberation,stresses the power of
aestheticlanguage in political discussion when he states,"Yettalk remains
centralto politics, which would ossify completely withoutits creativity,its
variety,its openness andflexibility, its inventiveness,itscapacityfor discov-
ery, its subtly and complexity, its eloquence, its potentialfor empathy and
affective expression and its deeply paradoxical(some would say dialectical

658 POLITICALTHEORY/ October2005
character)thatdisplaysman'sfull natureas apurposive,interdependentand
active being.""Yetdespitethe fact thatmost deliberativetheoristsadvocate
theneedforactualdialogamongparticipantsandacknowledgeaestheticlan-
guage's powerto interestandinfluence, many feel thatdiscussing how the
experienceof suchdialogremainsoutsidetherealmof politicalinquiryandis
best left to communicationstudies or psychology.12
Thisis nottrueof alltheorists,with some attemptingto envisiontheexpe-
rience of deliberativetransformationand the manner in which aesthetic
aspectsof conversation
mightaffectthisphenomenon.Whereastheinspiring
propertiesof aestheticlanguagemightseem obvious, one aspectof its power
to persuadehas been noted by deliberative democratsbut not thoroughly
investigated.Forexample, James Bohman stresses that, in additionto em-
ploying a varietyof deliberative"mechanisms"requiringa numberof lan-
guage uses, including"articulation"
of nascentviews andexchanges of bio-
graphicaland historicalexperiences, political deliberationmust assume a
"dialogic"formtoinducepoliticaltransformation.
He states,"Indialoghow-
ever, what is crucialin justification is that it be convincing to others who
incorporatethereasonandresponseto itin subsequentinteractions."
13
When
Bohmanhighlightsthisprocessof "reasonandresponse,"he suggeststhatno
matterthemechanismused, it mustmanifestreiterativeform.He goes on to
claim,
Indialogthereis movement,each speakerincorporatesandreinterpretsthe other'scon-
tributioninhis orherown.Aftera sufficientlengthof time speakersbeginto use expres-
sions thattheydidnotuse before:the process of tryingto convince othersmay alternot
only one's own mode of expressionandthe reasons one findsconvincing.14
Whendescribingthe"movement"thatoccursduringactualdialog, Bowman
notes not only thatdeliberativeprocesses will extend over anindeterminate
periodof timebutalso thatthe actualconversationwill manifestarhythmof
challenges and responses, revelations and acknowledgments, appeals and
acceptances.Althoughthis rhythmicinterchangemight seem a ubiquitous
by-productofconversationitself, one canimaginediscussiontakingtheform
of long speechesbyindividuals,as opposed to arepeatedprocessof incorpo-
rationandreinterpretation.
Inaddition,discoursecouldconceivablytakethe
formof eachspeakinginturnforapredeterminedperiodof timeincontrastto
an unstructured
process of reaction, uptake, and rearticulation.Therefore,
Bohman's seemingly cursory concern with reiterative response actually
comprises animportantdistinguishingcharacteristicof his account.
Benhabibalso suggests the formal aesthetic characteristicsof language
use can encouragereciprocalrole takingandmoralgrowthduringdelibera-

Kosnoski
/ ARTFUL
DISCUSSION 659
tion. She claims that interlocutorsengaging in political deliberationmust
make surethatthey presentthemselves andreceive othersas "concreteoth-
ers"who use appealsfrompersonalhistoryandstoriesdescribingparticular
situationsto explain theirpositions and inspiremoralcircumspection.She
claimsthatby presentingthemselves assuch,"individuals
arenotenteringan
'original position' they are not being asked to define themselves in ways
which areradically counterfactualto their everydayidentities."15
Benhabib
believes hearingdescriptionsof particular
eventsandemotionsintheformof
stories assists in developing the ability of discussantsto place themselves
imaginatively into the existential situationof others. She calls this ability
"enlargedmentality,"aphrasesheborrowsfromArendt'sLecturesonKant's
Political Philosophy, who in turnderives it from Kantand his Critiqueof
Judgement.16Benhabib states that "enlargedmentality"requires "moral
imagination"where individualsprojectthemselves intothe perspectives of
dramaticallydifferentothers. And this skill comes to be cultivatedthrough
actualexperiencesof understandingtheactuallife historiespresentedin nar-
ratives.She continuesby claiming "narrativity,
ortheimmersionof actionin
aweb of humanrelationships,is themodethroughwhichtheself is individu-
atedandactionsareidentified.""1
Althoughevocativelanguagecomprisesan
importantpartof theinspiringpowerof stories,inthepreviousquoteshealso
intimatessuch speech actsevoke becauseof theirstructure;
bundlesof state-
mentsthatdo notdescribeordefendasinglepiece of informationbutaevoke
a situationcomposed of many intertwinedmeaningsovera period of time.
Stories, if depicted spatially,or as a "web of humanrelationships"as she
describesthem, possess depthacross a situation:theyoftenrepeatpoints of
information,veeroff indirectionsthatonlyreunitewiththeprimarynarrative
later in the story, and describe the same occurrencefromdiverse perspec-
tives. If told well, these spatially expansive fields of utterances provide
insightinto the complex andoccasionally conflictingreactionsthe protago-
nist experiencedduringa particularsituation.Therefore,in describingthem
as "webs"of relationships,Bebhabib suggests thatstories,which need not
adhereto linearstructures,substantivelyandformallyplaceindividualsinto
the place of the otherandlead to the growthof theirmoralperspective.
In summary,Bohman's and Benhabib's concernwith the actualexperi-
ence of transformativepolitical dialog leadsthemto suggestthattheformal,
spatiotemporalcharacteristicsof communicationmightindependentlyplaya
role in encouraginginteresttransformationduringdeliberation.They claim
notonly whatis saidbutalso how it is said,atits mostbasiclevel, affectsthe
propensityof individualsto be able to assimilatedisparateinformationand
meanings. Furthermore,both suggest thatthese formalcharacteristicscan
assist in maintaininginterestin what othershave to say.But althoughthese

theoristssuggestthe importanceof the formal,aestheticaspectsof political
deliberation,they do not develop these brief comments into a sustained
analysis.
3. JOHNDEWEY
AND THE
AESTHETICS
OF DELIBERATION
This concern with the spatial and temporal characteristicsof actually
experienced political deliberation invites comparisons with John Dewey
because of the fact that, although rarely acknowledged, aesthetic themes
constitutea fundamentalaspect of his writing.'"This focus plays an espe-
cially important
rolein his understandingof creativelanguageuse, a subject
thatshouldbe of special concernto deliberativedemocrats.Throughouthis
work,Dewey stressesthetransformative
andtheexpressiveorefficient func-
tions of language.For example, in Experience and Nature, he states that
"whencommunicationoccurs, all naturalevents aresubjectto reconsidera-
tion andrevision;they arere-adaptedto meet therequirementsof conversa-
tion whetherit be public discourse or that preliminarydiscourse termed
thinking"(LW 1: EN, 138). While this may not be a particularlyoriginal
insight,hisexplanationfortheorigin of thistransformative
powerlies in the
notable assertionthatthe form of language plays as importanta role as the
substanceinthisprocess.He assertsthat"eventswhen once they arenamed
lead a doublelife. In additionto their originalexistence they are subjectto
ideal experimentation:
theirmeanings may be infinitelycombined andrear-
ranged in imagination"(LW 1: EN, 138). Here he observes that language
abets creativethinkingnot only throughthe obvious method of presenting
novel facts to individualsthat challenge their alreadyheld views but also
throughrearrangingthe meanings they alreadypossess. Two very similar
people, throughdiscussion, can come to surprisinglydifferentconclusions
concerningissues on which theypreviously agreed,because of variationsin
formalorderof meaningsheard;no new substanceneeds tobe introducedto
cause thistransformation,
only a novel formalarrangementof the substance
alreadypossessed.
But abettingcreativelanguageuse is not the only notablepropertyof the
spatial andtemporalcharacteristicsof language. Dewey claims that these
qualitiesformthebasisof theaestheticappeallanguagepresentsto listeners,
and thereforehis accountcontains insights into how languagecan motivate
transformationand sympathetic interest in others' moral viewpoints. His
interestin analyzingthe motivatingpropertiesof aesthetic communication
manifestsitself when he discusses music. He claims,

To sing with anotherinvolves a contagious sympathy,in perhapsahigherdegreethanis
the case with any otherart.Thereis in the firstplace, as in thedance,a unitof rhythm.
Rhythmis based on cooperationand in turnimmensely strengthensthe possibility of
cooperation.Whenacompanyof people workonadanceorsinginrhythmicmovement,
theirefficiency andtheirpleasureareimmensely increased.(LW7: ET,43)
Notice how inthis statementhe notes thatthe"rhythmic
movement"of song
in particularinspires"contagioussympathy."
He laterexplicitlystatesthatit
is song's form, andnot its content,thataccountsforthisproperty."Melodic
orrhythmicsoundis a unifying force simplyby reasonof formandsome of
the simplersongs seem to have very little else to commendthem"(ibid.).19
This emphasis on aesthetic structureconstitutes an especially productive
move for deliberativedialog, for any statementcan be "aestheticized"if it
manifestsacertainstructure.Hence discussantsneednotappealtoacommon
aesthetic or culturalheritage while using aestheticsto sharemeaning and
constructcommunicativerelationships.
The question remainsthough of how to translatethese generalendorse-
mentsof themotivationalpowerof aestheticformsintoactualtechniquesthat
can aid in motivating deliberation. First of all it is importantto note that
implementing Dewey's aesthetic concepts in deliberationdoes not require
thatinterlocutorsactually sing or dance. He explicitly statesthatconversa-
tion andartcan exhibit the same formalproperties:
Andconversation,[emphasisadded]drama,novelandarchitectural
construction,if there
is anorderedexperience,reachastagethatatonce recordsandsumsupthevalueof what
precedes,andevokes andprophesieswhatis tocome. Everyclosureis anawakening,and
every awakeningsettles something. (LW 10: AE, 174)
As alludedto earlier,theprimarycommonalityunitingthesemodes of com-
municationis theirrhythmicprogression. Justas in an interestingsong or
poem, transformativedeliberationdoes not follow a straightpathwith one
statementlogically leading to another.He insteadclaims,
We give way in ourmindto some impulse;we try,in ourmindsomeplan.Following its
careerthroughvarioussteps,we findourselvesin imaginationinthepresenceof thecon-
sequencesthatwouldfollow; andas we thenlike andapprove,ordislikeanddisapprove,
theseconsequences,we findtheoriginalimpulseorplangoodorbad.Deliberationisdra-
matic andactive,not mathematicaland impersonal.(LW7: ET,275)
This "trying of some impulse" and "giving way to some plan,"20
which
harkensto the rhythmicback and forth of reciprocaluptakedescribed by
Bowman, suggests fluctuationbetween presentationof long statementsand
staccato exchanges, and furthermorealternationbetween engrossment in

single topics andjumping from investigating one aspect of a problem to
thenext.Suchvariationof spatialandtemporaldynamicscomprisestheintu-
itivedifferencebetweenalifeless presentationof interestingsubstanceanda
well-told story,a differencethatconstitutesa crucialfactorin an interesting
conversation.
But how does rhythm,both in its spatial and temporalmanifestations,
uniquelyinspirea person's interestin dialog? When engaging in transfor-
mative communicationa discussant's original motivationfor enteringinto
conversationoftenbecomes obscuredby others'challenges.Butalthoughthe
originalgoalof theindividualmightnotcontinueto possess sufficientclarity
to motivateparticipation,Dewey claims thatthe formal momentumof the
conversationmight.He claims the rhythmicreiterationof utterancesbuilds
tension as argumentsslowly develop because of discussantsretracingtheir
steps andsimultaneouslyfollowing disparateinvestigations.He emphasizes
that resistingthe urge to resolve tension throughrhythmic discussion re-
mainsfundamentalto interestbecause,
theremustbe energiesresistingeach other.Eachgainsintensityforacertainperiod,and
therebycompressessome opposedenergy untilthe lattercan overcomethe otherwhich
has beenrelaxingitself as it extends. Then the operationis reversed,not necessarily in
equalperiodsof time butin some rationthatis felt as orderly.Resistance accumulates
energy;it institutesconservationuntil release andexpansionensue. (LW10:AE, 151)
Thisresistancemustbuildovertime.He once againwarnsthat"animmediate
dischargethatis fatal to expression is detrimentalto rhythm.There is not
enoughresistanceto createtension, andtherebyaperiodicaccumulationand
release"(LW10:AE, 160).Butastensionbuildshe claimsthatconversation,
andthethinkingitinspires,2'developsindependentmomentum:"Theexperi-
ence, likethatof astormreachingitsheightandgraduallysubsiding,is oneof
continuousmovementof subject-matters.Like the ocean in the storm,there
areaseriesof waves;suggestionsreachingoutandbeingbrokenin aclash,or
being carriedonwardsby a cooperativewave"(LW 10:AE, 44-45). Dewey
contendsthis"cooperativewave"cancarryconversationforwardin theface
of uncertainty,creating interest in resolving outstanding questions even
when one's initialmotivationsfor enteringdeliberationbecome distantand
obscure.
Butmererepetitionof ideasdoes notproducethetensionsandsubsequent
releases of energies that create aesthetic momentum in deliberation. He
warns,"Whenthereis auniformlyeven flow, with no variationsof intensity
or speed, thereis no rhythm"(LW 10: AE, 158). Aesthetic recurrencethat
produces interesting,propulsive force must instead slowly increase pace
while varyingindirection.Heoffersfrequentinjunctionsthat"theidentifica-

tion of rhythmwith literalrecurrence,with regularreturnof identical ele-
ments, conceived of recurrencestatically or anatomicallyinstead of func-
tionally; for the latter interpretsrecurrenceon the basis of furtherance,
[emphasis added] throughthe energy of the elements, of a complete and
consummatoryexperience"(LW 10:AE, 168). He also assertsthatinterest-
ing aesthetic forms manifest "flexibility andvarietyof material,conjoined
withsingleness anddefinitenessof direction.Itis opposedbothtoamechani-
cal routineuniformityand to a grasshopper-likemovement"(LW 8: HWT,
150). Therefore,to createinterestin discussion, communicativerecurrence
must vary in directionand build in tempo over the courseof conversation,
while generally progressing toward consummation. This combination of
variationandprogressionnecessitatestheutmostsensitivity.Thisis because
"holdingthe mind to a subjectis like holding a shipto its course;it implies
constantchangeof position combinedwithunityof direction"(LW8:HWT,
151). But if the proper combination can be maintained,deliberation can
continueto propelinterlocutorsforwardandinspireinterestin what others
might possibly contributeto its resolution.
Inadditionto fomentinginterestthroughrhythmicprogression,Deweyan
aestheticform possesses an additionalcharacteristicbeneficialto delibera-
tivedemocracy.As notedearlier,thespecifically aestheticqualitiesof astory
originatenot simply throughembodying concepts in charactersandimages
butalso throughthe poetic characteristicsof depth,volume,andmass. This
concern with the spatialform of value transformation
canbe seen when he
states "only graduallyand with a widening of the areaof vision througha
growth of social sympathies does thinking develop to include what lies
beyond ourdirectinterests"(MW 9: DE, 155). Thisequationof the "growth
of social sympathies"withaspatially"widenedareaof vision"constitutesno
mere metaphor:Dewey consistently links the expressivepowerof art,or its
ability to representanotherperson's experience, with its manifestation of
depth and breadthof meaning. When discussing the expressivepowers of
paintinghe emphasizes,
Linearoutlines thatareused to reproducewith accuracyaparticular
shapeareof neces-
sitylimitedinexpressiveness... lines estheticallydrawnfulfillmanyfunctionswithcor-
respondingincrease of expressiveness. They embody the meaningof volume, of room
andposition;solidity andmovement;they enterintoforcewithallotherpartsof thepic-
ture,andthereserveto relateall partstogetherso thatthevalueof thewhole is energeti-
cally expressed. (LW 10: AE, 99)
Thereforeto be trulyexpressiveandto inspiresympathy,astorymust"paint
apicture"throughrepresentingtherelationshipbetweenmanyparticularities
of an experience. A smooth anddirectnarrative,while superficiallyengag-

ing, does not fully representthe complexity of how events simultaneously
evoke an individual'shistory and goals, fears and hopes, rationalinterests
andsubconsciousdesires.But if exposed to manydescriptions,expressions
and argumentssimultaneously from another's perspective, the presenta-
tion, whilenotpossessing theprecision of alogical argument,will expressa
broad"webof relationships"that simultaneouslyrepresentsand expresses
experience.
The effect of exposureto stories thatexpress depthof meaning seem to
cultivatetheattributes
requiredfor adoptionof the "enlargedmentality"dis-
cussedbyBenhabib.As agrouppresentseachotherwiththeirexpressivesto-
ries, the disconnectedaspects of the previous discussion congeal to form a
web of interconnectedmeaningswith depth.Although they might continue
to disagreeconcerningtheparticulars,the conversationhas inspiredthemto
thinkandthereforeto become not only more interestedin the conversation
itself, andthereforeeachothers'attitudes,butalso generallymoreinterested
in the world aroundthem and sympathetic to others' arguments.Dewey
stresses thatover the course of deliberation, despite the fact that various
stories mightnot initially cohere in an individual's consciousness, as they
accumulatetheypropelinterestoutward.As a personassimilatesthe mean-
ing of each story,
whatis retainedfromthepastis embeddedwithinwhatis now perceivedandso embed-
dedthat,byitscompressionthereit forces themindto stretchforwardto whatis coming.
The morethereis compressedfromthe continuousseries of priorperception,thericher
thepresentperceptionandthe moreintense forwardimpulsion.Because of the depthof
concentration,the release of containedmaterialsas it unrollsgives subsequentexperi-
ences a widerspanconsisting of a largernumberof definedparticularities;what I have
calledextensionandvolume[emphasisadded]correspondingto theintensionenergydue
to multipleresistances.(LW 10: AE, 187)
As individualsbeginto evaluateargumentsinthecontextof a"widerspanof
particularities,"
theirgeneral perspective gains an "extensionand volume"
thatallowsthemtoimaginativelyplacethemselvesintheperspectivesof oth-
ers. Orinotherwords,theybecome morelikely to sympathizewith theirfel-
low deliberators'expressions and use this "enlargedmentality"when con-
structingdeliberativesolutions. Once again, although increased sympathy
does not automaticallynegate real differences in interest,it can, when cou-
pled withrhythmicallygeneratedinterestin conversation,motivatepartici-
pationindeliberationsthatmightotherwiseflounderin theface of confusion
and disagreement.

4. THEDELIBERATIVE
TEACHER
(ORDEMOCRATIC
MODERATOR)
Dewey emphasizes that simultaneously devoting attentionto both the
form andthe contentof deliberationcomprisesacomplicatedendeavor.But
he claimsthatathirdfigurecould regulatetheinterplaybetweendeliberative
substanceandformnecessaryfor maintaininginterestinconversation.Once
again,thetheoreticalresourceson whichIdrawforthisfigure,althoughused
for a political purpose,appearwithin seemingly nonpoliticalworks, in this
case nothis aestheticthoughtbuthis pedagogic writing.This figure, thatof
the teacher,can act as the model for a "deliberativemoderator"
who assists
participantsinregulatingthe aestheticformof theirpoliticaldiscussion. The
presenceof such anostensible authorityfigureneednotendangerthe auton-
omy of participants.In fact, some theorists include such a figure in their
actualconstructionof deliberativeassociationsorpolls.IntheirrecentDelib-
erationDay, BruceAckermanandJamesFishkinstatethat"inreflecting on
ourdeliberativepollingexperience,we havefoundthatthesocial skills of the
moderatorhave been useful in keeping the flow of conversationgoing and
encouragingan atmosphereof mutualrespect"andthatthis figure need not
necessarily subtlyimpose her will on the outcomeof discussion.22
Dewey also sees no contradictionbetween the presenceof a moderator
and unconstrainedclassroom discussion, emphasizing that in his under-
standing,studentsexhibit"aspiritof free communication,of interchangeof
ideas, suggestions, results, both successes and failuresof previous experi-
ences, becomes thedominatingnoteof therecitation"(MW1:SAS, 11).Fur-
thermore,he links educationto the transformation
anddevelopmentindica-
tive of deliberativedemocracy,stating,"Theeducationprocess has no end
beyonditself; itis its ownend;theeducationprocessis oneof continualreor-
ganizing reconstructing,transforming"(LW 9: DE, 54). Dewey also notes
theoperationalbenefitsof adulteducationforself rule,stating,"Thecompli-
cated functions of organized society and the changingpatternwithin each
actively result in the need for continuous learning"(LW11: "TheForward
View:FreeTeacherinaFreeSociety,"543). Therefore,withso manygeneral
linkages between educationand democracyin his work,it seems logical to
examinehow Dewey's specific educationaltechniquesandthefigurewhom
he sees implementingthese techniques,theteacher,mightbe translatedinto
deliberativeassociation.
The teacher encourages sympathetic interest by regulatingthe general
aestheticformof the deliberation.As a groupof students(orcitizens) delib-
erate,theyattemptto convince othersconcerningparticular
pointsof conten-

tion and to express theirindividualexperiences. Focused on single speech
acts and the attainmentof individual goals, the discussants cannot always
monitorthegeneralaestheticdynamicsof theconversation;whetheritis pro-
ceeding withtheproperrhythmto inspireinterestor covering wide enough
semiotic breadthto allow for adequate sympathy. Although individuals
defendtheirsingularinterestsandbecome interestedin particularothers,the
teachercanattendto spatialandtemporalcharacteristicsof theentirediscus-
sion. Dewey statesthat"itis the business of the educatorto see in whatway
experienceis heading.... Failureto takethemoving force of theexperience
into accountastojudge anddirectit on thegroundsof whatit is moving into
means disloyaltyto theprincipleof experienceitself' (LW 13:EE, 21). The
teacher's regulationof movement in particularensures that the students
remaininterestedeven astheiroriginalmotivationsforparticipationbecome
blurredas theyundergotransformationof theirviews andinterests.Dewey
mentionsthatin education,
real,genuineattentionmeansmentalmovement,notonlyonthepartof theindividualbut
also on thepartof theclass. Itmeansthatideas come intotheclass, variouspersonsfol-
low outthoseideas,andnewpointsarebroughtout;andyettheteacherharmonizesit all,
combiningthisplayof variety,this expressionof differentelements, so thatit leads con-
sistently andconsecutivelyin a definite direction.(LW 17:BYL, 283)
Goodteachersdiscernthedirectionof thismovementthroughacuteobserva-
tion of the students.He emphasizes,
Theteacheris distinguishedfromthe scholarno matterhow good thelatterby interestin
watching the movements and minds of others, by being sensitive to all the signs of
responsetheyexhibit;theirqualityof responseorlackof it, to subjectmatterpresented.
... [Theteacher]doesitsbestworkhoweverwhenitis insympathywiththementalmove-
mentsof others[emphasisadded],alive to its perplexitiesandproblems... quick to see
everysignofpromiseandtonourishitto maturity.(LW13:"ToThoseWhoAspireto the
Professionof Teaching,"343)
This emphasison sympathy and observation as the most necessary peda-
gogic skillshighlightsthatteachersdo notattempttoimposetheirown values
on studentsbutrathernourishthe latter'seffortsto solve creativelytheprob-
lems theyencounterin theireveryday lives.23
Dewey claimsthattheactualmethodby whichtheteachermaintainsinter-
est andstokessympathyis varyingthe speed anddirectionof discussion. To
this end he stressesthat"oneof the foremost outstandingproblems of edu-
cation, as of music, is modulation"(LW 13: EE, 56). To explain the details
of the maintenanceof dialogic rhythm during classroom inquiry, Dewey

observes thatthroughusing the "artof questioning"(LW8: HWT,331) the
teacherdrawsattentionto alternateaspectsof thelargersituationunderdis-
cussion or,ashetermsit,modulatesbetweentheperspectivesof whathe calls
the "farandthenear"andthe "oldandthenew,"andsimultaneouslythe "for
what" and the "to what" of the students' goals (LW 17: BYL, 272). He
explains the problemfacing the teacherthrougha metaphorof walking:
If you were going up a mountainwithoutanydefinitetrail,you wouldhaveto attendto
thingsaboutyouoryou wouldneverget tothetop.Keepingthesummitinview gives you
thebasis of attentionto those thingswhich serveas guides;shouldyou forgetyourpur-
pose you mightstill attendto the thingsaroundyou butyou wouldcertainlyneverget to
the mountaintop.(LW 17: BYL, 273)
Throughsuggesting the studentsfocus inwardor outwardon theirenviron-
ment,theteachershifts attentionfrom one spatialperspectiveto anotherand
thereforeabbreviatesorlengthensdevotionto aparticular
subject.If discus-
sion becomes preoccupiedwith a certaintopic of theconversationthatgen-
eratesconfusion orboredom,the moderatorcaninterveneandsuggest a dif-
ferent path. Furthermore,if conversation rushes ahead too quickly with
individualscoming to agreementafteragreement,thentheteachercan once
againinvolveherselfandensurethatstudentsslowtheconversationto apoint
whereanadequaterhythmcanbe reestablishedorthepropersemiotic width
can be developed.
A diagramof Dewey's ideal classroom (see Figure 1) from School and
Society,writtennearthe time of the BrighamYoungLectureson Education,
exemplifies his stresson the aestheticnecessity of rhythmicmodulationand
explains the details of how this would occur.The "activityareas"thatcom-
pose the outer four squaresof the diagramrepresentparticularsubjects of
conversation,orthe"near"
perspectiveof thesituationandthe"towhats"that
representtheir interests.The center of the diagram,the library,depicts the
point where the studentsinvestigatethe problematlarge,orthe developing
"forwhat."Surroundingthe library"halfin the fourcornersandhalf in the
libraryyou will get theideaof therecitationroom... hereis theorganicrela-
tionof theoryandpractice;thechildnotsimplydoingthings,butgettingalso
the idea of whathe does" (MW 1: SAS, 51). Intherecitationroom students
deliberate concerning how the different perspectives representedby the
"classrooms"might be reconciled to address the particularproblem they
face. As deliberationdevelops, the teacher"moves"theclassback andforth
between theparticularouterrooms andtheinnergenerallibrary,modulating
the spatialandtemporalqualitiesof the students'attentiontowardthese dif-
ferentviews dependingon the overallaestheticneedsof theconversation.In

668 POLITICAL
THEORY
/ October
2005
ChartlII
TechnicalSchools
Laboratory
Research
Universit~y
Library
Museum
Business
5hop
Textile
Industries
Librarj
b
Dininy
Room itchen
Hornme
Garden
Park
Couniry
Figure1
SOURCE:
SchoolandSociety,vol.1ofJohnDewey:TheMiddleWorks,1899-1924,ed.
Jo AnnBoydston(Carbondale:
University
of SouthernIllinoisPress, 1976-1983), p.49.
Used withpermission.
Dewey's terms,in this way the teacherrhythmicallyencouragesthe class to
alternateinvestigatinganddiscussing the "oldandthe new"aspects of their
common problem.Dewey's classroom ensures thatwhen moving between
the differentactivityrooms, studentsmustpass throughthe recitationroom
andthelibrary,visually stressingthe reiterativenatureof classroom discus-
sion. Furthermore,the arrangementof the rooms accentuates the spatial
depthof meaningthatshouldbe experiencedby students.Onecould imagine
roomsorderedin a straightline, a spatialarchitecturethatwould stillrequire
studentsto passthroughmultiplerooms as theyjourneyfromone subjectto
the next.Butby placingthe rooms equidistantarounda centralhub,Dewey
recreatesthe"web"of multiple,intertwinedrelationshipsindicativeof sym-
pathy-producingstories. Thus the particulararchitectureof the classroom
forms the templatefor the teacher's aesthetic interventionand aids him in
inspiringtheinterestandencouragingthesympathythatcompose successful
classroomdiscussion.

Chart 1V
Laboratories
Research
University
Libraryj
Museum
Physical
andChemical
Laboratories
biololicaL
Laborator3
Museum
Art Music
Figure 2
SOURCE:School andSociety,vol.1ofJohnDewey:TheMiddle
Works,1899-1924,ed.
Jo AnnBoydston(Carbondale:
University
ofSouthernIllinois
Press, 1976-1983), p.51.
Used withpermission.
Not only does Dewey see the aestheticarrangement
of theclassroomand
theteacher'sactivitywithinthis spaceasencouraginginterestandsympathy
in immediateproblems,he also envisionsclassrooms'andteachers'develop-
ing students' perspectives as they gain more knowledge from others and
undergotransformationsof their self conceptions. As demonstratedin this
diagramof the "upperfloor"of the school (see Figure2), Dewey hopes that
studentdiscussion will be directedto evermoreabstractcontexts.Problems
of experienceinthekitchenaremorefully investigatedinthebiological labo-
ratory,carpentryquestions are used to teach high-level equations, and the
historyof folk songs sungby relativesis exploredthroughanthropologyand
history.And as thestudentsmove upanddownbetweenthetwo floors of the
school building they establish a rhythmicprogressionbetween theirinitial
interests and the perspectives they gain throughcollectively investigating
their original problem. At the center of this upperfloor lies the museum,
whichto Dewey representstheculminationof thereiterative,aestheticform,

orthe solution,of theproblem-solvingdiscoursethatcan be communicated
to other"classrooms,"
associations,andpublics.The exhibitsin themuseum
reflect the aestheticpropertiesof the discussion and thereforeembody the
interest and sympathy of students. Therefore when others enter into the
museum,theyarelikely to manifestthe same sympathyandinteresttoward
theexhibits"partly
fromseeingallthesethingsreflectedthroughthemedium
of their scientific and historic conditions and associations . . . and partly
becauseof theintroductionof theartideaintotheroom itself' (MW 1:SAS,
54). Museumexhibitsconstitutethe expressions of the students'solution to
theircollectively discussed problem,manifestingthe rhythmanddepththat
maintainedstudentinterest in the deliberativeprocess. Dewey goes on to
stressthatthegrowthof studentdiscussion comprises morethana welcome
additiontotheteacher'sattemptsto increaseinterestthroughaestheticregu-
lation;it is insteada necessity. He statesin Interestand Effortin Education
that"interest
is normalandrelianceuponit is educationallylegitimatein the
degreein whichthe activityin question involves growth anddevelopment"
(MW7:IEE,172).Therefore,theexpressivedeliberativesolutionsdisplayed
inthe"museum"
constituteproductsof theformof thedeliberationitself;the
rhythmic,fluctuatingdevelopment that encouraged interestand sympathy
also resultin growthof participantperspectivefrom the local andlimitedto
the wide andexpansive.
5. DEWEYAND CONTEMPORARY
DELIBERATIVE
DEMOCRACY
AfteracknowledgingthatDewey's pedagogic andaestheticwritingscon-
tainadetailedaccountof howto motivateparticipationindeliberation,skep-
tics might still claim thatDewey did not mean for this work to inform his
politicaltheory.Infact,his writingon thepolitical role of association,while
opaque,does accordwell withthe understandingof transformativecommu-
nicationoutlinedin suchworksasSchool andSocietyandArtas Experience.
Despite thisthematicsimilaritybetween Dewey's explicit writingon class-
roomdiscussionandpoliticaldeliberationin association,it stillremainsnec-
essarytoarticulate
thepoliticalfunctionof associationsembodyingthecom-
municativetechniquesDewey articulatesin his pedagogic writing. I devote
the last sectionof this essay to this task.
As I mentionedearlier,manyhave highlightedDewey's endorsementof
deliberationin local association,but few use him as a sourceof detailedin-
sightintoitspractice.Dewey makesitclearthatassociationsremainintrinsic

to his understandingof an effective democracy,stating,"A society which
makes provision for participationin its good of all its members on equal
terms and which secures flexible readjustmentof its institutions through
interactionof thedifferent
forms of associated life [emphasisadded]is in so
fardemocratic"(MW9: DE, 105). He also claimsin amuch-quotedpassage
that"democracymustbegin athome andits home is intheneighborlycom-
munity"(LW2: PAP,212-13). Butif thecommunicativetechniquesoutlined
in the previous section were to act as a guide in constructingactualassocia-
tions, theresultmightfrustratesome who presentlyclaimDewey as aninspi-
ration.To examine the specific political activitiesin whichthis understand-
ing of communicationcan most fruitfullybe putto use, anddistinguishthis
vision of deliberative association from others, I want to analyze it using
MarkR. Warren'sthreefolddivision of thefunctionsof politicalassociation:
political development, public expression, and institutionalimprovement.24
Dewey's deliberativeassociations, aestheticallydesignedto inspire sympa-
thy andgrowthatthe expense of directedconversation,wouldnot do well in
reducinginterinstitutionalconflict.25He states,
Discussion anddialectic,howeverindispensabletheyareto theelaborationof ideas and
polices afterideasareonce putforth,areweakreedstodependuponforsystematicorigi-
nationof comprehensiveplans,theplansthatarerequiredif theproblemof social organi-
zation is to be met. (LW 11:Liberalismand Social Action,50)
Theywould also notnecessarilydo well in advocatingforparticular
interests
in the public sphere,because of theirtendencyto transforminterestsinstead
of enabling their forceful articulation.26
Although the "museumexhibits"
representevocativeexpressionsof agroups'deliberativeproductmeantto be
circulatedwithinthelargerculture,theeffectiveness of associationsactually
attemptingto influence the public sphere depends on organizationalrigor
andpoliticalsavvythatwouldunderminethisopen-endedcommunication.27
Although after discounting Warren'sothertwo associationfunctions it
becomes clear thatDeweyan local deliberationprimarilyfosters individual
development,it is importantto emphasize thathe does not see political dis-
cussion as a Tocquevillian"trainingground"for democracy28
that endows
citizens with governmentalknowledge, bureaucraticacumen, or political
confidence. He claims thatcommunitydiscussion "involveseven more than
apprenticeshipin thepracticalprocess of self-government,importantas this
is" (LW13:FC, 177). Conversely,Dewey does notsee localpolitical discus-
sion cultivating general autonomy or creativity,and insteadhe suggests it
generatesacircumscribedrangeof attributes.Dewey claimsthat"thepredic-

amentis thatindividualitydemandsassociationto develop andsustainit and
associationrequiresarrangement
andcoordinationof itselements ororgani-
zation-since otherwiseit is formless andvoid of power"(LW 13:FC, 181).
Hereheimpliesthatdirected,or"arranged
andcoordinated,"
communication
in association develops particularpolitical characteristicsin citizens, but
whatspecificattributes
does he wish to develop, andwhatpoliticalfunctions
would theseattributesfulfill?
WhenDewey does discuss thepolitical-developmentalutilityof delibera-
tion, he stressesthatthe greatestchallenge for a democraticcitizen is not to
accumulateknowledgethatwould qualify her as a policy expertorpolitical
skillsthatwouldtransformherintoacannypoliticaloperatorbutinsteadsim-
ply to havethe abilityto link seemingly isolated personalsituationsto their
public consequencesand the propensityto look outside her own surround-
ings for suggestions that might aid her in understandingher life. Dewey
makesthislinkagebetweenintimatecommunicationandpoliticalconscious-
ness whenheclaims,"Unlesslocal communallife canbe restored,thepublic
cannotadequatelyresolveitsmosturgentproblem:tofindandidentifyitself'
(LW2:PAP,370). Such"identification"
of thepublicdoes notrequirepoliti-
cal agreement,simply general interestin the effects of one's action on the
largercommunityanda converseconcerntowardhow social systems affect
the individual.Dewey contendsthatascitizens solve local problemsanddis-
cuss sharedsituationswithin associations, the deliberationsspill over into
communicationbetweenassociations,which "thuspresentsanorderof ener-
gies transmutedinto one of meanings which are appreciatedand mutually
referredby each to every other on the partof those engaged in combined
action"(LW2:PAP,332). Meaningsthatare"mutuallyreferredandappreci-
ated"arenotnecessarilyagreedon.Furthermore,
whenhe endorsesthepolit-
ical goal of "perfectingthe means andways of communicationof meanings
so thatgenuinelysharedinterestintheconsequencesof interdependentactiv-
ities may informdesire and effort and thereby direct action" (LW 2: PAP,
332), "interest"should not be interpretedas a nationalconformity of indi-
vidual interests,butinsteadan interestin public occurrences.Such encour-
agement of public interest accords well with Dewey's more specific dis-
cussion of aesthetic language's ability to motivate interest in individual
conversations.
But, in Dewey's view, increasinginterestin the public does not compose
the only politicalfunctionof association;deliberationaboutlocal problems
assists citizens in adaptingto the rapidlyfluctuatingpublic institutionsand
systems thatcharacterizecontemporarypolitics. This ability and its depen-
dence on local associationcan be seen when he asks,

Canthe vast, innumerableandintricatecurrentsof trans-localassociationbe so banked
andconductedthattheywill pourthegenerousandabundant
meaningsof whichtheyare
potentialbearersintosmallerandmoreintimateunionsof humanbeingsliving in imme-
diate contactwith one another?(LW2: PAP368)
In seeking to transmit"vast,innumerableandintricate"
informationto local
association, Dewey sees citizens more frequentlyrethinkingthe impact the
publichason theirdailylives and,therefore,adoptinga "liberal"
perspective
on politics. Throughthistermhe does notadvocatecommonunderstandings
of activegovernmentandsocial planningbutinsteadadvocatestheabilityto
integratenew social facts into one's currentperspective.He states, "WhatI
have called the mediatingfunction of liberalism[emphasisadded]is all one
with theworkof intelligence. ... Theredoes notnow existthekindof social
organizationthateven permitsthe averagehumanbeingto sharethe poten-
tially available social intelligence" (LSA, LW: 11, 37-38). Associations
based on Dewey's account of motivating, transformativecommunication
clearly answer this call for encouragingthe "mediatingfunctionof liberal-
ism."Andwith this second similaritybetweenDewey's actualwritingon the
politicalfunctionof associationandhis pedagogic andaestheticunderstand-
ing of communication,this comparisonof discussion in the classroom and
deliberativedemocracy shouldbecome all the moreconvincing.
6. CONCLUSION
Some might claim thatthis reconstructionrepresentsan artificiallycir-
cumscribed understandingof deliberation that does not do justice to the
many roles currentlyattributedto the procedure.But in circumscribingthe
role of Deweyan association I have not claimed that this understanding
shouldrepresenttheonly role forassociation.Differenttypesof deliberative
association can play many salutary roles in maintainingand practicing
democracy.Finally,even if one does notsee theneedfortheparticular
typeof
associationthatI see derivingfromDewey's understanding
of the necessity
for maintaininga certain"aesthetics"of deliberation,itshouldbe notedthat
an understandingof how formal, spatial, and temporallinguistic qualities
affectpoliticaldiscussionshouldbe consideredrelevantforalldiscussionsof
deliberation.
In conclusion, it is importantto reiteratethat Dewey felt even his dis-
cussion of classroomdiscussion to be idealmodelsbestusedasprovocations
to reform and not actualblueprints.Of his lab school at the University of
Chicago he wrote,

Wedonotexpecttohaveothersschools literallyimitatewhatwe do. A workingmodelis
notsomethingto be copied;it is to affordademonstrationof thefeasibility of theprinci-
ple, andof the methodswhich makeit feasible. (MW 1: SAS 56).
Itis hopedthatmyreconstructionwill be understoodin thissame spirit.Sug-
gesting thatthe spatialandtemporalqualitiesof political deliberationaffect
individuals'motivationto participatedoes not requirethat all deliberative
associationsandinstitutionsrequirea moderatorto regulatethese character-
istics, andit does notimply thatdeliberationmanifestingDewey's ideal aes-
thetic formwill always lead to agreementor successful reconciliation.It is
meantsimplytohighlightaspectsof deliberationnotcurrentlyunderstoodas
importantby mostof theliterature.My readingof Dewey shouldbe takenas
the friendly,andpragmatic,interventionit is meantto be.
NOTES
1. See RobertB. Westbrook,"Pragmatismand Democracy, Reconstructingthe Logic of
Dewey's Faith,"
inTheRevivalofPragmatism:NewEssaysonSocial Thought,LawandCulture,
ed. Morris Dickstein (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1998), 139. See also James
Kloppenberg,"Democracyand Disenchantment:From Weber and Dewey to Habermasand
Rorty,"in TheVirtuesof Liberalism(Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress, 1998), wherehe states,
"Forthatreason,it seems to me thatRichardJ.Bernsteinis rightin suggestingthatHabermasis
closer in spiritto Dewey thanRortyis" (p. 98).
2. AlanRyaninJohnDeweyandtheHigh TideofAmericanLiberalism(New York:Norton,
1995) typifies this view when he attemptsto articulatepolicy implications and proposalsin
Dewey's work.He states,"Amoredifficultquestionis whatDewey expectedtobe abletoputin
place of theAmericancapitalismhe disliked.... I cannotsay I have foundhim anyclearerthan
any of my predecessorshave. Unlike many of them, however,I have a generally sympathetic
view of thematter.... Nobody complainsthatthe Gospels do not give immediateinstructionof
industrialorganization
andto someto degreeatanyrate,Dewey's workis betterseenas agospel
for democratsthana handbookfor institutionaldesigners"(p. 31).
3. See Ryan,who states,"Theclues to Dewey's politicalhopes arenottobefoundonly inhis
set piece political writings. Nor are they only to be found in his newspaperpolemics of the
1930's, interestingas these can be. They areto be foundin threeotherplaces"(p. 31) which he
goes on to nameasHumanNatureand Conduct,A CommonFaith, and,mostimportantforthis
discussion,Artas Experience.
4. See Nancy Rosenblum, Membershipand Morals: The Personal Uses of Pluralism in
America (Princeton,NJ: PrincetonUniversityPress, 1998), for the claim thatmost theoriesof
face-to-face associationlack sufficient supportfor theirclaims of beneficial effects on partici-
pants.Shecallsthisthe"transition
belt"modelof associationbecauseits subconsciousadherents
claimthatwiththe"spilloverfromone sphereto another... partof theproblemwiththisgovern-
ing assumptionis thattransmissionis unexplained"(p. 48).
5. All quotesfromDewey aretakenfrom the Collected Worksand arecited intertextually.
The notationis as follows: (volumenumber:text,page number).I abbreviatedthevolume nota-
tion as follows:MW= JohnDewey: TheMiddle Works,1899-1924, ed. Jo AnnBoydston (Car-

bondale:Universityof SouthernIllinoisPress, 1976-1983);LW=JohnDewey: TheLaterWorks,
1925-1953, ed. JoAnnBoydston (Carbondale:
Universityof Illinois Press,1984-1991). I abbre-
viatefrequentlycitedtextsasfollows: AE=Art as Experience,BYL = TheEducationalLectures
and Brigham YoungAcademy,DE = Democracy and Education,EE = Experienceand Educa-
tion,EN = ExperienceandNature,ET= Ethics,HWT= How WeThink,
IEE= InterestandEffort
in Education,PAP= ThePublic and Its Problems,andSAS = School andSociety.
6. JonElster,"Introduction,"
inDeliberativeDemocracy,ed.JohnElster(Cambridge:Cam-
bridgeUniversityPress 1998), 1.
7. SeylaBenhabib,SituatingtheSelf:Gender,Community
andPostmodernism
inContempo-
raryEthics (London:Routledge, 1992), 9.
8. Not all deliberativedemocratsclaimthattheirtheorypossesses normativeattributes.Such
"empiricaldeliberativedemocrats"as I call theminsteadfocus on theprocedure'sefficiency in
aggregatingpreferencesanddeterminingpolitical equilibrium.See JamesJohnson's"Democ-
racyandLiberty,"in Elster'sDeliberative Democracy.
9. Habermas,while havingnearlydisavowedhis constructionof thenormativecoreof delib-
erativedemocracy,whichhecalls communicativeethics,asan"idealspeechsituation,"
does still
see deliberativedemocracyin thiscriticalvein. See Jiurgen
Habermas,MoralConsciousnessand
CommunicativeAction, trans.ChristianLenhardtand ShierryWeberNicholsen (Cambridge,
MA: MITPress, 1990), for an explanationof Habermas'smoraltheory,andhis Between Facts
and Norms: Contributionto a Discourse Theoryof Law and Democracy,trans.William Rehg
(Cambridge,MA:MITPress, 1998),fora descriptionof howhe feels thesemoralinsightswould
informthe constructionof an actualdemocraticregime.
10. Maeve Cooke criticizes Habermas'sclaimthatexpressivestatementscanbejudgedonly
accordingtotheir"truthfulness"
andthereforecannotbe thebasisof agreementconcerningtruth
orrightness;LanguageandReason:A StudyofHabermas's Pragmatics(Cambridge,MA: MIT
Press, 1994).
11. BenjaminBarber,StrongDemocracy (Berkeley:Universityof CaliforniaPress, 1984),
174.
12. JeanCohen andAndrewAratoexpress such a view in theirCivilSociety and Political
Theory (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1992), when they state, "In discussing the
postconventionallevel of moralconsciousness necessaryfordiscourseethics,Habermasinsists
thatthegapbetweenmoralinsightsandculturallyhabituatedempiricalmotivesneedstobecom-
pensatedfor 'byasystem of internalbehaviorcontrolsthatis triggeredbyprincipledmoraljudg-
ments(convictionsthatformthebasisformotivations).'... Beyondthis,nodeontologicaltheory
canor should say more.Thequestionof the generationof empiricalmotivesforparticipationin
discursiveconflict resolutionthenbelongs to thedomainsof social theoryorsocialpsychology"
(p. 389).
13. See JamesBohman,PublicDeliberation:Pluralism,Complexity
andDemocracy(Cam-
bridge,MA:MITPress, 1996),58. Hearticulatesthefivedeliberativemechanismsonpp.57-65.
14. Ibid., 58.
15. Benhabib,Situatingthe Self 72.
16. See HannahArendt,Lectureson Kant's Political Philosophy (Chicago:University of
Chicago Press, 1982).
17. Benhabib,Situatingthe Self 127.
18. See William Schusterman,PragmatistAesthetics: Living Beautyand RethinkingArt
(Oxford:Blackwell, 1992);TimothyKaufman-Osborn,
Politics/Sense/Experience:
APragmatic
Inquiryinto the Promise of Democracy (Ithaca,NY: Cornell, 1991); andThomasAlexander,
JohnDewey's TheoryofArt, ExperienceandNature:TheHorizonsofFeeling(Albany:SUNY
Press, 1987);thesethreerecentworksattemptto interpret
Dewey throughhiswritingon aesthet-

ics. Kaufman-Osborn's
work,the only explicit attemptto tie Dewey's politics to his aesthetics,
andhis approachdiffersmarkedlyfrom mine.
19. Thisstresson theformalqualitiesof artoverits substancereveals Dewey's predilection
for abstractandmodernistgenres. Dewey's biases againstpurelyrepresentationalunderstand-
ings of aestheticsuccess can be seen throughquotes such as this and his actualfriendshipand
sharedtasteswithAlbertBarnes,who "boldlyandbluntlyboughtupsome of thebestmodernart
on the market... focusing his collecting on the workof Renoir,Cezanne, andMatisse ... and
such lesser-knownmodernistsas Soutine andModigliani";RobertB. Westbrook,JohnDewey
andAmericanDemocracy(Ithaca,NY:CornellUniversityPress, 1991), 388-89.
20. Dewey felt thatmuchof the discriminationandgenerationof hypotheses occurson the
marginsof thoughtandis experiencedby individualsasavaguesense of harmonyortension.See
his "AffectiveThought"(LW2: 104) for a thorougharticulationof this position.
21. As thisquotesuggests, Dewey feels thatconversationandthinkingpossess similaraes-
theticattributes.
He oftenequatesthemas iterationsof the similaroperation,stating,"Whenthe
introspectionistthinkshe has withdrawninto a wholly privaterealmof eventsdisparatein kind
fromothereventsmadeoutof mentalstuffhe is only turninghis attentionto his own soliloquy.
Andsoliloquyis theproductandreflex of conversewith others;social communicationis not an
effect of soliloquy.If we hadnottalkedwith othersandtheywith us we shouldnevertalkto and
with ourselves"(LW 1:EN, 135).
22. BruceAckermanandJamesFishkin,DeliberationDay (New Haven,CT:YaleUniversity
Press,2004), 66.
23. AckermanandFishkingo so faras to suggest thatthe skills of a deliberativemoderator
mightbesocommonthatthisfigurecanbechosenbylotfromamongtheparticipants
androtated
inthemidstof discussion.See DeliberationDay foradiscussion of theroleof this"citizenfore-
man"(pp.48, 66-69).
24. MarkWarren,DemocracyandAssociation (Princeton,NJ: PrincetonUniversityPress,
2001), 70-93.
25. SeeJohnRawls'srecommendationsforthemostlyinstitutionalandjuridicaluseof "pub-
lic reason"inPolitical Liberalism(New York:ColumbiaUniversityPress, 1993).
26. JeanCohengives a good articulationof this view when she stresses that"whatdevelops
interactiveabilitiesanddemocraticcompetencewithinanassociationis participationasanequal
in the exchangeof opinions and in collective deliberationsover associational affairs-that is,
voice intheassociationsinternalto thepublicsphere"in "AmericanCivil Society Talk,"in Civil
Society, Democracy and Civic Renewal, ed. Robert Fullinwider (Lanham,MD: Rowman &
Littlefield, 1999), 55-89, 63.
27. JaneMansbridgecontends in WhyWeLost the ERA(Chicago: University of Chicago
Press, 1986) thatthe feminist associations advocatingfor the Equal Rights Amendmentwere
specifically underminedby the deliberativenatureof their associations, stating,"Althoughin
theoryeachcitizen's interestshouldcountfor one andnot formorethanone in a democracy,in
practicewell organizedinterestscount for a greatdeal more than poorly organizedones. The
moreanorganizationcancounton astablemembershipheld togetherby eithercoercionorindi-
vidualbenefitsthemoreitcanmakeitsmembers'interestcountinthepoliticalprocess"(p.249).
28. Therelationshipbetweenlocal participationandthe cultivationof political skills is dis-
cussed in SidneyVerba,KayLehmanSchlozman, andHenryBrady, Voiceand Equality:Civic
Volunteerism
inAmericanPolitics (Cambridge,MA: HarvardUniversity Press, 1995).

Jason Kosnoskiis an assistantprofessor ofpolitical science at the Universityof Michi-
gan. Flint.He receivedhisPhDfromtheNewSchoolforSocialResearchin2003 andwas
mostrecentlya postdoctoralfellow at theHonors Collegeof theCityUniversityofNew
York.He is the authorof "JohnDewey's Social Aesthetics,"forthcomingin Polity.

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