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A Theoretical Framework For The Study Of ICT In Schools A Proposal
1.
British Journal of
Educational Technology Vol 33 No 4 2002 411â421 © British Educational Communications and Technology Agency, 2002. Published by Blackwell Publishers Ltd, 108 Cowley Road, Oxford, OX4 1JF, UK and 350 Main Street, Malden, MA 02148, USA. A theoretical framework for the study of ICT in schools: a proposal Cher Ping Lim Dr Lim is an assistant professor in the Instructional Science Academic Group, National Institute of Education. His research interests include the integration of ICT in the learning environment, educational applications and dangers of the Internet, and design aspects and pedagogues of E-learning. Address for correspondence: National Institute of Education, Nanyang Technological University, 1 Nanyang Walk, Singapore 637616. Tel: +65 6790 3279; fax: +65 6399 4057; email cplim@nie.edu.sg Abstract A sociocultural approach towards the study of Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) in education rejects the view that ICT can be studied in isolation; it must be studied within the broader context in which it is situated. The paper argues for a more holistic approach of studying ICT in schools by adopting a sociocultural perspective. It proposes a theoretical framework based on activity theory, with the activity system as a unit of analysis that is surrounded by different levels of ecological circles. Introduction As we move into the 21st century, schools have to enculturate students to be lifelong learners. Students need to learn how to seek out new information, think critically and show initiative to meet up with the challenges of the fast-changing world. Research studies of Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) in schools have established that ICT facilitates the enculturation processes of lifelong learning (Sivin- Kachala, 1998; Wenglinsky, 1998; Mann, Shakeshaft, Becker and Kottkamp, 1999). However, many of these studies lack detailed investigation of what actually takes place in the ICT learning environment and its sociocultural context. ICT does not exist in isolation; it is interwoven with the rest of the tools and participants in the learning environment. Therefore, research studies in ICT need to shift their attention towards the whole configuration of events, activities, contents, and interpersonal processes taking place in the context that ICT is used. Such studies are particularly critical to educational research where the object of its inquiry is not simply knowledge, but useable know- ledge: knowledge that is âresponsive to the current or emerging needs of practitioners and ultimately to the solution of professional and social problemsâ (Richey, 1998, 7).
2.
This paper first
argues for a more holistic approach to the study of ICT in schools. It then adopts a sociocultural perspective, and proposes a theoretical framework based on the activity system (Engeström, 1987) as a unit of analysis that is surrounded by different levels of ecological circles (Cole, 1995). Towards a sociocultural approach of ICT in schools As ICT enters the sociocultural setting of the school, it âweaves itself into learning in many more ways than its original promoters could possibly have anticipatedâ (Papert, 1993, 53). It may trigger changes in the activities, curriculum and interpersonal relation- ships in the learning environment, and is reciprocally affected by the very changes it causes (Salomon, 1993). From this perspective, ICT is a mediational tool, incorporated within learning environments with authentic goals and purposes for students, and settings that are explicitly interpreted with other experiences of knowing and understanding as they get organised at other times. Considering ICT as a mediational tool, the following are the implications for the study of ICT in schools. First, the employment of mediational tools fundamentally shapes the activities in the learning environment (Wertsch, 1991). When the cognitive opportunities of ICT are taken up and integrated with planning, enactment and assessment of both teaching and learning activities, a change of pedagogy may be necessary. Teachers may have to rethink the purpose of the lesson, the nature of the task that should be set, and the method of assessing how students carry it out. Students may have to rethink the way they approach the task, and assess how best to use the new tool to carry out the task. Inevitably, the use of ICT in education shapes the teaching and learning activities. Second, the power of mediational tools in organising activities is often not consciously recognised by those who use them, which contributes to the belief that cultural tools are the product of natural or necessary factors rather than of concrete sociocultural factors (Wertsch, 1991). Research studies have shown that the cognitive opportunities of ICT are not automatically taken up in the learning environment. In her study of the use of word-processor in the classroom, Cochran-Smith (1991) observed that most stu- dents used it primarily to make minor stylistic, grammatical, and spelling corrections and to get nice printouts. Only the more experienced ones utilised the powerful editing mechanisms of the word-processor to plan their essays and make structural revision. Draper (1998) claims that most ICT packages do not have significant effect on learning and teaching activities in schools because only a small proportion of their potential is used. And third, as mediational tools are âproducts of cultural, historical, and institutional forces that may have little obvious relevance to the local settings in which they are employed, they shape these settings in ways that might otherwise not be deemed appro- priate from the perspective of intermental and intramental functioningâ (Wertsch, 1991, 38). There is a context for the ICT experiences that encompasses activities 412 British Journal of Educational Technology Vol 33 No 4 2002 © British Educational Communications and Technology Agency, 2002.
3.
peripheral to the
particular times and formats of the ICT interaction itself. Salomon (1993, 189) proposes: âNo tool is good or bad in itself; its effectiveness results from and contributes to the whole configuration of events, activities, contents, and interpersonal processes taking place in the context of which it is been used.â Therefore, the study of ICT in education cannot be fractured from the learning environ- ment in which it is situated. ICT may trigger changes in the activities, curriculum and interpersonal relationships in the learning environment, and is reciprocally affected by the very changes it causes. The study of ICT in schools needs to consider the social pro- cesses that ICT supports during the circumstances of use, and how the ICT experience is integrated into the discourse of learning to develop higher order thinking skills. Activity system as a unit of analysis In order to deal with this task, the activity theoretical framework is adopted to demon- strate the intimate mechanisms that link ICT, learning and their sociocultural settings. Modern activity theory originated from Soviet cultural-historical psychology (Vygotsky, 1978; Leontâev, 1981), which in turn was rooted in both eighteenth and nineteenth century classical German philosophyâfrom Hegelâs idealism to the historical materialism of Marx and Engels, in which the concept of activity was extensively elaborated. Like Marx and Engels, Vygotsky and Leontâev took as their premises âreal individuals, their activity and the material conditions under which they live, both those which they find already existing and those produced by their activityâ (Marx and Engel, 1970, p. 46). Activity theory has been successfully used to analyse successes, failures and contra- dictions in complex situations without reductionist simplifications (for example, Engreström and Escalante, 1996; Miettinen. 1998). It offers a set of conceptual tools that is applicable to various situations to understand the coupling of cognition and activity. Activity theory draws on Vygotskian theory of cognition where higher mental function appears âtwice, or on two planes. First it appears on the social plane and then on the psychological plane. First it appears between people as an interpsychological category and then within the individual child (learner) as an intrapsychological categoryâ (Vygotsky, 1978, 57). Throughout Vygotskyâs (1978) formulation of a sociocultural approach to cognition is the claim that higher mental functioning and human action in general are mediated by tools (or âtechnical toolsâ) and signs (or âpsychological toolsâ). The consequence of tools mediating the activity is that âinstead of applying directly its natural function to the solution of a particular task, the child (learner) puts between that function and the task a certain auxiliary means⊠by the medium of which the child (learner) man- ages to perform the taskâ (Luria, 1928, as cited in Cole, 1995, 191). From this perspective, cognition is no longer studied in light of individuals learning in isolation with only their minds to guide them; instead, the emphasis is on individuals learning with a wide variety of tools, and people that help them carry out their goal-oriented activities in a sociocultural setting. A theoretical framework for the study of ICT in schools 413 © British Educational Communications and Technology Agency, 2002.
4.
The study of
ICT in schools may then ground its research in a unit of analysis that allows one to observe the actual processes by which sociocultural setting and cognition shape and are shaped by ICT tools. There is a basic unit common to the analysis of the learning processes both at the individual and social level, including the mediational tools and artefacts that link the processes together. This unit of analysis âconsists of an individual engaged in goal-directed activity under conventionalised constraintsâ (Cole, 1985, 158). The centrality of activity in sociocultural research is reflected in Leontâevâs (1981, 46â47) assertion: âHuman psychology is concerned with the activity of concrete individuals, which takes place whether in a collectiveâthat is, jointly with other peopleâor in a situation in which the subject deals directly with the surrounding world of objectsâeg, at the potterâs wheel or the writerâs desk âif we removed human activity from the system of social relationships and social life, it would not exist⊠the human individualâs activity is a system in the system of social relations. It does not exist without these relations.â Therefore, activities are systems in the system of social relations. Activity theory takes a collected object-oriented activity system as its prime unit of analysis (Engeström, 1987; Engeström, Miettinen, and PunamĂ€ki, 1998). The unit of analysis allows one to observe the actual learning processes in context, where the context is the activity system. It integrates the subject (individual participant), the object, the tools and the dynamic nature of human activities. Engeström (1987) represent the idea of activity systems as a unit of analysis with an expanded version of the classical mediational triangle. The classical mediational triangle represents the basic structure of human cognition that results from tool mediation. Drawing upon Vygotskyâs (1978) higher and elementary mental functioning, âunmediatedâ (elementary) functioning occurs along the base of the triangle; while âmediatedâ (higher) functioning are interactions between the subject (individual) and object (task) mediated by tools, at the vertex of the triangle (see Figure 1). However, this basic mediational triangle fails to account for the collective and dynamic nature of activities. The expanded version adds the crucial components of community, rules and division of labour to the classical mediational triangle. Individuals exist in communities where there is division of labour with the âcontinuously negotiated distribution of tasks, powers, and responsibilities among the participants of the activity systemâ. The relations between the individual (subject) and community are mediated by the com- munityâs collection of mediating tools, and rules. Rules are âthe norms and sanctions that specify and regulate the expected correct procedures and acceptable interactions among the participantsâ (Cole and Engeström, 1993, 7) (see Figure 1). The model of activity system is dynamic across time where there are continuous constructions and reconstructions among its components. For example, there are ongoing negotiation and reformulation of rules by the subject rather than subject abiding by fixed rules. The tools are continuously reconstructed or new tools developed by both the subject and his/her community to meet the object of the activity system. 414 British Journal of Educational Technology Vol 33 No 4 2002 © British Educational Communications and Technology Agency, 2002.
5.
The division of
labour is always in the process of redefinition and refinement by the subject and his/her community. Even the object is constantly in transition and under construction, and âit manifests itself in different forms for different participants and at different moments of the activityâ (Hasu and Engeström, 1999, 4). Taking an ICT-based lesson in a school as an activity system, the specific elements in the learning environment fit into the various components of the expanded version of the mediational triangle. The subject is the individual student and the object is to understand the relationships among the variables found in an ICT-based simulation package. A pool of ICT and non-ICT tools, including the simulation package, in the learning environment mediate the interactions between the subject and object. Besides the ICT package, these mediating tools consist of the whiteboard, whiteboard markers, notebook, pens, data projector, projector screen, overhead projector, and textbooks. The student belongs to a community consisting of his/her classmates, teachers and ICT staff, situated in a sociocultural setting mediated by rules and division of labour. The rules include the general school rules and regulations, or more specific ones like the procedures necessary to run the simulation program. The role that each individual of the community has to play in the activity system falls under the division of labour. The individual student is expected to be a scientist at work, gathering, representing, inter- preting, and analysing data. The teacher takes on more of a mediator role than he/she will take in a non-ICT environment. He/she shares with students the well-defined tasks of questioning, clarifying, summarising, and predicting to help them understand the relationships among the variables under study. A theoretical framework for the study of ICT in schools 415 © British Educational Communications and Technology Agency, 2002. Figure 1: The expanded version of the classical mediational triangle Mediating tools: ICT and non-ICT Rules: General rules, specific rules Community: Classmates, teachers, ICT staff Division of labour: Roles Subject: Individual student Object: Higher order thinking skills
6.
Taking activity systems
as a unit of analysis provides important insights into the study of ICT in schools. First, it provides a conceptual map to the major loci among which human cognition is distributed in the learning environment, with ICT as one of the mediating tools. Second, it includes other people who must be taken into account simultaneously with the subject as constituents of the activity systems. Third, institu- tionalised activities are more robust and enduring than an individual goal-directed activity, making analysis less problematic (Cole and Engeström, 1993). And fourth, it considers the history and developmental phases of the ICT integration processes that is represented by âsome historically identifiable ideal-typical qualitative pattern or constellation of its components and inner relationsâ (Engeström, 1993, 69). Therefore, the concept of activity system provides a seminal formulation in a Vygotskian approach of a unit of analysis that serves as the starting point for a sociocultural approach towards the study of ICT in schools: âreal activities of real peopleâ over time (Cole, 1985, 159). Situating the activity system in a broader context One of the limitations of activity theory is its narrow view of culture (Kaptelinin, 1996). Although activity system as a unit of analysis captures the activities mediated by students, teachers, ICT tools and non-ICT tools in the learning environment, it fails to look at the broader context in which ICT is situatedâthe school, education system and society-at-large. To situate the activity system of an ICT-based lesson within a broader context, Coleâs (1995) garden-as-culture metaphor is adopted. Culture and garden share a basic idea about creating an artificial environment with optimal conditions for growth of young organisms, mediated by tools and other organisms. Cole (1995, 196) draws a parallel between the role of the sociocultural researcher and the gardener that both âmust attend simultaneously to two classes of concerns: what transpires inside the system (âgardenâ) they study (or design and study) and what transpires around itâ. These two classes cannot be addressed independently of each other, as the garden is dependent on the larger ecological system within which it is embedded. Cole (1995) has applied the garden metaphor to the Fifth Dimension, a specially designed learning environment for promoting the all-around intellectual and social development of six to twelve year old children in the United States. The study of the Fifth Dimension suggests that a change of culture in the broader context, a switch of institu- tional setting, or a change in focus on a different activity in the activity system is likely to change the higher mental functioning displayed by the individual child. How- ever, the change will not be a random one. It will be in accord with the culture operating at each level of context in the new learning situation. Knowledge of the operations and interdependence of the cultures, at various levels of context, will empower the study to provide a better understanding of where and how ICT is situated in the academic course. Applying the garden metaphor to the study of ICT will provide a more adequate and detailed account of the activity systems. Figure 2 shows the schematic overview of a sociocultural approach towards the study of ICT in schools. 416 British Journal of Educational Technology Vol 33 No 4 2002 © British Educational Communications and Technology Agency, 2002.
7.
In this âconcentricâ
model, successive circles represent the activity systems in the broader contexts of the ICT-based lesson. The activity system of the ICT-based lesson, with its interacting components, is in the innermost circle. The next circle represents the activity A theoretical framework for the study of ICT in schools 417 © British Educational Communications and Technology Agency, 2002. Figure 2: Applying the garden metaphor to the activities systems Activity systems Tools Subject Object Rules Community Division of labour Activity systems Course of study School Education system Society at large Assessment, curriculum, entry requirement, layout of classrooms Type, location, ethos, ICT facilities, time-table, type of students, parents, peers, home computers Examination boards, education policies, league table, recruitment and training of teachers Employers, publishers, software developers Adapted from Cole 1995, p. 198, fig. 8.1
8.
system of the
academic course with elements such as mode of assessment (tools), curriculum (object and tools), layout of the classrooms and ICT rooms (rules), entry requirement to the course (rules and community), and roles of course participants (division of labour and community). The next higher level of context or activity system is the school where the course is situated. Elements to consider include the type, location, layout and ethos of the school (rules and community), ICT facilities (tools), type of students, parents, peers (community), home computers (tools), time-tabling of ICT and non-ICT lessons (rules), and roles of different members of the school (division of labour and community). The countryâs education system is in the next circle with elements such as education policies on use of ICT (rules), examination boards (tools and community), league table (object and rules), the recruitment, training and retention of teachers (community and roles), and the division of labour among major stakeholders of the education system. The outermost circle is the society at large in the country and consists of elements such as education software developers, publishers (community and division of labour), and public perceptions of schools and teachers, and expectations of employers (rules, object and community). The activity systems at different levels may change over time, but they are always interdependent of one another. Nothing is unidirectional in such an interactive system. Changes that are initiated by any of the components of an activity system have an impact on the components of the other activity systems (Cole, 1995). Limitations of the theoretical framework Although Coleâs (1995) ecological circles address the limitation of the narrow view of culture that is adopted by activity theory, there are other limitations that have not been addressed. First, activity theory was originally developed for understanding individual activity (Kaptelinin, 1996). Yet, the subject may be a group or an individual. In the case of the subject being a group of students, it cannot be assumed that all of them share the same object in the activity system. A way around it may be to identify the dominant object and adopt it as the object of the activity system of the group of students. Second, âthe border between a tool and reality is rather unclear; information technology can provide the user not only with representations of objects of reality but also with a sort of reality as such, which does not obviously represent anything else and is intended to be just one more environment with which the individual interactsâ (Kaptelinin, 1996, 64). This unclear border is a problem virtual reality presents to activity theory. However, it may be addressed by drawing upon the distributed cognition approach, in which internal and external representations of the artefacts are examined (Hutchins, 1991). Third, activity theory is not operationalised enough (Kaptelinin, 1996). The field still lacks sufficient methods and techniques that can be utilised directly to answer certain research questions of ICT in education. Some techniques for the application of activity theory in ICT in schools may include video analysis of various learning activities involved 418 British Journal of Educational Technology Vol 33 No 4 2002 © British Educational Communications and Technology Agency, 2002.
9.
in observing the
use of ICT in the learning environment combined with traditional ethnographic approaches of observations and interviews (Bellamy, 1996). Conclusion: developing a research agenda for the study of ICT in Singapore schools A sociocultural approach towards the study of ICT in schools rejects the view that ICT can be studied in isolation, or as a single variable in the learning environment hold- ing all other things constant. Instead it must be studied within the learning environ- ment and the broader context in which it is situated. The paper has argued for a more holistic approach of studying ICT in schools by adopting a sociocultural perspective. It proposes a theoretical framework based on the activity system as a unit of analysis (Engeström, 1987) that is surrounded by different levels of ecological circles (Cole, 1995). By adopting the proposed framework and addressing its limitations, we will be able to study and document both the âsuccessfulâ and âunsuccessfulâ integration of ICT in schools with particular learning environments and their sociocultural context (education system and society at large). From these discussions, a research agenda can then be generated for the study of ICT in Singapore schools. The Singapore Masterplan for ICT in Education was launched in April 1997. One of its goals was to ensure that by the end of 2002, all 368 schools in Singapore would be equipped with the necessary hardware, software and infrastructure that would support an ICT integrated learning environment. At its launch, the Minister of Education in his opening speech elaborated on the rationale: âSingaporeâs Masterplan for Information Technology in Education lays out a comprehensive strategy for creating an IT-based teaching and learning environment in every school. It will be one of our key strategies for equipping our young with skills that are critical for the futureâcreative thinking, the ability to learn independently and continuously, and effective communication.â (Ministry of Education, 1997) As the process of ICT integration in Singapore schools reaches a considerable level of maturity and stability, it is timely to conduct a study to address the pertinent question of: âWhere and how ICT is situated in Singapore schools to mediate the learning process of students?â The proposed theoretical framework and research purpose discussed above provide the parameters, tools and general guide for the study to address the question. The research study may be carried out in two phases. Phase one comprises a self-reporting questionnaire to be sent out to all schools in Singapore. One of the main objectives of the questionnaire is to assess the level of ICT integration in schools by identifying the various sociocultural elements that influence the successful integration of ICT in Singapore schools. The other objectives are to serve as a screening phase to identify the case studies for phase two of the study, and to refine and guide the direction of phase two of the study. A theoretical framework for the study of ICT in schools 419 © British Educational Communications and Technology Agency, 2002.
10.
The questionnaire may
explore different aspects of ICT integration in schools that include school ICT culture (leadership support, exchange of ideas and experiences, and extent of staff involvement in review of school ICT programme), pupil use of ICT (pro- ficiency of pupils in the use of ICT, and pupilsâ usage for learning), teacher use of ICT (teachersâ proficiency in the use of ICT, and integration of IT by teachers in the class- room), management of ICT resources (accessibility to ICT resources, and monitoring process of ICT resources to optimise usage) and staff development (opportunities for staff development in the area of ICT integration, and review of staff development to meet the needs of ICT integration). Phase two is a collective case study of schools at different levels: primary schools, secondary schools and junior colleges. The sample of schools at each level is chosen based on their degree of ICT integration reported in phase one. Case study research is the most appropriate methodological tradition, given that the purpose of the study emphasises the context of ICT use. To gather accounts of different realities constructed by various groups and individuals in different environments, both qualitative and quantitative methods are drawn upon: observations of ICT and non-ICT based lessons, face-to-face interviews with principals and ICT-coordinators, focus group interviews with students and teachers, questionnaires for teachers and students, samples of studentsâ work and schoolsâ documentation. The proposed theoretical framework described earlier then, allows us to generate a comprehensive research agenda to study and document the totality of âsuccessfulâ and âunsuccessfulâ ICT integration into Singaporean schools. Such a study will inform policy- makers, school administrators and teachers about how to take up the opportunities and address the limitations of ICT, and how to successfully integrate ICT in schools, specifically within their broader sociocultural contexts. References Bellamy R (1996) Designing educational technology: computer-mediated change in Nardi B A (ed) Context and Consciousness: Activity Theory and Human-Computer Interaction MIT Press, Cambridge MA. Cochran-Smith M (1991) Word processing and writing in elementary classroom: a critical review of related literature Review of Educational Research 61 107â155. Cole M (1985) The zone of proximal development: where culture and cognition create each other in Wertsch J V (ed) Culture, Communication and Cognition: Vygotskian Perspectives Cambridge University Press, New York. Cole M (1995) Socio-cultural-historical psychology: some general remarks and a proposal for a new kind of cultural-genetic methodology in Wertsch J V, RĂo P D, and Alvarez A (eds) Sociocultural Studies of Mind Cambridge University Press, New York. Cole M and Engeström Y (1993) A cultural-historical approach to distributed cognition in Salomon G (ed) Distributed Cognitions: Psychological and Educational Considerations Cambridge University Press, New York. Draper S W (1998) Niche-based success in CAL Computers and Education 30 (1/2) 5â8. Engeström R (1987) Learning by Expanding: An Activity-Theoretical Approach to Developmental Research Orienta-Konsultit, Helsinki. 420 British Journal of Educational Technology Vol 33 No 4 2002 © British Educational Communications and Technology Agency, 2002.
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Engeström R (1993)
Developmental studies on work as a test bench of activity theory in Chaiklin S and Lave J (eds) Understanding Practice: Perspectives on Activity and Context Cambridge University Press, New York. Engeström Y and Escalante V (1996) Mundane tool or object of affection? The rise and fall of the postal buddy in Nardi B (ed) Context and Consciousness: Activity Theory and Human-Computer Interaction MIT, Cambridge MA. Engeström Y, Miettinen R and PunamĂ€ki R-L (eds) (1998) Perspectives on Activity Theory Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Hasu M and Engeström R (1999) Measurement in action: an activity-theoretical perspective on producer-user interaction Working Paper of University of Helsinki, University of Helsinki, Helsinki. Hutchins E (1991) How a cockpit remembers its speeds. University of California, Department of Cognitive Science, Ms La Jolla. Kaptelinin V (1996) Computer-mediated activity: functional organs in social and developmental contexts in Nardi B A (ed) Context and Consciousness: Activity Theory and Human-Computer Interaction MIT Press, Cambridge MA. Leontâev A N (1981) The problem of activity in Psychology in Wertsch J V (ed) The Concept of Activity in Soviet Psychology Sharpe, New York. Mann D, Shakeshaft C, Becker J and Kottkamp R (1999) West Virginiaâs Basic Skills/Computer Education Program: An Analysis of Student Achievement Milken Family Foundation, Santa Monica CA. Marx K and Engels F (1970) The German Ideology {Arthur C J (ed); Lough W, Dutt C and Magill C P (trans)}, International Publishers, New York. Miettinen R (1998) Object construction and networks in research work: the case of research on cellulose-degrading enzymes Social Studies of Science 29 423â463. Ministry of Education (1997) Launch of Masterplan for IT in Education Press Release 015/97 Available at: <http://www1.moe.edu.sg/press/1997/pr01597.htm> Papert S (1993) The Childrenâs Machine: Rethinking School in the Age of the Computer BasicBooks, New York. Richey R C (1998) The pursuit of useable knowledge in instructional technology Educational Technology Research and Development 46 (4) 7â22. Salomon G (1993) On the nature of pedagogic computer tools: the case of the Writing Partner in Lajoie S P and Derry S J (eds) Computers as Cognitive Tools Lawrence Ehbaum Association, New Jersey. Sivin-Kachala J (1998) Report on the Effectiveness of Technology in Schools 1990â1997 Software Publisherâs Association, Washington DC. Vygotsky L S (1978) Mind in Society: The Development of Higher Psychological Processes Harvard University Press, Cambridge MA. Wenglinsky H (1998) Does it Compute? The Relationship between Educational Technology and Student Achievement in Mathematics Educational Testing Service Policy Information Center, Princeton NJ. Wertsch J V (1991) Voices of the Mind: A Sociocultural Approach to Mediated Action Simon and Schuster International Group, New York. A theoretical framework for the study of ICT in schools 421 © British Educational Communications and Technology Agency, 2002.
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