A STUDY ON THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC STATUS OF AGRICULTURAL FARMERS

A STUDY ON
THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC STATUS OF AGRICULTURAL FARMERS
A dissertation submitted as a part of the internship program on
Agricultural Psychology
Submitted by:
AYINDRELA HALDER
Under the supervision of
Dr. Debdulal Dutta Roy
Associate Professor
Psychology Research Unit
Indian Statistical Institute
APRIL 2021
INDIAN STATISTICAL INSTITUTE
203, B.T.ROAD
KOLKATA-700108

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Serial No. Content Page No.
1 ABSTRACT 2
2 INTRODUCTION 3 – 4
3 OBJECTIVES 4
4 LITERATURE REVIEW 5 – 8
5 METHODOLOGY 9
6 STUDY AREA (DEGANGA) 9 - 13
7 STUDY AREA (HINGALGANJ) 13 - 18
8 STUDY AREA (BADURIA) 18 - 23
9 STUDY AREA (GOBARDANGA) 23 - 26
10 STUDY AREA (KHAMARIA) 26 - 27
11
STUDY AREA (PANSKURA)
27 - 28
12
STUDY AREA (BALICHAK)
28 - 33
13
STUDY AREA (GALSI)
33 - 36
14
STUDY AREA (NAGAUKRAH)
36 - 38
15
STUDY AREA (PANDUA)
38 - 41
16
DISCUSSION
42 - 44
17
CONCLUSION
45
18
REFERENCES
46 - 47
19
ANNEXURE
48 - 50

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ABSTRACT
The present study is an attempt to determine the socio-economic conditions of the farmers of
10 blocks namely, Hingalganj, Baduria, Khamaria, Deganga, Panskura, Balichak, Galsi,
Nagaukhra, Pandua and, Gobardanga in different districts of West Bengal, separately. The
data and information were based on the data collected by Dr. Debdulal Dutta Roy to examine
the self-efficacy of the farmers of the selected blocks spread across West Bengal.
Socio-economic characteristics about demography, monthly income, and expenditure,
income, and expenditure from agriculture, the pattern of people living in a particular location,
and other details related to their cultivation profile. It was found that the majority of the
farmers across the blocks were middle-aged, educated up to the secondary level, and had an
average or below-average income and expenditure as compared to the average monthly
income and expenditure of the farmers of India. In the end, blocks specific to one district
were examined to compare their socio-economic status of that district. This was only possible
for North 24 Parganas and Medinipur as here the majority of the blocks were concentrated.
The rest of the blocks belonged to different districts, hence for them, a comparative analysis
was not drawn.
Keywords: Socio-economic status, Farmers, Blocks, West Bengal.

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CHAPTER - Ⅰ
INTRODUCTION
Agriculture is the primary source of generating economic stability, especially for developing
countries like India. According to the reports of 2018, agriculture has employed more than
50% of the Indian work force and also contributed 17–18% to the country's GDP. India ranks
first in the world, with the highest net cropped area, followed by the US and China. The
economic contribution of agriculture to India's GDP is steadily declining with the country's
broad-based economic growth. Despite this, agriculture is demographically the broadest
economic sector that plays a significant role in the overall socio-economic fabric of India.
Thus, much of the responsibility of the country’s development lies on the shoulders of the
farmers. As a result, studying and understanding the lives of the farmers and their well-being
is paramount. The growth and development of our farmers will leave a direct impact on the
country. India's National Policy for Farmers 2007 defines “farmer” as those who are actively
engaged in the economic and/or livelihood activity of growing crops and producing other
primary agricultural commodities. They include all agricultural operational holders,
cultivators, agricultural labourers, sharecroppers, tenants, poultry and livestock rearers,
fishers, beekeepers, gardeners, pastoralists, non-corporate planters and planting labourers, as
well as people engaged in various farming related occupations such as sericulture,
vermiculture, and agroforestry.
Socio-economic status is that field of study that examines social and economic factors to
better understand how the combination of both influences something. The socio-economic
characteristics pertaining to demography, means of production and investment of income and
the expenditure pattern of people living in a particular location are some of the crucial factors
that help in determining the social and economic status of the people of that location. Based
on these factors/dimensions, developmental policies can be enhanced and planned, keeping
the location as the focal point (Masudkar DD, Kamble VB & Anarase MS, 2017). Apart from
this, aspects of housing are typically analyzed in isolation from one other. But in reality, and
in principle, they are all part of the same bundle of housing characteristics from which
families make decisions and trade-offs within their needs and constraints (Coley et al., 2014;
Kull & Coley, 2014; Leventhal & Newman, 2010).

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The present study focuses on the various factors that shape the socio-economic conditions of
the selected villages in West Bengal. Socio-economic characteristics pertaining to
demography, monthly income and expenditure, income and expenditure from agriculture,
pattern of people living in a particular location and their lifestyle are examined in the present
study. The chosen variables shall closely investigate the factors that determine a certain kind
of economic stability in the society. The objective of this study is to examine the
socio-economic status of the farmers of these blocks.
OBJECTIVES
The present dissertation work entitled "A study on the socio-economic status of Agricultural
Farmers " has been carried out by the following objective:
● To examine the socio economic status of agricultural farmers.

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CHAPTER - Ⅱ
LITERATURE REVIEW
Previous research has found a typical relationship between socio-economic status and one's
standard of living. From the literature, it was found that there has been a lot of research done
on Indian farmers however the socio-economic status has been in few research papers
indicating the economic status of our farmers. Economic and financial well-being is one of
the most important contexts, with poorer households faced with fewer housing options and
greater constraints, greater residential instability, fewer opportunities for upward housing
mobility, and lesser quality housing and neighborhoods (Baker & Lester, 2017; Clark, 2016;
Lawrence et al., 2015; Shuey et al., 2016).
A study conducted by Masudkar DD, Kamble VB and Anarase MS (2017) on the
socio-economic conditions where factors pertaining to demography, means of production and
investment income and expenditure pattern of the farmers of adopted and non-adopted
villages of Latur district of Maharashtra were measured. 75 respondents were selected from
the adopted village. From the study it was found that the majority of the respondents
belonging to adopted villages were from middle aged, educated up to middle school
education level, belonging to the open category with medium and lower equal size of family
having marginal land holding category with medium annual income, scientific orientation,
economic motivation, risk preference. Regarding non adopted village respondents they were
found in the middle age, open category, having large size of family, medium land holding
category, with medium annual income, scientific orientation, risk preference, economic
motivation having medium level category. In respect of socio-economic status it was found
that the majority of adopted and non adopted village respondents had medium level of
socio-economic status.
James O'Donnell, Meg Kingsley in the year 2020 attempted to find out whether associations
exist across the early life course or how they operate in tandem. They investigated this using
multilevel growth curve modelling of Australian panel data, focusing on children’s

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socio-emotional health over ages four to 15. It was found that housing characteristics, namely
residential instability, family composition, housing tenure and costs and the physical
condition of the home dwelling have small significant associations with children’s
internalizing and externalizing behaviors that change over the course of childhood and
adolescence. Low-income households typically face housing disadvantages on several,
though not necessarily all dimensions, potentially adding to the developmental burden on
children. The results therefore suggest that housing disadvantages may compound and add to
the effects of broader socioeconomic disadvantage on children.
In another study conducted by Kolte et. al., talked about the various issues faced by farmers
in context of both psychological and socioeconomic variables, which affects the stability of
farmers cerebrally and somatically. Furthermore, how these issues affect the livelihood of
farmers in turn drifting them to take extreme measures by forcing them to end their own lives
is also being discussed. With light shed upon the recent finding and the study of various
factors associated with the farmers suicide case, it was observed that the socio-economic
status was more linked to have an effect on the psychological well being of the farmers thus
resulting in abrupt measures taken by the vulnerable farmers. Decrease in yield of the
produce, loss of employment, decrease in income of farmers, along with the social impacts
and environmental impacts all these causes are interrelated and tend to intensify together.
Prem Shankar Mishra, Prashant Chaudhary, Ankit Anand (2020), (India) conducted a cross
sectional household survey on the migrant and non-migrant children in different
socio-economic groups. This paper was therefore an attempt to understand the inequality in
accessing different child vaccination coverage across migrants and non-migrants in India.
The objective of this study was to look at the immunization uptake among migrant children in
different socio-economic groups in comparison to non-migrants children in India. Study used
data from the National Family Health Survey, the fourth in the NFHS series which was
conducted in 2015–2016.
In the year 2013 Dr. Rakesh Kumar Sharma and Dr. Ravi Kiran attempted to deal with the
socio-economic status of farmers of two districts of Punjab, Sangrur and Patiala districts. The
research was based on both the primary and secondary data. Primary data had been collected
from 61 households in the districts of Patiala and Sangrur. Socio-economic conditions depend

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on occupations, education, income, wealth, and place of residence. Sociologists often use
socio-economic status as a means of predicting behaviour.
In another study conducted by Singh et. al., (2016), was a survey with 59 farmers from several
villages of Satara district. The research work focuses on systematic assessment of
socioeconomic status of the farmers from drought prone regions of Maharashtra, India.
Family members, debt, loan recovery capacity, number of animals, and source of irrigation
were some of the common terms taken from the literature for the discussion on the
socio-economic status of the farmers.
A study, by M.L. Roy et. al., (2013), tried to investigate SES of hill farmers to correlate it
with their adoption of improved farm practices which were meant for higher yield, return,
proper utilization of natural resources, sustainable livelihood security and food & nutritional
enrichment. The study was conducted in Bhagar Tola and Maniagar villages of Dhauladevi
block in Almora district of Uttarakhand during 2011-12. Sixty farmers were selected
randomly. Ten variables viz. category, age, education, occupation, social participation,
landholding, herd size, farming experience, annual income and material possession were
selected to assess the SES. Data was collected through a structured interview schedule by
personal interview method.
Estimates of decomposition analysis for quantifying the contribution of various explanatory
variables for early marriage among men were also presented by Shekhar Chauhan et. al.,
(2020), attempted to explore prevalence, determinants and socio-economic inequality of early
marriage among men in India. It assessed the various reasons associated with early marriage
among men and also investigated the region-wise inequality in India with the help of the
concentration curve. This study utilized data from National Family Health Survey-4 with a
sample size of 71,666 ever-married men. Men who had higher education levels were 46%
less likely to marry before the age 21 than men who had no education [OR: 0.54, P<0.01].
Alberto Quaglio et. al., (2010) examined the socio-economic status of patients with breast
cancer of the Liguria Region cancer registry. The study aimed to investigate the effect of age
and socio-economic status (SES) on breast cancer relative survival at 5 years from diag-
nosis (RS-5%). The Liguria Region Cancer Registry collected clinico-pathological
information for 1081 patients resident in Genoa city diagnosed in 1996 and 2000. Patients

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were divided into three age groups (0–49, 50–69 and ≥70 years) and into quintiles of SES,
measured according to a synthetic regional deprivation index built by Census tract variables
and validated by comparison with the national deprivation index. The survival observed for
breast cancer patients resident in Genoa was very high, however elderly and very low SES
women have to be monitored. These variations are probably due to inequity in healthcare
access and to a difficulty taken in charge.
G. Sreenivasa Reddy et. al (2015) worked on the socioeconomic conditions of farmers of
Kurnool district of Andhra pradesh with a sample size of 100 farmers. The data was collected
through a survey by building a questionnaire. The study revealed the socioeconomic status of
the farmer based on education level, type of family, the main source of income, and annual
income of the family. The study also did on a number of crops growing in a year, main crop
that grows in a year, the kind of seeds used, kind of fertiliser used, irrigation facilities etc.
A socio-economic survey was performed by G. Sreenivasa Reddy et. al., (2015) on the selected
farmers whose primary source of income was agriculture and adopting agroforestry in their
farm land. Survey was done to analyze the social and economic status of the selected farmers.
Most of the farmers were less educated but still they were accepting the new changes in
agroforestry pattern, keeping small and medium sized nuclear families to meet economic
needs and maintain social status. As the farmers of Basavanapura and Hejjige village were
educated till primary school but still due to indigenous knowledge of tree cultivation in farm
land promoting them to cultivate horticulture crop like Arecanut, coconut, Sapota and banana
with agriculture crops or pasture crops for commercial purpose and forest tree species were
grown only on bunds or in scattered manner whereas large scale farmers grown Teak
(Tectona grandis L.) and Silver oak (Grevillea robusta L.) plantations in their farm lands to
increase the efficiency of the use of resources and land-use practices and by introducing
agroforestry enterprises in order to produce sustainable increases in incomes and living
standards.

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CHAPTER - Ⅲ
METHODOLOGY
The data was collected by Dr. D. D. Roy in the year 2009. The NGOs like Swanirbhar were
contacted for collection of data from Krishi Vigyan Kendras, Central Board for Workers
Education and local contacts.
The exclusion criteria for the study conducted by Dr. D D Roy was as follows: (a) Not
suffering from psychiatric disorder or major physical illness, (b) very senior in age, (c)
marginal labour. The inclusion criteria was as follows: (a) primary occupation is agriculture,
(b) possession of own agricultural land, (c) minimum educational qualification should be
grade VIII, (d) age should not be more than 55 years.
STUDY AREA (DEGANGA)
Deganga is a community development block that forms an administrative division in North
24 Parganas district in the Indian state of West Bengal. The location coordinates of Deganga
are 22°41′36″N 88°40′41″E. It is spread across 202.09km2. It has 1 panchayat samity, 13
gram panchayats, 181 gram sansads (village councils), 108 mouzas and 108 inhabited
villages, as per the District Statistical Handbook: North 24 Parganas.
As per 2011 Census of India Deganga CD Block had a total population of 319,213, of which
309,550 were rural and 9,663 were urban. There were 163,154 (51%) males and 156,059
(49%) females. As per the 2011 census, the total number of literates in Deganga CD Block
was 222,866 (79.65% of the population over 6 years) out of which males numbered 118,553
(82.84% of the male population over 6 years) and females numbered 104,313 (76.32% of the
female population over 6 years).
Agriculture is the main source of livelihood of the people of this block. In 2010-11, Deganga
CD Block produced 21,270 tonnes of Aman paddy, the main winter crop from 8,622 hectares,
30,470 tonnes of Boro paddy (spring crop) from 8,827 hectares, 1,172 tonnes of Aus paddy

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(summer crop) from 450 hectares, 3,146 tonnes of wheat from 1,184 hectares, 118,845 tonnes
of jute from 5,068 hectares and 63,363 tonnes of potatoes from 1,398 hectares. It also
produced pulses and oilseeds.
Socio economic Status
Data source: Primary data were collected by Dr. Debdulal Dutta Roy, Associate Professor,
Psychology Research Unit, Indian Statistical Institute, Kolkata following inclusion and
exclusion criteria. Exclusion criteria include (a) no complaints of psychiatric disorder, (b) age
should not be more than 55 years, (c) no farming experience. Inclusion criteria include (a)
sharecropper, (b) possession of agricultural land, (c) minimum educational qualification
should be grade VIII.
Out of 47 participants, the majority of the farmers in Deganga were from the middle age
group (M=34, SD=16.97). The youngest farmer was 16 years old and the oldest farmer was
71 years old. The average work experience of the farmers of this block was 16 years
(M=16.07, SD=11.96). The minimum number of years worked by the farmers of 1 year and
the maximum number of years worked by the farmers is 50 years. The youngest farmer began
his career at the age of 15 years and at the age of 21 years the eldest farmer began his career.
Education plays a major role in the lives of individuals, it gives a direction in life. Thus, a
majority of the farmers of Khamaria were educated up to middle school (M=8, sd=4.09,
51.06%), 48.94% were able to receive higher education. Majority of them were Christians
(n=43, 91.49%) and only 4.25% were Muslim (n=2). The majority (n=18, 38.29%) of the
farmers were from the other backward category, 36.17% were from the general category, and
only 12.76% were Scheduled caste. Majority of the farmers were unmarried (n=23, 48.94%)
in this block, 27.66% were married and there was no response received from 30.3% of the
farmers. For the majority of the farmers (34.04%) more than two family members took part in
cultivation, for 27.66% there was only one family member involved in cultivation, and for
21.28% at least two family members were involved in cultivation. Majority of the farmers
belonged to a joint family structure (n=25, 53.19%) and only 25.53% (n=12) were from a
nuclear family. The Socio-economic conditions of farmers were given below.
The data of income and expenditure of the farmers of this block were unavailable. Unlike the
individuals living in the urban areas who are well aware of their economic whereabouts,
people living in rural areas are not always aware of these aspects or are unable to keep a

11
check of it regularly which is why it is possible to not receive information related to their
economic status.
Ceiling and wall: These factors contribute to the development of a home. Majority (55.32%)
of the farmers had ceilings made of tiles, rest of them had ceilings made of hay (n=3, 6.38%),
bamboo (n=6,12.76%), asbestos (n=4, 8.51%), or brick (n=4, 8.51%). Similarly the majority
of the (40.42%, n=19) of the farmers had walls made of soil and 31.91% (n=15) had walls
made of brick.
Kitchen, Bedroom and Latrine: Majority (n=24, 51.06%) of the farmers had at least one
kitchen at home, 36.17% (n=17) had no kitchen at home. Similarly, majority (n=21, 44.68%)
had at least one bedroom at home, 19.15% (n=9) had no bedrooms and only 27.66% had two
or more than two bedrooms at home. Majority (36.17%, n=17) of the farmers had scientific
latrines without flush, 31.91% had unscientific latrines and 17.02% had no latrines at all.
Radio, Phone and Tv: Data for the majority of the farmers for these variables was not
available, it may be assumed that the majority of them did not have access or could not afford
any of the above. However, 17.02% had at least one radio, 27.66% (n=13) had one phone and
about 4.25% (n=2) could afford one television.
Cycle: Majority (63.83%) of the farmers possessed at least one cycle for travelling purposes
and only 23.4% had two or more than two cycles.
Their data on cultivation of crops was unavailable.
STUDY AREA (HINGALGANJ)
Hingalganj is a community development block that forms an administrative division in
Basirhat subdivision of North 24 Parganas district in the Indian state of West Bengal. The
location coordinates of this area is 22°28′15″N 88°58′38″E. It has an area of 238.80 km2
, with
1 panchayat samity, 9 gram panchayats, 44 mouzas and 44 inhabited villages, as per the
District Statistical Handbook: North 24 Parganas.The Ichhamati river flows through the

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eastern part of the district. Six CD Blocks of North 24 Parganas are included in the
Sundarbans area – Hingalganj, Hasnabad, Sandeshkhali I and II, Minakhan and Haora.
As per 2011 Census of India Hingalganj CD Block had a total population of 174,545, of
which 159,469 were rural and 15,076 were urban. There were 88,937 (51%) males and
85,608 (49%) females. The total number of literates, as per the census of 2011, was 119,630
(76.85%) out of which males numbered 66,858 (84.24% of the male population over 6 years)
and females numbered 52,772 (69.17% of the female population over 6 years). Of the total
population, agricultural labourers numbered 39,809 that formed 53.42% of the entire
population of Hingalganj.
The Hingalganj CD Block is comprised of soil of mature black or brownish loam to recent
alluvium. From 2010-11, this place produced 19,915 tonnes of Aman paddy, the main winter
crop from 10,132 hectares, 1,236 tonnes of Boro paddy (spring crop) from 385 hectares,
5,501 tonnes of Aus paddy (summer crop) from 2,094 hectares, 335 tonnes of wheat from
124 hectares, 244 tonnes of jute from 12 hectares and 21 tonnes of potatoes from 1 hectare. It
also produced pulses and oilseeds.
Socio-economic conditions
Different researchers have applied various factors to explain the socio-economic status of a
group or community. These conditions, thus, depend upon many different factors such as,
age, income, education, family structure, household, occupation structure, banking service,
the percentage of BPL people, Block wise HDI rank and other economic activities etc.
(Ujjwal Dutta, 2018).
Data source: Primary data was collected by Dr. Debdulal Dutta Roy, Associate Professor,
Psychology Research Unit, Indian Statistical Institute, Kolkata following the inclusion and
should not be more than 55 years, ( c ) no farming experience. Inclusion criteria include (a)
sharecropper, (b) possession of agricultural land, (c ) minimum educational qualification
should be grade VIII. 66 farmers participated in the study.
Out of 66 participants, the majority of the farmers in Hingalganj were from the middle age
group (62.12%, M=41 years, SD=10.38). The youngest farmer was 24 years old and the
oldest farmer was 69 years old. The average work experience of the farmers of this block is

13
16 years (M=16, SD=8.45). The minimum number of years worked by the farmers is 2 years
and the maximum number of years worked by the farmers is 35 years. This indicates that they
began their career as farmers at the age of 25 years. The youngest farmer began his career at
the age of 22 years and at the age of 34 years the eldest farmer began his career. This also
indicates that the majority of the farmers were well experienced. Educational status of the
farmers of this block indicates that the majority of the farmers were educated upto higher
secondary level (M=11, SD=3, 49.06%). The representation in religion and caste was mixed.
However, most of them were Hindu (93.75%) were Hindu and few were Muslim (6.25%).
The majority (n=36, 58.06%) of the farmers were from the general category, 30.64% were
from the Scheduled Caste, 9.67% were from the Scheduled Tribe and only 1.61% belonged to
the other backward category. Majority of the farmers were married (n=47, 83.92%) in this
block. Majority of the farmers belonged to a nuclear family structure (n=37, 74%) and only
26% (n=13) were from a joint family. The Socio-economic conditions of farmers were given
below.
Monthly income: The average monthly income of the majority of the farmers of this block
was Rs.1879 (M=I879, SD=1832). The lowest monthly income earned by the farmers was
Rs. 200, and the highest monthly income was Rs. 8000. This aspect of the SES helps to
determine whether individuals are able to afford basic amenities for living. According to the
Situation Assessment Survey of Agricultural Household 2013, an average Indian farming
household earns just Rs 77,124 in a year, translating to Rs 6,427 monthly, barely enough to
cover the average monthly expenditure of Rs 6,223. Thus, the average monthly income of the
farmers of Hingalganj was very low as compared to the standard income of farmers across
the country.

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Income from agriculture: On an average (M=885, SD=831, 67.92%) the majority of the
farmers of Hingalganj derive approximately Rs.800-1600 income from agriculture. This
indicates that the income of the farmers was very low. The lowest income was Rs.100, and
the highest was Rs.5000. This indicates that apart from income from agriculture the farmers
were engaged in other activities for economic support as the average monthly income
(Rs.1879) was more than the average of income from agriculture (Rs.828).
Expenditure for agriculture: The average expenditure for agricultural purposes of the
farmers of this block was Rs.520 (M=534, SD=558). The lowest expenditure for agriculture
was Rs.50, and the highest was Rs. 3000.
The following variables indicate whether the farmers were able to fulfill the basic necessities
of life :─
Wall: About 60.31% (n=38) of the farmers have walls made of soil and 43.3% (n=26) have
walls made up of brick. The average monthly income of the farmers explain why 60.31% of
them have walls made of soil. 43.3% of the farmers with a higher monthly income (Rs.8000)
have walls made of brick.

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Kitchen: Majority (70.31%) of the farmers had at least one kitchen at their homes and about
29.68% (n=19) had no kitchens at home. The average monthly income justifies the reason
behind 70.31% of the farmers having at least one kitchen at their homes. 29.68% of the
farmers who had very low income (Rs. 200) did not have even one kitchen at home.
Ceiling: A majority of the respondents have ceilings made of hay (47.67%, n=30), 15.87%
(n=10) had ceilings made of tiles, 19.15% (n=12) had ceilings of asbestos, 14.28% (n=9) of
the ceilings were made of bricks, and only 0.03% have their ceilings made of other materials.
Land type: Majority of the farmers, 76.92% (n=40), possessed a land that grew only one
type of crop, 13.46% (n=7) grew two crops on their land and only 7.69% grew three crops on
their land. The average expenditure for agriculture (Rs. 520) indicates why the majority
(76.92%) of the farmers grew only one type of crop on their land. Farmers with higher
income from agriculture (Rs. 3000) grew more than two or three types of crops on their land.
Land area: The average land size of the farmers of this block is 4 hectares (M=4.12,
SD=3.7). The biggest land area possessed by the farmers was 20 hectares, and the smallest
land area was 0.25 hectares. The average income from agriculture defines the reason behind
farmers holding a land area of 4 hectares. And farmers with a higher income possessed larger
lands (20 hectares) and farmers with lesser income had smaller lands (0.25 hectares).
Crops: The major crops grown in this block are potatoes, pulses, oilseeds, wheat, rice and
jute. Out of the total respondents 61.11% (n=33) grew vegetables on their land. 14.81% of the
total farmers of this block grew fruits on their land. 48.15% grew potatoes. 37.04% grew
pulses on their land. Oilseeds were grown by 24.07% of the farmers. 9.26% grew wheat on
their land. And finally Jute was grown by 37.04% of the farmers of Hingalganj.
STUDY AREA (BADURIA)
Baduria is a community development block that forms an administrative division in Basirhat
subdivision of North 24 Parganas district in the Indian state of West Bengal. The coordinates
of this area are 22.69°N 88.78°E. This block has a land area of 179.72 km2. It has 1

16
panchayat samity, 14 gram panchayats and 97 mouzas as per District Statistical Handbook:
North 24 Parganas.
As per 2011 Census of India Baduria CD Block had a total population of 285,319, of which
(49%) females. The total number of literates, as per 2011 Census of India, was 199,549
(78.75% of the population over 6 years) out of which males numbered 106,245 (82.13% of
the male population over 6 years) and females numbered 93,304 (75.22% of the female
population over 6 years).
Baduria is part of the Ichhamati-Raimangal Plain, one of the three physiographic regions in
the district located in the lower Ganges Delta. It contains soil of mature black or brownish
loam to recent alluvium. In 2010-11, Baduria CD Block produced 18,912 tonnes of Aman
paddy, the main winter crop from 7,011 hectares, 14,664 tonnes of Boro paddy (spring crop)
from 4,461 hectares, 2,459 tonnes of Aus paddy (summer crop) from 927 hectares, 950
tonnes of wheat from 331 hectares, 93,536 tonnes of jute from 4,949 hectares, and 76,770
tonnes of potatoes from 2,062 hectares. It also produced pulses and oilseeds.
Socio-economic status
should not be more than 55 years, ( c ) no farming experience. Inclusion criteria include (a)
Out of 29 participants, the majority of the farmers in Vaduria were from the middle age group
(51.72%, M=38, SD=12.47). The youngest farmer was 22 years old and the oldest farmer was
70 years old. The minimum number of years worked by the farmers was 1 year and the
maximum number of years worked by the farmers was 50 years. This indicates that they
the age of 21 years and at the age of 20 years the eldest farmer began his career. Majority of
the farmers received education up to middle school (51.72%, M=8, SD=3.4). About 48.27%
were educated up to the higher secondary level. This indicates that almost all the farmers

17
(N=29) of Baduria were educated. Majority of the farmers were married (N=29, 68.96%) in
this block. About 27.58% were unmarried and only 3.45% belonged to the other category.
Out of total respondents 82.76% were Hindu (n=24) and 6.25% were Muslim (n=5). Nobody
was Christian in this block. Majority (n=18, 62.07%) of the farmers were Scheduled Caste,
24.13% were from the general caste category (n=7), 10.34% were from the Scheduled Tribe
(n=1) and only 3.44% belonged to the other backward category (n=3). Majority of the
farmers belonged to a nuclear family structure (n=17, 58.62%) and only 41.38% (n=12) were
from a joint family. Majority of the farmers have at least 5 members in their family (37.93%,
M=5, SD=2.23). Only 20.69% had more than 5 members in the family and 27.58% had 2-4
members in their family. The Socio-economic conditions of farmers are given below.
ranged between Rs.2800 to Rs.11056/Rs.4128 (M=4115, SD=6941.83). A majority (58.62%)
earned even below the average monthly income. 27.59% had a monthly income that was
equal to the average and only 6.89% earned above the averaged monthly income. The lowest
monthly income earned by the farmers was Rs.1000, and the highest monthly income was Rs.
36000. This aspect of the SES helps to determine whether individuals are able to afford basic
amenities for living. According to the Situation Assessment Survey of Agricultural
Household 2013, an average Indian farming household earns just Rs 77,124 in a year,
translating to Rs 6,427 monthly, barely enough to cover the average monthly expenditure of
Rs 6,223. This simply indicates that the majority of the farmers (85.85%) of Baduria had very
low monthly income as compared to the average indian farming households.

18
Monthly expenditure: On an average the monthly expenditure of the farmers was between
Rs 857 to Rs.4636/Rs.1889.5 (M=2747, SD=1889.023). Majority of the farmers’ (86.21%)
monthly expenditure fell within the range/ was equal to the average monthly expenditure of
the farmers of Baduria and only 13.79% had a monthly expenditure above the average. As
per the Situation Assessment Survey of Agricultural Household 2013, the average monthly
expenditure is Rs 6,223 this indicates that the monthly expenditure of the farmers of Baduria
is low as compared to the standard monthly expenditure across India.
The graph is a clear representation between income and expenditure.
Income from agriculture: On an average the majority of the farmers of Hingalganj derive
Rs.2600 (M=2696, SD=3018.76) income from agriculture. The lowest income was Rs.400,
and the highest was Rs.15000. This indicates that apart from income from agriculture the
farmers were engaged in other activities for economic support as the average monthly income
farmers of this block was Rs.2334 (M=2334, SD=3035.3). The lowest expenditure for
agriculture was Rs. 500, and the highest was Rs. 15000.

19
of life :─
Wall: Majority (35.71%, n=10) of the farmers had walls made of bricks, 32.14% (n=9) had
walls made up of bamboo, 28.57% (n=8) had walls made of soil and only 3.27% (n=1) had
walls made of asbestos. The average monthly income of the farmers explain why the majority
of the farmers could afford to make walls of brick and soil as they are more expensive as
compared to bamboo and asbestos (35.71% and 32.14%).
Kitchen: Majority (58.62%, n=17) of the farmers had at least one kitchen at their homes and
about 41.38% (n=12) had no kitchens at home. This indicates that those with average or
higher monthly income (34.48%) had at least one kitchen at their home and those with a very
low monthly income (58.62%) had no kitchen at home. As a majority of the farmers belong
to a nuclear family structure (58.62%) probably that is why 41.38% of the farmers have no
kitchen and those coming from a joint family managed to have one kitchen.
Ceiling: A majority of the respondents have ceilings made of tiles (44%, n=11), 16% (n=4)
had ceilings made of hay, 32% (n=8) had ceilings of bamboo, and only 4% (n=1) of the
ceilings were made of asbestos and bricks.
Bedroom: Majority of the farmers had a one bedroom house (n=15, 62.5%) and only 37.5%
(n=9) had absolutely no bedrooms at home.
Light: Majority (72.41%) of the farmers had no lights at their homes. 27.59% had one or
more than one lights at home. The average monthly income and expenditure (86.11%,
86.21%) clearly explains why the majority of the farmers couldn't afford to have even one
light at home.
Fan: Majority (75.86%) of the farmers of Vaduria couldn't afford to buy a fan. Only 24.14%
had the income to afford a fan and pay its bill.
Radio, TV and Phone: These have become an essential part of our day to day lives. These
gadgets help us to stay connected with the world, however in Vaduria only a very percentage
of farmers could afford to buy and maintain a radio, tv and phone (20.69%, 13.79% and

20
41.37% respectively). Majority of the farmers did not have a radio, tv or phone (79.31%,
86.21% and 58.62% respectively) due to a lack of proper and average monthly income.
Land type: Majority of the farmers, 48.27% (n=14), possessed land that grew two crops,
13.56% (n=8) grew three crops on their land and only 24.13% (n=7) grew only one crop on
their land. The average expenditure for agriculture (Rs.2334) indicates why the majority
(48.27%) of the farmers grew two crops on their land. Those with a higher expenditure for
agriculture (Rs.15000) grew three crops on their land.
Land area: The average land size of the farmers of this block is 1 hectare (M=1.21,
SD=0.61). Majority of the farmers (89.65%) had land area of 1 hectare only. About 10.34%
had a land area of 3 hectares which is the largest that the farmers of this block possess.
Crops: The major crops grown in this block are paddy, jute, oilseed, pulses, potato and rice.
Paddy is grown by all the farmers of Vaduria (n=29). Jute is grown by 58.62% (n=17) of the
farmers. 44.83% (n=13) grow oilseed. 31.03% (n=9) grow pulses and 27.59% (n=8) grow
potatoes. This data is in sync with the land type as a majority grow two or more crops in their
land.
Source of seed: The source of seed for the majority (62.07%) of the farmers is private in
nature. Only 6.89% buy their seeds from the government.
Rice: There are many types of rice however the majority of the farmers of Vaduria grow Boro
rice (82.75%, n=24). 58.62% (n=17) grow Amon type rice. And only 27.59% (n=8) grew
Aush rice.
Spade and Kurul: Majority of the farmers had at least one spade (82.76%). 10.34% had no
spade and only 6.89% had two spades to work with. Majority (72.41%) had access to at least
one Kurul, only 3.44% had two of them and 24.14% had no Kurul at all. This is mostly
because of the average expenditure for agriculture which is comparatively less and allows
them to afford only one spade and for some none at all.

21
STUDY AREA (GOBARDANGA)
Gobardanga is a city and a municipality in North 24 Parganas district in the Indian state of
West Bengal. Founded on 20 April 1870, it is one of the oldest municipalities of west Bengal.
Gobardanga is situated on the banks of the river Jamuna. It is located 22.880149°N and
88.760791°E in the district of North 24 parganas of West Bengal. There is a horse bow lake
named Kankona Baorh at Media, Gobardanga. It is an open mouthed bangle shaped water
body. The lake resembles a Kankon, worn by ladies hence it is being named Kankona Baorh.
As per the 2011 Census of India, Gobardanga had a total population of 45,377, of which
23,025 (51%) were males and 22,352 (49%) were females. Population below 6 years was
3,481. The total number of literates in Gobardanga was 38,461 (91.80% of the population
over 6 years).Gobardanga has an average literacy rate of 80%, higher than the national
average of 59.5%: male literacy is 84%, and female literacy is 75%. In Gobardanga, 9% of
the population is under 6 years of age.
Out of 63 participants, the majority of the farmers in Gobardanga were from the middle age
group (66.67%, M=45.39 years, SD=9.9). The youngest farmer was 23 years old and the
oldest farmer was 67 years old. The average work experience of the farmers of this block is
21 years (M=21.65, SD=10.51). The minimum number of years worked by the farmers of 2
years and the maximum number of years worked by the farmers is 45 years. This indicates
that they began their career as farmers at the age of 24 years. The youngest farmer began his
career at the age of 22 years and at the age of 22 years the eldest farmer began his career. The
educational status of the farmers of this block indicates that the majority of the farmers were
educated up to middle school (M=9.28, SD=2.95, 46.03%). The representation in religion and
caste was mixed. Majority of the farmers were Hindu (96.82%) and few were Muslim
(3.17%). The majority (n=20, 31.75%) of the farmers were from the general category,
46.03% belonged to the other backward category and 22.22% were from the scheduled caste.
Majority of the farmers belonged to a nuclear family structure (n=47, 74.6%) and only 25.4%
(n=16) were from a joint family.
The Socio-economic conditions of farmers were given below.

22
was Rs.4000 (M=4423, sd=6001). The lowest monthly income earned by the farmers was Rs.
1200, and the highest monthly income was Rs. 50000. This aspect of the SES helps to
determine whether individuals are able to afford basic amenities for living. According to the
Situation Assessment Survey of Agricultural Household 2013, an average Indian farming
household earns just Rs 77,124 in a year, translating to Rs 6,427 monthly, barely enough to
cover the average monthly expenditure of Rs 6,223. Thus, the average monthly income of the
farmers was close to the standard income of farmers in India.
Monthly expenditure: The average monthly income of the farmers was Rs.4100
(M=4185.71, SD=5759.47). The lowest monthly expenditure made by the farmers was
Rs.1000, and the highest was Rs.48,000. The graphical representation of income and
expenditure gives a better picture of the economic status of the farmers. It indicates how
expenditure increases with the raise in income.
Income from agriculture: On an average the majority of the farmers derive Rs.3600
(M=3612.28, SD=5877.8) income from agriculture. The lowest income was Rs.200, and the
highest was Rs.40000.

23
farmers of this block was Rs.2800 (M=2895.08, SD=4887.39). The lowest expenditure for
agriculture was Rs.100, and the highest was Rs.38000.
of life. Socioeconomic status can encompass quality of life attributes as well as the
opportunities and privileges afforded to people within society. Usually the higher the income
individuals will have more access to the basic amenities of life, however in some cases this
trend may not be followed as various other factors supposedly play a role in fulfillment of
any requirement. Here we have a general analysis of the variable in reference to their income
and expenditure.
Wall: About 77.78% (n=49) of the farmers had walls made of brick which means that the
majority could afford to live in a pakka house, and 9.52% (n=3) had walls made up of soil.
Kitchen: Majority (76.19%, n=48) of the farmers had at least one kitchen at their homes and
about 23.81% (n=15) had no kitchens at home.
Bedroom: Majority of the farmers (46.03%, n=29) lived in a one-bedroom home, 4127% of
the farmers lived in a two-bedroom house, and only 83.33% could afford to live in a house
that was built of more than two bedrooms.
Radio, Tv and phone: Majority of the farmers in this block had at least one radio (12.69%,
n=8), tv (74.6%, n=47) or phone (60.32%, n=38).
Land area: The average land size of the farmers of this block was 58 hectares (M=58.35,
SD=49.29). The biggest land area possessed by the farmers was 300 hectares, and the
smallest land area was 2 hectares. This indicates that the majority of the farmers were not
small farmers.
Crops: The major crops grown in this block were paddy (77.78%, n=49), jute (60.32%,
n=38), and vegetable seeds (73.01%, n=46).

24
STUDY AREA (KHAMARIA)
Khamaria is a village situated in Garhbeta 1 Block of Paschim Medinipur district in West
Bengal. Situated in the rural region of Paschim Medinipur district of West Bengal, it is one of
the 369 villages of Garhbeta 1 Block of Paschim Medinipur district. According to the
government records, the village code of Khamaria is 337044. The village has 59 homes.
According to Census 2011, Khamaria's population is 275. Out of this, 139 are males whereas
the females count 136 here. This village has 22 children in the age bracket of 0-6 years.
Among them 11 are boys and 11 are girls.
Literacy rate in Khamaria village is 88%. 243 out of the total 275 population is literate here.
Among males the literacy rate is 91% as 127 males out of total 139 are literate whereas
female literacy rate is 85% as 116 out of total 136 females are literate in this Village.
The Negative side is that the illiteracy rate of Khamaria village is 11%. Here 32 out of total
275 people are illiterate. Male illiteracy rate here is 8.% as 12 males out of total 139 are
uneducated. In females the illiteracy rate is 14% and 20 out of total 136 females are illiterate
in this village.
The count of employed people of Khamaria village is 98 whereas 177 are non-working. And
out of 98 working people 77 persons are totally dependent on agriculture.
Socio-economic Status
should not be more than 55 years, (c) no farming experience. Inclusion criteria include (a)
Out of 34 participants, the majority of the farmers in Khamaria were from the middle age
group (M=48 years, SD=10.38). The youngest farmer was 18 years old and the oldest farmer
was 75 years old. The average work experience of the farmers of this block is 25 years

25
(M=24.58, SD=14.89). The minimum number of years worked by the farmers of 1 year and
the maximum number of years worked by the farmers is 52 years. This indicates that the
majority of them began their career as farmers at the age of 23 years. The youngest farmer
began his career at the age of 17 years and at the age of 23 years the eldest farmer began his
career. Education plays a major role in the lives of individuals, it gives a direction in life.
Thus, a majority of the farmers of Khamaria were educated up to secondary level (M=8,
sd=4.09, 66.66%). The rest of the farmers (33.33%) were well educated above standard VIII.
Majority of them were Hindu (n=30, 0.91%) were Hindu and few were Muslim (n=1, 3.03%).
The majority (n=16, 48.48%) of the farmers were from the general category, 15.15% were
from the other backward castes, 9.09% were Scheduled Tribe and only 3.03% were scheduled
caste. Majority of the farmers were married (n=47, 54.54%) in this block, 15.15% were
unmarried and there was no response received from 30.3% of the farmers. There were at least
five members in the majority of the families of the farmers (54.54%, n=18). Majority of the
farmers belonged to a nuclear family structure (n=19, 57.57%) and only 18.18% (n=6) were
from a joint family, no responses were received from 24.24% (n=8) of the farmers. The
Socio-economic conditions of farmers were given below.
ranged between Rs.2400 (M=2414, SD=1977.04). A majority (69.69%) of the farmers earned

26
between Rs.400 to Rs.4000, where 33.33% constitutes those with an average income of
Rs.1500-2500. Only 12.12% earned above the averaged monthly income. The lowest
monthly income earned by the farmers was Rs.14, and the highest monthly income was
Rs.8000. About 6.06% gave no response which means that unlike the others, they were not
aware of their income. This aspect of the SES helps to determine whether individuals are able
to afford basic amenities for living. According to the Situation Assessment Survey of
Agricultural Household 2013, an average Indian farming household earns just Rs 77,124
in a year, translating to Rs 6,427 monthly, barely enough to cover the average monthly
expenditure of Rs 6,223. This simply indicates that the majority of the farmers (78.79%) of
Khamaria had a very low monthly income as compared to the average indian farming
households.
Rs.2300 (M=2347, SD=2046.28). Majority of the farmers’ 42.42% monthly expenditure was
above the average monthly expenditure of the farmers of Khamaria and only 12.12% had an
average monthly expenditure and 39.39% expenditure was below the average. As per the
Situation Assessment Survey of Agricultural Household 2013, the average monthly
expenditure is Rs 6,223 this indicates that the monthly expenditure of the farmers of
Kahmaria is low as compared to the standard monthly expenditure across India. However, it
seems that the farmers are unable to make any savings as the average expenditure and income
are more or less the same.
The above graph clearly represents that there is a direct relationship between income and
expenditure, that is, the higher the income more will be the expenditure.

27
Income from agriculture: On an average the majority of the farmers of Hingalganj derive
Rs.946 (M=946, SD=819.01) income from agriculture. The lowest income was Rs.100, and
the highest was Rs.3000. This indicates that apart from income from agriculture the farmers
were engaged in other activities for economic support as the average monthly income
farmers of this block was between Rs.700-800 (M=815, SD=952.28). The lowest expenditure
for agriculture was Rs. 100, and the highest was Rs. 3500. Here again there is a clear relation
between income and expenditure. The average expenditure is lesser than the income thus
there are probably chances of savings by the farmers. However, for some farmers the
expenditure is unknown. The expenditure profile of the farmers, involved in agriculture,
mainly includes cost of seeds, fertilizers, conveyance, irrigation, storing, sack and the charges
of the middleman, if any.
of life. Usually the higher the income individuals will have more access to the basic amenities
of life, however in some cases this trend may not be followed as various other factors
supposedly play a role in fulfillment of any requirement. Here we have a general analysis of
the variable in reference to their income and expenditure.

28
walls made either of soil or asbestos, and only 3.03% (n=1) had walls made of bamboo. This
indicates that the majority of the farmers with their monthly income were able to build walls
of brick and soil.
Kitchen: Majority (54.54%, n=18) of the farmers had no kitchens at their homes and about
36.36% (n=12) had at least one kitchen at home. It is possible that those even with a higher
income did not have a kitchen, possibly because they didn't need one and may have had
enough space to set up a kitchen at one corner.
Bedroom: Majority of the farmers had two bedrooms in their house (n=18, 54.54%), 18.18%
(n=6) had at least one bedroom at home and only9.09% had absolutely no bedrooms at home.
Latrine: majority (36.36%)of the farmers in this block have scientific latrines but with no
flush. 27.27% have unscientific latrines, 18.18% have no latrines at all and only about 3.03%
have scientific toilets with flush.
Light and fan: Majority (60.6%) of the farmers had two to three lights at their homes, only
9.09% had income enough to afford more than three fans and its bill. Majority (54.54%) of
the farmers possessed one to two fans, only 12.12% had more than two fans. This is
consistent with the income and expenditure data as very few farmers had income higher than
the average of this block.
gadgets help us to stay connected with the world, however in Khamaria only a very few
percentage of the farmers could afford to buy at least one tv and phone (45.45% and 21.21%
respectively). Among the participants there was only one farmer who possessed a radio, this
may be due to the reduced use of radio in the coming days.
Land type: Majority of the farmers, 60.61% (n=20), possessed a land that grew three crops,
15.15% (n=5) grew four crops on their land and another 15.25% (n=5) grew one or two crops
on land.

29
Land area: The average land size of the farmers of this block was around 20 hectares
(M=20.38, SD=12.91). Majority of the farmers (51.51%) had an average sized land area
whereas about 15.15% had a land area that was more than the average land size possessed by
the farmers of Khamaria. For the rest of farmers no data was available, it is possible that
these farmers were agricultural labourers.
Crops: The major crops grown in this block are paddy, jute, and potato. Paddy and potato
were grown by 48.48% of the farmers (n=16). Jute was grown by 45.45% (n=15) of the
farmers.
Source of seed: For the majority of the farmers the source of seed (63.63%) was private in
nature. Only 15.15% bought their seeds from the government.
Rice: There are many types of rice however the majority of the farmers of Khamaria grew
Amon rice (63.63%, n=21). Aush is grown by 18.18% (n=6) and Boro is grown by 15.15%
(n=5).
Spade and Kurul: Majority of the farmers had two spades (45.45%). 18.18% had more than
two spades and the rest of the farmers had one or no spades at all. Majority (36.36%) had
access to at least one Kurul, the response of the rest of the farmers was not available. Such
findings can be attributed to the average income and expenditure for agriculture.
STUDY AREA (PANSKURA)
Panskura is a town and a municipality in Purba Medinipur district in the Indian state of West
Bengal. It is situated on the banks of the Kangsabati River. Panskura is located at 22.42°N
87.7°E. It has an average elevation of 7 metres (26 feet). It is situated on the NH6 on the way
from Kolkata to Kharagpur.
As per 2011 Census of India Panskura had a total population of 57,932 of which 29,740
(51%) were males and 28,192 (49%) were females. Population below 6 years was 6,943. The
total number of literates in Panskura was 43,326 (84.97% of the population over 6 years).

30
Panskura CD Block has an area of 246.92 km2
(including Panskura municipality). It has 1
panchayat samity, 14 gram panchayats, 208 gram sansads (village councils), 247 mouzas and
225 inhabited villages.
The vast expanse of land is formed of alluvium and is composed of younger and coastal
alluvial. In 2013-14, persons engaged in agriculture in Panskura CD Block could be classified
as follows: bargadars 4.31%, patta (document) holders 7.49%, small farmers (possessing land
between 1 and 2 hectares) 2.48%, marginal farmers (possessing land up to 1 hectare) 36.10%
and agricultural labourers 49.62%. In 2013-14, Panskura CD Block produced 149 tonnes of
Aman paddy, the main winter crop, from 2,614 hectares, 39,650 tonnes of Boro paddy, the
spring crop, from 11,926 hectares, 449 tonnes of Aus paddy, the summer crop, from 621
hectares, and 51,815 tonnes of potatoes from 102 hectares. It also produced pulses and oil
seeds.
Socio Economic Status
Out of 40 participants, half of the farmers in Panskura were adults as their age ranged
between the 23 to 38 years (50%, M=31.27, SD=8.64), 27.5% were aged farmers who were
above 38 years of age, and about 22.5% were young farmers who were below 23 years age.
The youngest farmer was 18 years old and the oldest farmer was 50 years old. The average
work experience of the farmers of this block was 11 years (M=11.11, SD=7.68). The majority
(60%, n=24) of the farmers’ years of work experience ranged between 4 years to 18
years.The minimum number of years worked by the farmers was 2 years and the maximum
number of years worked by the farmers was 30 years. Thus, the youngest farmer began his
career at the age of 16 years and at the age of 20 years the eldest farmer began his career.
Education plays a major role in the lives of individuals, it gives a direction in life. Thus, a
majority of the farmers of Panskura were educated up to the primary school (M=10.87,
SD=2.77, 52.5%), 47.5% were well educated above primary schooling. Of 40 participants
majority of them were Hindus (n=39, 97.5%) and no responses were received from 2.5%
(n=1). The majority (n=33, 82.5%) of the farmers were from the general category, 7.5% were
from the other backward category, and 7.5% shared no response for the respective variable.
The socio economic data of the farmers of this block was unavailable.

31
STUDY AREA (BALICHAK)
Balichak is a census town in the Debra CD block in the Kharagpur subdivision of the
Paschim Medinipur district in the state of West Bengal, India. Balichak is located at 22.37°N
87.55°E. It has an average elevation of 12 metres (42 feet). This area mostly has alluvial soil.
According to the 2011 Census of India, Balichak had a total population of 13,784, of which
6.735 (49%) were males and 7,049 (51%) were females. There were 1,261 persons in the age
range of 0–6 years. The total number of literate persons in Balichak was 10.944 (87.39% of
the population over 6 years).
Socio economic status
should not be more than 55 years, (c) no farming experience . Inclusion criteria include (a)
Out of 33 participants, the majority of the farmers in Balichak were between the 39 to 63
years age range (84.84%, M=51.57 , SD=12.69) where a majority (54.54%, n=15) were from
the middle age group (35years to 55years), 36.36% were aged farmers who were from the
older age range (55 years and above), and only 9.09% were young farmers. The youngest
farmer was 26 years old and the oldest farmer was 85 years old. The average work experience
of the farmers of this block was 23 years eight months (M=23.87, SD=11.66). The majority
of the farmers’ years of work experience ranged between 12 years to 34 years.The minimum
number of years worked by the farmers was 5 years and the maximum number of years
worked by the farmers was 50 years. Thus, the youngest farmer began his career at the age of
21 years and at the age of 35 years the eldest farmer began his career. Education plays a
major role in the lives of individuals, it gives a direction in life. Thus, a majority of the
farmers of Balichak were educated up to secondary level of schooling (M=11.66, sd=3.16,
69.69%). The rest of the farmers (27.27%) were well educated above standard XI. Majority
of them were Hindus (n=32, 96.97%) and only 3.03% were Muslim (n=1). The majority
(n=27, 81.82%) of the farmers were from the general category, 6.06% were from the other

32
backward category, and 12.12% shared no response for the respective variable. For the
majority of the farmers (45.45%) at least two family members took part in cultivation, for
33.33% there was only one family member involved in cultivation, and for 18.18% more than
two family members were involved in cultivation. Majority of the farmers belonged to a
nuclear family structure (n=21, 63.64%) and only 30.3% (n=10) were from a joint family.
The socio economic data of the farmers of this block is unavailable.
STUDY AREA (GALSI)
Galsi is a village in Galsi II CD Block in Bardhaman Sadar North subdivision of Purba
Bardhaman district in the state of West Bengal, India. It is located at 23°24′30″N 87°32′34″E.
Galsi I CD Block has an area of 257.37 km2. It has 1 panchayat samity, 9 gram panchayats,
141 gram sansads (village councils), 87 mouzas and 85 inhabited villages.
As per 2011 Census of India Galsi had a total population of 10,700 of which 5,394 (50%)
were males and 5,306 (50%) were females. Population below 6 years was 1,094. The total
number of literates in Galsi was 7,193 (74.88% of the population over 6 years). As per the
2011 census the total number of literates in Galsi I CD Block was 122,540 (72.87% of the
population over 6 years) out of which males numbered 69,370 (79.89% of the male
population over 6 years) and females numbered 53,170 (65.37% of the female population
over 6 years). The gender disparity (the difference between female and male literacy rates)
was 14.52%.
In Galsi I CD Block in 2011, amongst the class of total workers, cultivators formed 15.32%,
agricultural labourers 55.13%, household industry workers 1.66% and other workers 27.89%.
In 2013-14, Galsi I CD Block produced 4,939 tonnes of Aman paddy, the main winter crop,
from 1,911 hectares, 30,343 tonnes of Boro paddy (spring crop) from 9,982 hectares, 13
tonnes of wheat from 5 hectares and 15,754 tonnes of potatoes from 840 hectares. It also
produced pulses and oilseeds.
Socio Economic Status

33
Out of 29 participants, the age of the majority of the farmers in Galsi ranged between 27
years to 49 years (65.52%, M=38.32 years, SD=11.01). Most of the farmers (55.17%) were
middle aged individuals, about 34.48% were simply adult population and only 3.4% had
grown old. The youngest farmer was 20 years old and the oldest farmer was 70 years old. The
average work experience of the farmers of this block is 15 years (M=15.25, SD=10.44). The
minimum number of years worked by the farmers of 5 years and the maximum number of
years worked by the farmers is 45 years. This indicates that the majority of them began their
career as farmers at the age of 23 years. The youngest farmer began his career at the age of 15
years and at the age of 25 years the eldest farmer began his career. Education plays a major
role in the lives of individuals, it gives a direction in life. Thus, a majority of the farmers of
Khamaria were educated up to secondary level (M=11.52, sd=3.94, 48.27%). The rest of the
farmers (44.83%) were well educated above standard XI. Majority of them were Hindu
(n=26, 89.65%) were Hindu and only (n=1) 3.45% were Christians. The majority (n=17,
58.62%) of the farmers were of the other backward category, 20.69% were from the general
category of caste system and only 3.45% were Scheduled Caste. Majority of the farmers were
married (n=14, 48.27%) in this block, 3.48% were unmarried and there was no response
received from 37.93% of the farmers. Majority of the farmers belonged to a joint family
structure (n=13, 44.83%) and about 41.38% (n=12) had a nuclear family.

34
The Socio-economic conditions of farmers were given below.
ranged between Rs.4339 (M=4339, SD=7638.63). The data of the majority (51.72%) of the
farmers was not available. About 39.79% of the farmers earned between Rs.1100 to Rs.3000,
27.59% earned below the averaged monthly income and only 6.59% earned above the
average monthly income. The lowest monthly income earned by the farmers was Rs.200, and
the highest monthly income was Rs.30,000. This aspect of the SES helps to determine
whether individuals are able to afford basic amenities for living. According to the Situation
Assessment Survey of Agricultural Household 2013, an average Indian farming household
earns just Rs 77,124 in a year, translating to Rs 6,427 monthly, barely enough to cover the
average monthly expenditure of Rs 6,223. This simply indicates that the majority of the
farmers of Galsi had a very low monthly income as compared to the average indian farming
households.
Rs.3036 (M=3036, SD=2970.64). Majority of the farmers’ 51.72% monthly expenditure was
uptill Rs.3000, only 13.79% had a higher monthly expenditure. As per the Situation
Assessment Survey of Agricultural Household 2013, the average monthly expenditure is Rs
6,223 this indicates that the monthly expenditure of the farmers of Balichak is half the
standard monthly expenditure across India. This is indicative of the fact that the farmers are
unable to make any savings as the average expenditure and income are more or less the same.

35
The above graph clearly represents that the data of the majority of the farmers is not
available.
Monthly income from agriculture and expenditure for agriculture: The monthly income
and expenditure from agriculture of the farmers was closely the same leaving no scope for
saving. (M=2043, 2474, SD=1738, 2125.42 respectively). It seems that the expenditure is
higher than the income by a few bucks. It also indicates that the monthly income was higher
than the income of agriculture suggesting that the farmers had other sources of income too.
However, the majority of the farmers’ data was unavailable.
of life. Usually the higher the income individuals will have more access to the basic amenities
of life, however in some cases this trend may not be followed as various other factors
supposedly play a role in fulfillment of any requirement. Here we have a general analysis of
the variable in reference to their income and expenditure.
walls made either of soil, and only 24.14% (n=7) shared no responses at all. This indicates
that the majority of the farmers with their monthly income were able to build walls of brick
and soil as these components are more expensive than others.
Kitchen: Majority (72.41%, n=21) of the farmers had two kitchens at their homes and about
17.24% (n=5) had only one kitchen at home.This is can be related to the family structure of

36
the farmers of this block, as majority of the farmers belong to a joint family type they need
two kitchens to prepare food.
Bedroom: Majority of the farmers had one or more than two bedrooms in their house (n=7,
24.14%), 17.24% (n=5) had absolutely no bedrooms at home. This finding can yet again be
related to family structure.
Latrine: Majority (48.27%) of the farmers in this block had scientific latrines without any
flush. 10.34% had both scientific (with flush) and unscientific latrines, 27.59% had no
latrines.
Light and fan: Majority (51.72%, M=4.06, SD=2.59) of the farmers had two to six lights at
their homes, about 6.89% had income enough to afford more than six lights, the data of the
rest of the farmers was not available (41.37%). Majority (62.06%, M=2.68, SD=1.87) of the
farmers possessed one to three fans, only 13.79% had more than three fans.
gadgets help us to stay connected with the world, however in Galsi only a very few
percentage of the farmers could afford to buy at least one radio, tv and phone (27.59%,
55.17% and 44.83% respectively).
Land type: Majority of the farmers, 89.65% (n=26), possessed a land that grew two crops,
and only about 6.89% (n=2) grew three crops on their land.
Land area: The average land size of the farmers of this block was around 10 hectares
(M=10.1, SD=6.67). Majority of the farmers (51.72%) had 4 to 16 hectares of land whereas
about 17.24% had a land area that was beyond the land area possessed by the farmers of
Galsi. This indicates that the majority of the farmers of this block were big farmers as their
land areas ranged between 4-16 hectares as the small farmers have only upto 2 hectares of
land.
Crops: The major crops grown in this block are paddy, oilseed, and potato. Paddy was grown
by 96.55% of the farmers (n=28). Oilseed was grown by 41.38% (n=112) of the farmers and
lastly 37.93% of the farmers grew potatoes on their lands. This finding is consistent with the

37
number of crops grown by the farmers, as the majority grew at least two crops it thus seems
that majority of the farmers grew paddy and oilseeds on their lands as a result of having a
two-crop land.
Rice: It is also one of the majorly cultivated crops in Galsi, about 86.21% of the farmers here
grew Amon and Boro rice types on their land.
STUDY AREA (NAGAUKRAH)
Out of 21 participants, the age of the majority of the farmers in Nabaukhra ranged between
30 years to 50 years (65.52%, M=42.24 years, SD=10.05). The youngest farmer was 29 years
old and the oldest farmer was 68 years old. The average work experience of the farmers of
this block was approximately 20 years (M=21.53, SD=11.89). The minimum number of years
worked by the farmers was 4 years and the maximum number of years worked by the farmers
is 50 years. This indicates that the majority of them began their career as farmers at the age of
21 years. The youngest farmer began his career at the age of 25 years and at the age of 18
years the eldest farmer began his career. Education plays a major role in the lives of
individuals, it gives a direction in life. Socioeconomic status (SES) encompasses not just
income but also educational attainment, financial security, and subjective perceptions of
social status and social class. Thus, a majority of the farmers of Khamaria were educated
above standard XII (M=13, sd=2.72, 57.14%). The rest of the farmers (4286%) were well
educated uptill standard XII. Majority of the farmers were Hindu (n=18, 85/71%). The aspect
of caste determines various factors in a country where discrimination based on caste is still
prevelant. The majority (n=7, 33.33%) of the farmers were of the other backward category,
38.09% were Scheduled caste and 19.05% were from the general category of caste system.
Majority of the farmers belonged to a nuclear family structure (n=13, 61.9%) and about
33.33% (n=7) had a joint family. The Socio-economic conditions of farmers were given
below.

38
ranged between Rs.5000 (M=5385, SD=8527.69). About 47.62% of the farmers earned
between Rs.3000-13,000, 42.85% earned below the averaged monthly income and only
4.76% earned above the average monthly income. The lowest monthly income earned by the
farmers was Rs.800, and the highest monthly income was Rs.40,000. This aspect of the SES
helps to determine whether individuals are able to afford basic amenities for living.
According to the Situation Assessment Survey of Agricultural Household 2013, an average
Indian farming household earns just Rs 77,124 in a year, translating to Rs 6,427 monthly,
barely enough to cover the average monthly expenditure of Rs 6,223. Thus, the monthly
income of the farmers of Nagarukhra was nearly the same as standard.
Monthly expenditure: On an average the monthly expenditure of the farmers was Rs.5000
(M=5124, SD=6911.28). Majority of the farmers’ 71.42% monthly expenditure was between
Rs.1000-11000, only 9.52% had a higher monthly expenditure. As per the Situation
Assessment Survey of Agricultural Household 2013, the average monthly expenditure is Rs
6,223 this indicates that the monthly expenditure of the farmers of Balichak is half the
standard monthly expenditure across India. This is indicative of the fact that the farmers are
unable to make any savings as the average expenditure and income are more or less the same.
The above graph clearly represents that income and expenditure go hand in hand. As the
income increases so does the expenditure. They, thus, share a direct relationship.

39
Monthly income from agriculture and expenditure for agriculture: The average monthly
income and expenditure from agriculture of the farmers was close enough (M=2933, 2441,
SD=1624.44, 1736.3 respectively).Since the monthly income is higher than the income from
agriculture it is possible that the farmers were engaged in other activities for better economic
sustenance.
of life. Socioeconomic status can encompass quality of life attributes as well as the
opportunities and privileges afforded to people within society. Usually the higher the income
individuals will have more access to the basic amenities of life, however in some cases this
trend may not be followed as various other factors supposedly play a role in fulfillment of
any requirement. Here we have a general analysis of the variable in reference to their income
and expenditure.
Kitchen: Majority (90.48%, n=19) of the farmers had one kitchen at their homes and about
9.52% (n=2) had two kitchen at home.This is can be related to the family structure of the
farmers of this block, as majority of the farmers belong to a nuclear family type they only one
kitchen was sufficient for use.
Bedroom: Majority of the farmers had two bedrooms in their house (n=12, 57.14%), 19.04%
(n=4) had absolutely no bedrooms at home. Thus, the majority of the farmers given their
monthly income are able to afford what we can relatively call a comfortable lifestyle.
Latrine: Majority (61.9%, n=13) of the farmers in this block had scientific latrines without
any flush system. 19.05% had unscientific latrines and only 14.29% had scientific latrines
with flush.
Light: Majority (42.86%, M=4, SD=1.95) of the farmers had three lights at their homes,
about 19.04% had income enough to afford more than three lights, the data of the remaining
farmers was not available (28.57%).
gadgets help us to stay connected with the world, however only a very few percentage of the

40
farmers could afford to buy at least one radio, tv and phone (19.04%, 42.86% and 38.09%
respectively).
Land type: Majority of the farmers, 90.48% (n=19), possessed a land that grew up to three
crops together, and only about 4.76% (n=1) grew two crops on their land.
Land area: The average land size of the farmers of this block was around 6 hectares (M=6,
SD=4.52). Majority of the farmers (52.38%) had 2 to 10 hectares of land and about 9.52%
had a land area that was beyond the land area possessed by the farmers of Nabaukhra. This
indicates that the majority of the farmers of this block were big farmers as their land areas
ranged between 2-10 hectares as the small farmers have only upto 2 hectares of land.
Crops: The major crops grown in this block are paddy, oilseed, and potato. Paddy was grown
by 85.71% of the farmers (n=18). Potato was grown by 76.19% (n=16) of the farmers,
oilseeds were grown by 57.14% (n=12) of the farmers and lastly 52.38% of the farmers grew
jute on their lands. This finding is consistent with the number of crops grown by the farmers,
as the majority grew three crops it thus seems that majority of the farmers grew paddy, potato
and oilseeds on their lands as a result of having a three-crop land.
Rice: It is also one of the majorly cultivated crops in Nabaukhra, majority, 76.19%, of the
farmers here grew Boro rice and 57.14% grew Aush rice and 47.62% grew Amon rice.
STUDY AREA (PANDUA)
Pandua is a community development block that forms an administrative division in Chinsurah
subdivision of Hooghly district in the Indian state of West Bengal. The Pandua CD Block has
an area of 276.43 km2
. It has 1 panchayat samity, 16 gram panchayats, 247 gram sansads
(village councils), 157 mouzas and 163 inhabited villages.
As per 2011 Census of India Pandua CD Block had a total population of 316,197, of which
(50%) females. As per the 2011 census the total number of literates in Pandua CD Block was
215,701 (75.86% of the population over 6 years) out of which males numbered 117,603

41
(82.22% of the male population over 6 years) and females numbered 98,098 (69.41% of the
female population over 6 years).
In 2013-14, persons engaged in agriculture in Pandua CD Block could be classified as
follows: bargadars 7.73%, patta (document) holders 7.29%, small farmers (possessing land
between 1 and 2 hectares) 3.07%, marginal farmers (possessing land up to 1 hectare) 19.40%
and agricultural labourers 62.51%. In 2013-14, Pandua CD Block produced 4,608 tonnes of
Aman paddy, the main winter crop from 1,846 hectares, 34,119 tonnes of Boro paddy (spring
crop) from 11,592 hectares, 1,980 tonnes of Aus paddy (summer crop) from 800 hectares and
288,975 tonnes of potatoes from 10,461 hectares. It also produced oilseeds.
Socio-Economic Status
Out of 50 participants, the majority of the farmers in Pandua were from the middle age group
(66.67%, M=43.58 years, SD=6.07). The youngest farmer was 32 years old and the oldest
farmer was 55 years old. The average work experience of the farmers of this block is 21 years
(M=21.44, SD=7.09). The minimum number of years worked by the farmers of 7 years and
the maximum number of years worked by the farmers is 43 years. This indicates that they
the age of 14 years and at the age of 12 years the eldest farmer began his career. The
educational status of the farmers of this block indicates that the majority of the farmers were
educated above primary schooling (M=10.81, SD=2.38, 56%). The representation in religion
and caste was mixed. Majority of the farmers were Hindu (82%) and few were Muslim
(18%). The majority (n=39, 78%) of the farmers were from the general category, 10%
belonged to the other backward category and 4% were scheduled caste.
Economic condition: The average income from agriculture of the farmers of this block was
Rs.80000 (M=80451.21, SD=139718.81). This means that a majority of the farmers were big
landholders. The average crop expenditure of the farmers of this block was Rs.55000
(M=55536.59, SD=91905.68) which is comparatively lesser than the income which suggests
that there was some scope of saving and investing the money at other places.
Land size: The average land size of the farmers was around 170 hectares (M=170.22,
SD=125.16), where the land size of the majority of the farmers ranged between 55 to 295

42
hectares (72%). This again indicates that the majority of the farmers are big landholders and
possibly bargadars.
Crops: The major crops grown here were paddy and potato. Almost all the farmers of this
block grew paddy and potato.

43
CHAPTER - Ⅳ
DISCUSSION
Under this section we shall draw a comparative analysis between the blocks (that are a part of
the same district), taken to study the socio-economic status of farmers. This shall give an
understanding about the socio-economic status of farmers in one district.
NORTH 24 PARGANA DISTRICT
North 24 Parganas is a district in southern West Bengal, of eastern India. It extends in the
tropical zone from latitude 22° 11′ 6″ north to 23° 15′ 2″ north and from longitude 88º20' east
to 89º5' east. Being West Bengal's most populous district, it is also the second most populated
district in the whole of India and the tenth-largest district in the State by area. The district lies
within the Ganga–Brahmaputra delta. The major distributary of river Ganga that is river
Hooghly flows along the western border of the district. There are many other distributary
branches, sub-branches of Ganga river and other local rivers, which include the Ichhamati,
Jamuna, and Bidyadhari. The type of soil varies widely from alluvial to clay loam.
Out of the 15 blocks studied to determine the socio-economic status of the farmers, four
blocks, Deganga (N=47), Hingalganj (N=66), Vaduria (N=29) and Gobardanga (N=63),
belonged to the North 24 Parganas, one of the many districts of West Bengal, India. The
representation of farmers in Hingalganj and Gobardanga was the highest and least
representation was noticed in Vaduria. This could be due to the existing population in each of
these blocks mentioned in the study area that resulted in varied representation.
From the above analysis, in each of the four blocks Deganga (31.91%, M=34, SD=16.97),
Hingalganj (62.12%, M=41 years, SD=10.38), Vaduria (51.72%, M=38, SD=12.47) and
Gobardanga (66.67%, M=45.39 years, SD=9.9), it is clear that the majority of the farmers in
all the four blocks were middle aged, except the farmers of Deganga as the majority there
were adult population (48.94%). Their data on their educational status indicates that the
farmers of Hingalganj (M=11, SD=3, 49.06%) were highly educated (higher secondary

44
school) as compared to the farmers of Vaduria (51.72%, M=8, SD=3.4), Deganga (M=8,
sd=4.09, 51.06%) and Gobardanga (M=9.28, SD=2.95, 46.03%) who received education up
to middle school.
The economic condition of the farmers of Deganga was unknown, it is possible that the
farmers of this block were unaware of their exact condition and hence could not specify about
their income and expenditure. Unlike the residents of an urban area who are relatively more
aware of their economic whereabouts, those residing in a rural area however, lack such
awareness, which could be due to a lot of factors. Nevertheless the findings on economic
status of the farmers in Baduria (income: M=4115, SD=6941.83; expenditure: M=2747,
SD=1889.023), Hingalganj (income: M=I879, SD=1832). and Gobardanga (income:
M=4423, sd=6001; expenditure: M=4185.71, SD=5759.47) depict that the highest average
monthly income was of the farmers of Gobardanga and the lowest average income was of the
farmers of Hingalganj. The expenditure profile of the farmers of Hingalganj was not available
but that of Gobardanga was higher than the farmers of Baduria. Thus, the farmers of
Gobardanga are economically stronger and well aware when compared to the other three
blocks in this district.
The land size is a good indicator of a farmer’s economic status, thus across the four blocks
the average size of lands possessed by the farmers of Gobardanga was the biggest among the
three blocks (M=58.35, SD=49.29), whereas the average size of the lands possessed by the
farmers of Hingalganj (M=4.12, SD=3.7) and Vaduria (M=1.21, SD=0.61) was very small as
compared to that of Gobardanga.
The major crops grown in this district across the four blocks were paddy, jute, oilseeds,
potatoes, and pulses. The farmers of Gobardanga and Vaduria majorly grew paddy (77.78%)
and jute however Gobardanga grew more paddy than Vaduria whereas Vaduria grew more
jute (60.32%) than Gobardanga (58.62%). Farmers in Hingalganj mostly grew potatoes
(48.15%) and pulses (37.04%). Data of Denganga for this aspect was yet again unavailable.
Thus, the four blocks within North 24 Parganas are different from each other and their
socio-economic status is varied too. They show similarity on some very menial grounds.

45
MEDINIPUR
From Medinipur two blocks were selected, Khamaria (N=34) and Panskura (N=40). The
majority of the farmers of Khamaria (M=48 years, SD=10.38) were middle aged whereas the
farmers of Panskura were adults (50%, M=31.27, SD=8.64). Education plays a vital role in
the lives of individuals, it gives a direction in life. Thus, from the above findings it can be
stated that the farmers of Panskura (M=10.87, SD=2.77, 52.5%) and Khamaria (M=8,
sd=4.09, 66.66%) were educated up to the primary level of education, however the farmers of
Panskura were educated up to standard X whereas the farmers of Khamaria received
education only up to standard VIII.
The economic status of the farmers of Panskura was not available. However, from the
findings on Khamaria it can be said that the farmers of Khamaria were more aware of their
economic conditions, but the average monthly income of the majority of the farmers of this
block was Rs.2400 (M=2414, SD=1977.04) and expenditure (M=2347, SD=2046.28) which
was very low as compared to the standard economic conditions of the farmers in India.
The rest of the blocks belong to different districts in WB, which is why they alone could not
represent their district. For this reason their comparison is not drawn.
From the available data it is clear that the farmers of India do not receive complete education
and are deprived of the basic wage rate. Government must look into this matter and come up
with schemes and plans like mid-day meals in school, scholarships and so on in order to
promote school education. Also, the basic wage rate for each crop should be fixed and there
should be strict monitoring on the distributors and wholesalers who directly trade crops from
the farmers in order to minimize exploitation.
This study has certain limitations which are ㅡ (a) The data has been collected in 2009, which
is more than a decade ago. Therefore it is very much possible that the farmers’ response and
their socio-economic status might have changed drastically. (b) In this span of time, there has
been a huge technological advancement that took place. So the government plans and
schemes have also evolved quite a bit. Because of these reasons the current condition of the
farmers might be different which may provide different results other than this study.

46
CONCLUSION
India is an agrarian country with around 70% of its population depending directly or
indirectly upon agriculture for their livelihood. The agriculture industry contributes more than
15% to India’s GDP. It has been practiced in India for ages; it is called the backbone of the
Indian economy. Therefore farmers of India should be kept well, providing all the necessary
facilities and basic healthcare and education.
Results of this study show that the economic status among the farmers four blocks of North
24 Parganas ─ Baduria, Hingalganj and Gobardanga, the farmers of Gobardanga had the
highest average monthly income and the lowest average income was of the farmers of
Hingalganj. The expenditure profile of the farmers of Hingalganj was not available but that of
Gobardanga was higher than the farmers of Baduria. Therefore we can say, the farmers of
Gobardanga were economically stronger and well aware when compared to the other three
blocks in this district. Since land size is a good indicator of economic condition, it is seen that
the average size of lands possessed by the farmers of Gobardanga was the biggest among the
three blocks. It is clearly seen that the four blocks of North 24 Parganas have different
socio-economic status and their crop production, land size and income all vary from each
other. The data on the economic status of the farmers of Panskura was not available.
However, from the findings on Khamaria it can be said that the farmers of Khamaria were
more aware of their economic conditions, but the average monthly income of the majority of
the farmers of this block was Rs.2400 and expenditure was very low as compared to the
standard economic conditions of the farmers in India. Looking at the available data, it is seen
that the farmers of North 24 Parganas have better socio-economic conditions than the other
districts.

47
CHAPTER - Ⅴ
REFERENCES
● Masutkar, D. D., Kamble, B. B., Anarase, M. S., (2017). Socioeconomic status of the
farmers in the adopted village. Journal of Pharmacognosy and phytochemistry. Vol. 6 (1).
● Donnell, O., Kingsley, M. (2020). The relationship between housing and children’s
socio-emotional and behavioral development in Australia. Elsevier, Children and Youth
services review. Vol. 117.
● Mishra, P., Chaudhary, P., Anand, A., (2020). Migration and Child Health: Understanding
the coverage of child immunization among migrants across different Socio-economic
groups in India. Children and Youth Services Review, Vol. 119.
● Kolte, A., Deshmukh, S., Gidwani, M., (2019). Socio- Economic state of Farmers in the
state of Maharashtra. Adalya Journal. Vol. 8.
● Dhillon, H., (2013). SOCIO-ECONOMIC STATUS OF FARMERS OF PATIALA AND
SANGRUR DISTRICT.
● Singh, T., Kumbhar, V., Kumari, S., (2016). Study of socio-economic status of farmers in
drought prone regions of Maharashtra, India - A case study. International Journal of
current research. Vol. 8, Issue 6, pp 33304-33306.
● Roy, M., Chandra, N., Kharbikar, H., Joshi, P., Jethi, R., (2013). Socio-economic Status of
Hill Farmers: An Exploration from Almora District in Uttarakhand. International Journal
of Agriculture and Food Science Technology. Volume 4, pp. 353-358.
● Chauhan, S., Sekher, T., Kumar, P., Srivastava, S., Patel, R., (2020). Prevalence,
determinants and socio-economic inequality of early marriage among men in India,
Children and Youth Services Review. Vol. 116.

48
● Quaglia A., Lillini R., Casella C., Giachero G., Izzotti A., Vercelli M., (2010). The
combined effect of age and socio-economic status on breast cancer survival. Critical
reviews in Oncology and Hematology. Vol. 77, Issue 3.
● Reddy G., Gangisetty N., Reddy T., (2015). A Study on Socio Economic Conditions of
Farmers in Kurnool District. MERC Global’s International Journal of Social Science &
Management. Vol. 2, Issue 4, pp 281-288.

49
ANNEXURE
S.
No
.
AUTHORS/
YEARS/
COUNTRY
STUDY
DESIGN
PARTICIPANTS SAMPLE
SIZE
INSTRUMENTS DATA
ANALYSIS
FINDINGS
1 Masudkar
DD, Kamble
VB and
Anarase MS
(2017)
(Maharashtr
a, India)
Ex-post
facto
design
Respondents
were selected
from adopted
village
75 Personal
Interview
method
Absolute
frequencie
s (n) and
relative
frequencie
s (%) .
Analysis
method of
qualitative
data was
not
reported.
Variables pertaining
to socioeconomic
status of adopted and
non-adopted villages
was measured.
In respect to of
socio-economic
status it was found
that majority of
adopted
and non adopted
village respondents
had medium level of
socio-economic
status.
2 James
O'Donnell,
Meg
Kingsley
(2020),
(Australia)
Longitudi
nal Study
of
Australia
n
Children
(LSAC)
Strengths and
Difficulties
Questionnaire
(SDQ),
Multilevel growth
curve modelling
of Australian
panel data,
Cronbach’s
α 0.68,
Multilevel
regression
analysis,
The results therefore
suggest that housing
disadvantage may
compound and
add to the effects of
broader
socioeconomic
disadvantage on
children.
Multicollinearity is
low. VIFs range from
1.04 to 2.76 for the
housing, household,
and neighborhood
vari-
ables, 1.10 to 1.97
for the financial
hardship variables,
1.19 to 1.88 for the
parenting stress and
practices variables
and 1.02 to 4.45 for
the
other covariates.
3 Prem Cross-se Migrant and National Family Logistic The finding adds to

50
Shankar
Mishra,
Prashant
Chaudhary,
Ankit Anand
(2020),
(India)
ctional
househol
d survey
non-migrant
children in
different
socio-economic
groups.
Health Survey-4
(2015-2016)
regression,
Decomposi
tion
Analysis,
Regression
analysis
the notion that
migrants in literate,
wealthy, non-SC/ST
groups will be better
positioned to improve
their health
4 Kolte et. al.,
(Pune, India)
Qualitativ
e method
Farmers of
Maharashtra
(1960-20
17)
39,554-1,
12,374
Data referred
from reputable
sources such as
Journal of
Epidemiology
and Global
Health,
International
Journal of
Disaster Risk
Reduction
(Elsevier), Indian
Journal of
Psychiatry,
Economic and
Political weekly
(JSTOR) and
Government of
Maharashtra
reports
Percentage Indebtedness and
various other factors
are majorly
associated in the
degrading
socio-economic
status of the farmers
and are identified as
major risk factors.
5 Dr. Rakesh
Kumar
sharma, Dr.
Ravi Kiran
(2013),
(Patiala,
India)
Descripti
ve
research
design,
Survey
method
Households of
Patiala and
Sangrur
61 Mean,
Standard
Deviation,
Chi-square
,
Growth
rates,
Factor
Analysis
There is a need to
improve economic
factors, followed by
social and other
factors.
6 Singh et. al.,
(2016),
(Pune, India)
Survey,
Systemat
ic
assessm
ent of
SES,
Using Stratified
random sample
method
participants
from three
villages were
selected
59 Survey, SPSS Cronbach
alpha for
reliability
and
validity,
Normality
of data was
checked
r the study shows
that the tendency of
taking loan from the
banks by the farmers
has to be studied and
can be taken as a
future research
7 M.L. Roy et.
al., (2013),
(Uttrakhand,
India)
Qualitativ
e
method:
Structure
d
interview
Farmers from
three villages
were selected
randomly
60 Frequency,
Mean,
Standard
Deviation,
Correlation
personal
interview
method
Socio-economic
status of the hill
farmers were
determined.

51
schedule
8 Shekhar
Chauhan et.
al., (2020)
(India)
Ever-married
men
71666 Descriptive
analysis,
Bivariate and
Multivariate
regression,
Chi-square
National
Family
Health
Survey-4
(2015-16)
In all of the states
and Union Territories,
early marriage
among men is mostly
concentrated among
the poor households
only.
It was found that
education, caste,
residence, and
wealth status explain
nearly three-fourths
of the observed
inequality in the
occurrence of early
marriage among men
9 Quaglia et.
al., (2010)
(Italy)
Ex-post
facto
design.
Female breast
cancer patients
of Liguria
Region Cancer
Registry
1081 Bivariate and
Multivariate
analysis,
Synthetic
deprivation
Index
Data
collected
by the
Liguria
Region
CR.
Very deprived elderly
patients showed a
much lower RS-5%
(58%).
Elderly and very
deprived women
were more likely to
have large tumours,
positive lymph nodes
and less likely to
receive conserving
surgery, axillary
dissection and
adjuvant therapies.
10 G.
Sreenivasa
Reddy et. al.,
(2015)
(India)
Survey Farmers of
Kurnool district
100 Questionnaire Frequency,
Percentage
The study reveals
the socio-economic
status of the farmer
based on education
level, type of family,
the main source of
income, and annual
income of the family.

A STUDY ON THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC STATUS OF AGRICULTURAL FARMERS

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