This is the 2nd lesson of the course 'Traditional Technology in Sri Lankan Agriculture' taught at the Faculty of Agriculture, Rajarata University of Sri Lanka

1. P.B. Dharmasena
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dharmasenapb@ymail.com , dharmasenapb@gmail.com
https://independent.academia.edu/PunchiBandageDharmasena
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Traditional Technology in Sri Lankan Agriculture
Course code: AS 3210 (2/ 25:10)
Faculty of Agriculture, Rajarata University of Sri Lanka,
Puliyankulama, Sri Lanka
Lesson 2. – Agriculture, Climate and Soil

2. South Asian Region
 Quarter of the World Population
 Accounts for 3% of global gross domestic product (GDP)
 1.9% of world exports
 1.7% of world foreign direct investment
 Home for 40% of the world poor with
 29.5% population living on less than a dollar a day
This is the region where Sri Lanka is located.
GDP is the final value of the goods and services produced within the
geographic boundaries of a country during a specified period of time,
normally a year. GDP growth rate is an important indicator of the
economic performance of a country.
Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, British Indian Ocean Territory,
India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka.

3. Sri Lanka in a Nutshell
Demographics
Home for 21.4 mn people
90% is literate
70% is internet knowledge
Human Development index (2018)
0.78 ranked 71 among 188 countries
.625 (1990) increased to 0.78 (2018)
Poverty Head count reduced from 15.3% in 2006 to
4.1% in 2016
Unemployment – 4.1%
The Human Development Index (HDI) is a statistical tool
used to measure a country's overall achievement in its social
and economic dimensions.

4. Sri Lanka in a Nutshell cont’d….
Economic
GDP 2017 – US$ 87.2 bn
GDP per capita US$ 4065, a middle income economy
GDP growth rate 3.1% (2017), 3.7% (2019)
Composition of GDP
Agriculture 7.8% from GDP (2017)
Industry 30.5% (2017)
Services 61.7% (est. 2017)
Export revenue – US$ 11.08 bn. (2017)
4
Poverty headcount line - Percentage of the population living
below the national poverty line

5. Virtual water
• The volume of freshwater used to produce the product, measured
at the place where the product was actually produced.
• Virtual water is measured in cubic metres per kilogram lit./kg or
m³/mt.
• The water is said to be virtual because once the crop is grown, the
real water used to grow it is no longer actually contained in the
crop.
• The concept of virtual water helps us realize how much water is
needed to produce different goods and services.
• In semi-arid and arid areas, knowing the virtual water value of a
good or service can be useful towards determining how best to use
the scarce water available. - Professor John Anthony Allan (2005).

6. Water availability in Sri Lanka
• Annual average rainfall: 2,000 mm
• Total land area: 65,610 km2
• Total volume: 131.22 billion m³
• Population: 21.2 million
• Annual rainwater per capita: 6,190 m³/person.
However, this value varies spatially in a wide range

7. Estimates of Per-Capita water availability: Sri Lanka (m3/ person)
District m3/
person
District m3/
person
District m3/
person
District m3/
person
Colombo 449 Galle 2,817 Batticaloa 1,907 Mannar 1,323
Gampaha 871 Matara 1,806 Trincomalee 2,508 Vavuniya 1,676
Kalutara 3,438 Hambantota 1,604 Polonnaruwa 6,888 Mullaitivu 3,416
Kandy 717 Badulla 2,227 Anuradhapura 1,684 Kilinochchi 1,525
Nuwara
Eliya
2,146 Monaragala 4,877 Kurunegala 914 Jaffna 284
Matale 2,275 Ampara 3,209 Puttalam 579 Sri Lanka 1,928
Source: Amarasinghe, Mutuwatte & Shakthivadivel, 2000

8. 585 Mm3 from Mannar District
435 Mm3 from Mulaithivu District
350 Mm3 from Kilinochchi District
We are still wasting water

9. We are still wasting water
97 mcm from Paranki Aru (river)
64 mcm from Aruvi Aru (river)
1,600 hectares can be
cultivated with rice
annually
25%
350 Mm3 from Kilinochchi District
435 Mm3 from Mulaithivu District
585 mcm from Mannar District

10. Water consumption of different land uses in Sri Lanka
Land use Area (km2) Evaporation
(mm/year) B m3 %
Tea 2,569 1,240 3.20 3.74
Rubber 2,295 1,341 3.08 3.60
Coconut 2,945 1,335 3.93 4.60
Paddy 7,815 1,226 9.58 11.20
Moist monsoon forest 2,923 1,263 3.69 4.32
Sub-montane forest 796 1,240 0.99 1.16
Dry monsoon forest 10,613 1,407 14.93 17.46
Lowland rainforest 1,796 1,319 2.37 2.77
Sparse forest 4,772 1,247 5.95 6.96
Riverine dry forest 534 1,348 0.72 0.84
Mixed vegetation 28,325 1,245 35.43 41.43
Surface water 870 1,889 1.64 1.92
Total 66,253 85.51
Source:
Bastiaanssen and
Chandrapala (2003)

11. Virtual water – Tea, Rubber, Coconut
and Paddy
Data sources - Annual Performance Report, 2015, Ministry of Plantation Industries,
Department of Census and statistics, Colombo, Sri Lanka
Crop Extent cultivated
(‘000 ha)
Yield
(t/ha)
Total
production
(M kg)
Water
consumption
(mm)
Total
water use
(M m3)
Virtual
water
(m3/mt)
Tea 194.6 1.69 329 1240 2413 7334
Rubber 120.3 0.74 89 1341 1613 18124
Coconut 134.1 22,790* 3056* 1335 1790 586**
Paddy 772.6 4.428 3421 1524 11,774 3442
* - Nuts, ** - 1000 nuts

12. Food Crop Statistics
Crop Extent
(ha)
Production
(mt)
Yield
(mt/ha)
Imports
(mt)
% of
imports
Maize 50,857 129,769 2.55 28,034 17.8
Soybean 1,654 3,788 2.99 1,790 32.1
Red onion 4,994 46,234 10.28 16,207 26.0
Big onion 5,081 81,707 16.08 143,274 63.7
Chilli (dry) 13,554 46,414 1.00 36,054 43.7
Ground nut 9,002 13,077 1.45 4,005 23.4
Finger millet 5,902 6,433 1.09 3,272 33.7
Black gram 7,867 7,071 0.90 3,348 32.1
Green gram 8,570 9,258 1.08 14,183 60.5
Cowpea 11,439 13,485 1.18 429 3.1
Department of census and statistics and Sri Lanka Customs, 2009

13. Water consumption of OFC crops in Sri Lanka
Crop Extent (ha) Production
(mt)
Water
requirement
(mm)
Total water
consumption
(M m3)
Virtual water
estimate
(m3/mt) or l/kg
Maize 50,857 129,769 825 419.6 3,233
Soybean 1,654 3,788 710 11.7 3,089
Red onion 4,994 46,234 700 35.0 757
Big onion 5,081 81,707 700 35.6 436
Chilli (dry) 13,554 46,414 920 124.7 2,687
Groundnut 9,002 13,077 735 66.2 5,062
Finger millet 5,902 6,433 460 27.2 4,228
Black gram 7,867 7,071 460 36.2 5,120
Green gram 8,570 9,258 460 39.4 4,256
Cowpea 11,439 13,485 770 88.1 6,533

14. Virtual water of OFC crops imported to Sri Lanka
Crop Virtual water
estimate
(m3/mt)
Imports (mt) Virtual water for
imports (Mm3)
Maize 3,233 28,034 90.6
Soybean 3,089 1,790 5.5
Red onion 757 16,207 12.3
Big onion 436 143,274 62.5
Chilli (dry) 2,687 36,054 96.9
Groundnut 5,062 4,005 20.3
Finger millet 4,228 3,272 13.8
Black gram 5,120 3,348 17.1
Green gram 4,256 14,183 60.4
Cowpea 6,533 429 2.8

15. Sri Lanka milled rice imports (2008-2017)
Year Milled rice
Import (‘000
mt)
Equivalent
unprocessed
rice (‘000 mt)
Average
yield
(mt/ha)
Extent to be
cultivated
(ha)
Virtual
Water
(m3/mt)
Total
Virtual
water
(Mm3)
2008 40 72.7 4.195 17,730 3717 270.2
2009 169 307.3 4.187 73,394 3640 1118.5
2010 20 36.4 4.444 8,191 3429 124.8
2011 40 72.7 4.347 16,724 3506 254.9
2012 23 41.8 4.145 10,084 3677 153.7
2013 256 465.5 4.408 105,603 3457 1609.4
2014 623 1,132.7 4.204 269,434 3625 4106.2
2015 31 56.4 4.527 12,459 3367 189.9
2016 550 1,000.0 4.417 226,398 3450 3450.3
2017 600 1,090.9 4.563 239,075 3340 3643.5
Water requirement for rice: 1,524 mm

16. Virtual water summary
Crop Virtual water
(m3/mt or lit/kg)
Tea 7,334
Rubber 18,124
Coconut (1000 nuts) 586
Paddy 3,442
Maize 3,233
Soybean 3,089
Red onion 757
Crop Virtual water
(m3/mt or lit/kg)
Big onion 436
Chilli (dry) 2,687
Groundnut 5,062
Finger millet 4,228
Black gram 5,120
Green gram 4,256
Cowpea 6,533

17. How climate and soil affect
agricultural production ?

18. Factors affecting agricultural production

19. Three topographic zones:
• The central
highlands (South-
central part; 750-
2500 m)
• The plains (125-
750 m),
• The coastal belt (0-
125m)
• Sixteen principal rivers
(longer than 100 km)
• 12 rivers carry about
75 % of the mean river
discharge of the
country
• The longest river:
Mahaweli Ganga (335

20. Weather vs. Climate
Weather and
Climate are not
the same
• Weather - The
conditions of the
atmosphere at a
particular place
and time.
• Climate -
Average
conditions of a
certain place over
a long period of
time

21. Climatic Seasons in Sri Lanka
• First Inter-Monsoon (FIM) – March & April
• Southwest Monsoon (SWM)- May – September
• Second Inter-Monsoon (SIM)- October & November
• Northeast Monsoon (NEM) – December - February

22. Climatic zones of Sri Lanka
Rainfall
below 1,750 mm - Dry zone
1,750 - 2,500 mm - Inter mediate zone
above 2,500 mm - Wet zone

23. Agro-Ecological Zones of Sri Lanka
• 24 agro-ecological
zones (RF &
Altitude), combined
with effects of soil,
land form and land
use (agricultural
activities)
• 49 sub-zones
– WZ – 16
– IZ – 20
– DZ - 13
DRYZONEINTERMEDIATEZONEWETZONE

24. Sub zoning
• Each AER is denoted by a 4-character code consisting of letters and a
number; (eg:.DL1a)
– Three major rainfall zones are indicated by the first upper case letter of
the code (W, I and D);
– Three categories of elevation are noted by the second upper case letter
of the code (L, M and U);
– The numerical character in the third place of the code represents the
degree of wetness on the scale of 1  5 where 1 represents the most
favorable
– The lower case letter in the fourth place indicates a sub-region as
determined by rainfall and other physical environmental factors. The
degree of wetness decreases from a  f .

25. WL1a
WL1b
WL2a
WL2b
WL3
WM1a
WM1b
WM2a
WM2b
WM3a
WM3b
WU1
WU2a
WU2b
WU3

26. IL1a
IL1b
IL1c
IL2
IL3
IM1a
IM1b
IM1c
IM2a
IM2b
IM3a
IM3b
IM3c
IU1
IU2
IU3a
IU3b
IU3c
IU3d
IU3e

27. DL1a
DL1b
DL1c
DL1d
DL1e
DL1f
DL2&DL3
DL2a
DL2b
DL3
DL3&DL4
DL4
DL5

28. Effect of soil factors on agricultural production

31. Soil Type Extent (‘000
ha)
%
Reddish Brown Earths (RBE) 1,610 24.6
Low Humic Gley (LHG) 950 14.5
Non Calcic Brown (NCB) 163 2.5
Red and Yellow Latasols (RYL) 320 4.9
Immature Brown Loams (IBL) 205 3.1
Solodized Solonetz 210 3.2
Grumusols 15 0.2
Red Yellow Podzolic (RYP) 1,490 22.8
Reddish Brown Latasol (RBL) 60 0.9
Alluvials 450 6.9
Regosols 190 2.9
Bog and Half Bog 60 0.9
Lithosols 210 3.2

32. General crops for some soils in Sri Lanka
1. Reddish Brown Earth – Maize / Grain legumes
2. Low Humic Gley – Paddy
3. Red-Yellow Podzolic – Plantation crops
4. Non Calcic Brown – Big onion / Red onion
5. Red Yellow Latasols – Cashew
6. Sandy Regosols – Coconut
7. Alluvial – Paddy
8. Grumusols – Paddy
9. Immature Brown Loam – Home garden

33. RBE (Rhodustalfs)
 Largest extent of the land in the dry zone
 Characteristic reddish brown colour
 Series: Medawachchiya, Aluthwewa, Anamaduwa,
Ranorawa, Thadarathu, Siyambalanduwa, Ranna,
Nonagama, Kotawehera mankada, Walawe, Ulhitiya
 Soil catenary sequence
Well Drained Imperfectly Drained Poorly Drained
RBE
LHG

34. Characteristics of RBE Soils
Physical Properties
Soil Depth - Moderate (60 cm – 150 cm)
Texture - Sandy clay loam
Structure - Strong sub angular blocky
Infiltration - 3 – 9 cm in 4 hours
Available Moisture 130 – 170 mm/m
Consistency - Hard when dry
Slightly friable when moist
Very sticky when wet

35. RBE (Rhodustalfs)

36. Low Humic Gley Soils (Tropaqualfs)
 Third most extensive soil group in Sri Lanka
 Located at the foot slopes of the undulating landscape
 Characterized by the wetness or gleying through the
profile
 Availability of calcite concretions
Physical Properties
Texture - Sandy clay to clay
Structure - Sub angular blocky to massive
WHC - Fairly good

37. Low Humic Gley Soils (Tropaqualfs)

38. Red – Yellow Podzolic soils (Tropudult)
 Second most extensive soil group in Sri Lanka
 Modal soil of the wet zone of Sri Lanka
 Mostly known as Lateritic soils
 Majority found in the hilly part of the country
 Colour varies from strong brown to yellowish brown
 Series: Minuwangoda, Galigamuwa, Pallegoda,
Homagama, Boralu, Agalawatta, Dodangoda, malaboda,
Mattakele, Horton, Nuwara Eliya, Maskeliya, Weddagala

39. Red – Yellow Podzolic soils
• Deeply developed soil
profile
• Higher structural stability
and better response to
management
• Moderate CEC
• Low pH
• Prone to erosion due to
steep topography (in the mid
and up country)

40. Agro-
ecological
region
Annual
rainfall
expectancy
at 75%
(mm)
Soil Land use
Low country
dry zone
650-1,300 RBE, LHG, NCB,
RYL, Regosol, Old
alluvial, Grumusol,
Solodized Solonetz
Rain-fed upland
crops, paddy, home
garden, forest, scrub,
sugar cane, cashew,
coconut, condiments
Low country
intermediate
zone
1,100-1,600 RYP, RBE, LHG,
RBL, Regosol,
IBL, NCB
Coconut, home
gardens, export
agricultural crops,
paddy, rubber, sugar
cane, rainfed upland
crops, citrus,

41. Agro-ecological
region
Annual
rainfall
expectancy at
75% (mm)
Soil Land use
Mid country
intermediate
zone
1,100-2,000 RBL, RYP, IBL, LHG,
RBE, Mountain
Regosol,
Tea, vegetables, home
gardens, paddy, forest,
grasslands, export
agricultural crops, rubber
Up country
intermediate
zone
1,300-2,400 RYP, Mountain
Regosol, LHG
Tea, vegetables, home
gardens, export
agricultural crops, forest,
paddy

42. Agro-ecological
region
Annual
rainfall
expectancy at
75% (mm)
Soil Land use
Low country wet
zone
1,700-3,200 RYP, LHG, Bog &
Half Bog, RBL,
Regosol
Tea, rubber, coconut,
home gardens, paddy,
export agricultural
crops, fruit crops
Mid country wet
zone
1,400-3,300 RYP, RBL, LHG, IBL Tea, home gardens,
export agricultural
crops, paddy, forest,
rubber
Up country wet
zone
1,800-3,100 RYP, Mountain
Regosol
Tea, forest, vegetables,
pasture, home gardens,

43. Change of climate in the world

44. What is climate change?

45. Observed Climate Changes in
Sri Lanka

46. Annual rainfall variability in Badulla
-1000
-500
0
500
1000
1900
1910
1920
1930
1940
1950
1960
1970
1980
1990
2000
year
(from1961-1990)
Annual rainfall variability in Ratnapure
-1000
-500
0
500
1000
1500
2000
1900
1910
1920
1930
1940
1950
1960
1970
1980
1990
2000
year
1961-1990)

47. Fig. 1 September - December Rainfall (Mahailluppallama)
0
300
600
900
1200
1500
1800
1905
1910
1915
1920
1925
1930
1935
1940
1945
1950
1955
1960
1965
1970
1975
1980
1985
1990
1995
2000
Year
Rainfall(mm)
High
Moderate
Low

49. 550
600
650
700
750
800
850
1920 1940 1960 1980 2000
Decreasing rainfall in major rainy seasonRainfallat75%probability(mm)
Year

50. Season Coefficient of Variation of
all Sri Lanka Rainfall
1931– 1960 1961 - 1990
Northeast Monsoon (Dec. to
Feb.)
31% 42%
First Intermonsoon (Mar. to
Apr.)
23% 27%
Southwest Monsoon (May.
to Sep.)
21% 16%
Second Intermonsoon (Oct.
to Nov)
22% 23%
Annual (Jan. to Dec.) 12% 14%
The Coefficient of Variation of all-Sri Lanka Rainfall during
the periods 1931-1960 and 1961-1990,

51. Annual minimum air Temperature anomaly Trend in Badulla
y = 0.0089x - 0.677
R2
= 0.4002
-1.5
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
1900 1909 1919 1928 1937 1946 1955 1964 1973 1982 1991 2000
year
TminAnomalyinC
(from1961-1990)
Annual Minimum Air Temperature
Nuwara-Eliya, Sri Lanka
y = 0.02x - 1.676, R 2
= 0.69**
-2.5
-2
-1.5
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
1901 1909 1917 1925 1933 1941 1949 1957 1965 1973 1981 1989 1997
year
TmininC0
(from1901-1997)

52. Annual Maximum air temperature anomaly Trend in Badulla
y = 0.0151x - 1.2269
R2
= 0.4512
-3
-2
-1
0
1
2
3
1900
1907
1915
1922
1929
1936
1943
1950
1957
1964
1971
1978
1985
1992
1999
year
TmaxAnomalyinC
(from1961-1990)
Annual Maximum Air Temperature
Puttlam, Sri Lanka
y = 0.0209x - 1.6402, R2 = 0.655**
-4
-3
-2
-1
0
1
2
1901
1907
1913
1919
1925
1931
1937
1943
1949
1955
1961
1967
1973
1979
1985
1991
1997
year
TmaxinC0
(from1901-1997)

53. Impacts of Climate Change

54. Sri Lanka; Second most vulnerable to climate change in
the World

55. Impacts - Agriculture
Change of
Rainfall
Increased Temperature
Sea Level Rise
Through

56. – In Sri Lanka  if T increases by 0.5 0C
• rice yield reduction by 5.9 %
• Night Temperature (minimum Temperature)
–Potato
–Tomato

57. • Pest
– warmer climate
•  Pest population
– enhanced re-production
• Disease
– Bacteria, Virus, Fungi
– favors hot and humid environment
• not dry and hot environment
– in some regions
• more disease occurrence
• Or may difficult to control

58. • Weeds
– 18 worst weeds
• out of which 14 are C4 plants
– can withstand  T
– C3 plants optimum T  15-20 0C
– C4 plants optimum T  25- 30 0C
– Pig weed - C4
• 3 0C  T  240 times increase in biomass
• Pest, Disease and Weeds  more occurrence
– reduced yield, high cost of production
– 2 0C  T  30% reduction in crop yield only due to
changes of population dynamics of P, D & W

59. C3 plants: Rice, Wheat, Soybean
C4 plants: sugarcane,
maize

60. C 3 Plants C 4 Plants
3 C compounds 4 C compounds
Ex. Phophoglyceric Acid (PGA) Ex. Oxaloacetic Acid (OAA)
Cool season plants Warm season plants
Temperature range 180C-240C Temperature range 320C-550C
95 % - C 3 plants on earth 5 % - C 4 plants on earth
Abundant in temperate conditions Abundant in tropical conditions
Less efficient in photosynthesis More efficient in photosynthesis

61. Impacts - Water Resources….

62. Changes of weather fronts
– dry regions become more dry
• drought frequency may increase - delayed SWM and short
duration of SWM
• intensity of drought may increase & long dry spells in wet
season
• marked increase in inter annual, seasonal variability
Increasing evapo-transpiration
- high water loss from open water bodies
– enhance the drought condition
• minor tank cascades in Sri Lanka  high (surface
area/depth) ratio hence more vulnerable
Impacts of Rising Temperature…

63. Impacts of Changing Rainfall Regime…
High variability in seasonal rainfall
– high variability of
monsoons
– strong, persistent and
frequent El Nino events
– Intense rains
strong tendency for above
normal rainfall in SIM
(Oct-Nov) in El Nino years
- Increased frequency of floods and
droughts affect
– agriculture
– water resources
– infrastructure

64. • Problem of soil erosion
– steep slopes are highly vulnerable
– siltation of reservoirs
Polgolla - 44% silted by 1988 (12 years after its
commissioning) - now 2.8% per year
Rantambe - 4.3 % per year (by now 54%) – Uma Oya
Victoria - 0.0 8% per year
Minor tanks - 2.4% per year
- land degradation –marginal lands
Soil productivity reduces – Mid country tea lands
Average soil erosion in Upper Mahaweli - 115 mt/ha/yr
(soil formation 1cm  100 - 400 years)
Changing Rainfall
Regime…

65. Changing Rainfall Regime…
• High intense rains
– if daily RF exceeds
200 mm/day
• high probability
for land slides in
prone areas
– NBRO estimates
• 12,500 ha are
vulnerable to land
slides

66. Digging for Water, Hambantota Dec 2001
Source: Dept of Social Service

67. A victim of Hambantota Drought December 2001
Source: Dept of Social Services

68. Faith of Coconut Trees in Hambantiota
December 2001
Source: Dept of social service

69. Impacts of Sea Level Rise...
• In the coastal zone of Sri
Lanka
– Approx. 24% of the land
area and 32% of the
population
– 65% of urbanized land
area
– 80% tourism
– 65 % industrial out put
– commercial ports and
fishery harbors
– principal road and rail
infrastructure
– Important eco-systems

70. Climate change effects on agriculture.
• Sri Lanka falls into the category of “vulnerable
small island nation” according to the UNs
Framework for Climate Change (UNFCC) and
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
(IPCC’s).
• Impacts are: rising sea level, high temperature,
more frequent and prolong drought, high intensity
rainfall, increased thunder.
• Climate change in Sri Lanka will have
consequences on water, agriculture, fishery, and
health.
• Increased salinity in rivers and damage habitats;
farmers’ and fishermen’s livelihoods are affected.
• Over the next two decades the sea level will rise
by 500 mm (16 inches).
• A major part of Northern and Eastern areas of Sri
Lanka will be submerged when the sea level
rises.
• Sri Lanka will experience dry areas becoming
drier and wet areas becoming wetter, leadings to
floods in some areas and droughts in others.

71. 1. Effects on Tea
sector.
• Tea can show high yields
in the wet zone hill
country. As the extreme
heavy rains erode top
soil, about 30 cm of soil
has already been eroded,
and this will be further
aggravated by climate
change thus affecting the
tea plantations.

72. 2. Effects on
Coconut
sector.
• The fruit formation
can be adversely
affected by rising
temperature and
change in rainfall
mainly due to
reduction of pollen
quality and/ or
germination.

73. 3. Effects on Paddy
sector.
• High temperature and less
or shorter rains (less water)
will result in paddy
farming output falling by
20%-30 % in the next 20
to30 years. Paddy is
cultivated by small farm
families where the cost of
production is much higher
than the selling price, and
low production would
aggravate this situation.

74. 4. Effects on Plantation crops in
general
• Prolonged droughts
also affect plantation
crops such as tea,
rubber and coconut and
minor export crops such
as cocoa and coffee,
which account for
slightly more than
700,000 hectares of
agricultural land in the
wet and intermediate
zones.