Psychobiologist study the evolutionary and physiological mechanisms that are responsible for human behavior and try to understand how the brain functions in order to understand why humans behave the way we do.

1. CONCEPTS OF
PSYCHO-BIOLOGY

2. PRESENTATION
ON
CONCEPTS OF PSYCHOBIOLOGY
SUBMITTED TO:- SUBMITTED BY:-
MISS. RITU RILTA KAJAL CHANDEL
NURSING TUTOR MSC(N)1ST YEAR
(MENTAL HEALTH NURSING) ROLL-NO:- 2
SUBMITTED ON:-

3. OBJECTIVES:-
At the end of the class the group will be able to:
• Define the topic.
• Explain nervous system.
• Explain Neuroendocrinology.
• Explain Genetics.
• Explain Neuro Psychiatric disorders.
• Explain implication for nursing.

4. INTRODUCTION
 Psychobiology is a branch of psychology that analyzes how the
brain, neurotransmitter and other aspects of our biology influence
our behaviors, thoughts, and feelings. This field of psychology is
often referred to by a variety of names including biopsychology,
physiological psychology, behavioral neuroscience, and
psychobiology.

5. CONTINUE….
 Biological psychology is the scientific study of the biological bases
of behavior and mental states .Because all behavior is controlled by
the central nervous system, it is sensible to study how the brain
functions in order to understand behavior. This is the approach
taken in behavioral neuroscience, cognitive neuroscience, and
neuropsychology.

6. DEFINITION
 Psychobiology a field of study examining the relationship between
brain and mind, studying the effect of biological influences on psyc
hological functioning or mental processes.

7. 1.THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

8. THE NERVOUS SYSTEM (ANATOMICAL REVIEW)
 The Nervous System is the part of an animal's body that
coordinates its behavior and transmits signals between
different body areas. In vertebrates it consists of two
main parts, called the central nervous system (CNS) and
the peripheral nervous system (PNS) .

9.  The CNS contains the brain and spinal
cord. The PNS consists mainly of
nerves, which are long fibers that
connect the CNS to every other part of
the body, but also includes other
components such as peripheral ganglia,
sympathetic and parasympathetic
ganglia, and the enteric nervous system,
a semi-independent part of the nervous
system whose function is to control the
gastrointestinal system.

10. TYPES OF NERVOUS SYSTEM
The nervous system has two main parts:
• The central nervous system is made up of the brain and spinal cord.

11. • The peripheral nervous system is made up of nerves that branch off
from the spinal cord and extend to all parts of the body.

13. CONTINUE…
 The nervous system transmits signals
between the brain and the rest of the body,
including internal organs. In this way, the
nervous system’s activity controls the
ability to move, breathe, see, think, and
more.

14.  The basic unit of the nervous system is a nerve cell,
or neuron. The human brain contains about 100 billion neurons. A
neuron has a cell body, which includes the cell nucleus, and special
extensions called axons and dendrites .

15.  Bundles of axons, called nerves, are found throughout the body.
Axons and dendrites allow neurons to communicate, even across
long distances.

16. FUNCTIONS
 Control of body's internal environment to maintain 'homeostasis' An
example of this is the regulation of body temperature.
 Programming of spinal cord reflexes. An example of this is the stretch
reflex.
 Memory and learning.
 Voluntary control of movement.

17. THE BRAIN AND LIMBIC SYSTEM
THE BRAIN SYSTEM:-

18. BRAIN
 It is one of the largest organs in the body, and coordinates most
body activities.
 It is the center for all thought, memory, judgment, and emotion.
 Each part of the brain is responsible for controlling different body
functions, such as temperature regulation and breathing.

19.  The brain is contained in skull & weighs 1300 - 1400 g .
 made up of about 1000 billion neurons 7 each neuron is
surrounded by about 10 glial cells (neuroglia ).
 Neurons cannot multiply & many neurons are lost everyday in
life but glial cells can multiply throughout the life.

20.  Brain is also covered by “Meninges” like spinal cord-outer
duramater, middle arachnoidmater & inner piamater.

21. PARTS OF THE BRAIN
 Cerebrum (Forebrain)
 Mid brain
 Pons Brain stem
 Medulla oblongata
 Cerebrum (Hindbrain)

22. 1.CEREBRUM (forebrain)
 This is largest part of the brain.
 It is egg shaped organ.
 It occupies the anterior & middle cranial fossa.

23. LAYERS OF THE CEREBRUM
1.Gray matter:-
 Outer layer
 Composed mostly of neuron cell bodies
2.White matter :-
 Fiber tracts inside the gray matter
 Example: corpus callosum connects hemispheres

24. LOBES OF THE CEREBRUM
1.Frontal lobe:-Center of reasoning, Planning, Emotion, Speech,
Problem solving.

25. 2.Parietal lobe:-Receive sensory input
from Skin (touch, pain, perception
etc.)
3.Occipital lobe:- Receive input from
eye.

26. 4.Temporal lobe:-
• Hearing, Memory, Speech.
• The boundaries of lobes are marked by deep sulci.

27. 2.BRAIN STEM
 Attaches to the spinal cord
Parts of the brain stem
1. Midbrain
2. Pons
3. Medulla oblongata
4. Cerebrum (Hindbrain)

28. 1.Mid brain:-
• It is the area of brain situated around the cerebral aqueducts
between cerebrum & pons.
• It connect the cerebrum with lower part of brain & spinal cord.
2.Pons:-
• It is situated in front of the cerebellum.
• It consist of nerve fiber(white matter).
• Passing fiber from higher level of brain to spinal cord .

29. 3. Medulla oblongata:-
• It extent from pons above & it continuous with spinal cord below.
• About 2.5 cm long.
Function:- ( the vital center)
• Cardiovascular center (HR control & BP regulation)
• Respiratory center
• Reflex center of Vomiting, Coughing, Sneezing, & Swallowing

30. 4. Cerebellum:-
• It is situated behind the pons.
• It occupying posterior cranial fossa
Function:-
• It help co-ordination of voluntary muscular movement, Posture &
balance.

31. LIMBIC SYSTEM
 The term "limbic" comes from the Latin limbus, for "border" or
"edge.
 The set of brain structures that forms the inner border of the cortex.

32. CONTINUE….
 Limbic System is the area of the brain that regulates emotion and
memory.
 It includes many structures in the cerebral pre- cortex and sub-
cortex of the brain .
 The term has been used within psychiatry and neurology.

33.  The limbic system is a complex set of structures that lies on both
sides of the thalamus, just under the cerebrum. It includes the
hypothalamus, the hippocampus, the amygdala, and several other
nearby areas. It appears to be primarily responsible for our
emotional life, and has a lot to do with the formation of memories.

34. FUNCTION OF LIMBIC SYSTEM
 Plasticity and Attention
 Responding to stress
 Learning about emotional stimuli
 learning, or classical conditioning
 Affective state
 Memory

35. CONTINUE….
 Feelings of pleasure that are related to our survival, such as those
experienced from eating and sex .
 New memories(damage to this area of the brain may result in an
inability to for memories).

36. 1.HYPOTHALAMUS
 The hypothalamus is a small but important area in the center of the
brain. It plays an important role in hormone production and helps to
stimulate many important processes in the body and is located in
the brain, between the pituitary gland and thalamus.

37.  When the hypothalamus is not working properly, it can cause
problems in the body that lead to a wide range of rare disorders.
Maintaining hypothalamic health is vital because of this.

38. FUNCTION
 The hypothalamus’ main role is to keep the body in homeostasis as
much as possible.
 Homeostasis means a healthful, balanced bodily state. The body is
always trying to achieve this balance. Feelings of hunger, for
example, are the brain’s way of letting its owner know that they
need more nutrients to achieve homeostasis.

39.  The hypothalamus acts as the connector between the endocrine
and nervous systems to achieve this. It plays a part in many
essential functions of the body such as:
• body temperature
• thirst
• appetite and weight control
• emotions
• sleep cycles
• sex drive
• childbirth
• blood pressure and heart rate
• production of digestive juices
• balancing bodily fluids

40. 2.THALAMUS
 Thalamus, plural thalami, either of a pair of large ovoid organs
that form most of the lateral walls of the third ventricle of the brain.
The thalamus translates neural impulses from various receptors to
the cerebral cortex..

41. While the thalamus is classically known for its roles as a sensory
relay in visual, auditory, somato sensory, and gustatory systems, it
also has significant roles in motor activity, emotion, memory,
arousal, and other sensorimotor association functions.
Anatomically, the thalamus lies deep within the brain, adjacent to
the midline third ventricle.

42. Continue….
 The paired thalami (one per hemisphere) are connected by the
massa intermedia (interthalamic adhesion). The arterial supply to
the thalami is predominantly by branches of the posterior
cerebral arteries, as well as by the posterior communicating artery.

43. FUNCTION
• Sensory relay station for all sensory pathway.
• It is sub cortical center for pain and protopathic sensation.
• Responsible for maintaining conscious and alerting responses for
RAS.
• Control the muscular movement by virtue of its connection with
cerebellum,and motor cortex

44. • Integrating center for sleep.
• Concerned with recent memory and emotion by virtue of papez
circuit.
• Concern with language and speech by virtue of its connection with
hypothalamus and prefrontal cortex.
• Play an important role in genesis of EEG.
• Perception of sexual sensations.

45. 3.HIPPOCAMPUS
 Hippocampus is a complex brain structure embedded deep into
temporal lobe. It has a major role in learning and memory. It is a
plastic and vulnerable structure that gets damaged by a variety of
stimuli. Studies have shown that it also gets affected in a variety of
neurological and psychiatric disorders.

46.  The hippocampus is a part of the brain. It is found in the inner folds
of the bottom middle section of the brain, known as the temporal
lobe.

47. FUNCTION
• Consolidation of new memories (converting short-term memory to
long-term memory)
• Emotions
• Spartial orientation
• Navigation
• Learning

48. 4. AMYGDALA
 The amygdala is a collection of
cells near the base of the brain.
There are two, one in each
hemisphere or side of the brain.
This is where emotions are given
meaning, remembered, and
attached to associations and
responses to them (emotional
memories). The amygdala is
considered to be part of the brain's
limbic system.

50. THE NERVE TISSUE

51.  NERVOUS TISSUE
1.central nervous system:- brain and spinal cord
2.peripheral nervous system:- cranial and spinal nerve.
Nervous tissue Consists of:-
 Neuron
Supporting cells(Neuroglia)

52. • Neurons : transmit electrical impulses from one site in the body to
another, and receive and process information
• Neuroglia : are non-conducting cells that are in intimate physical
contact with neurons .

53. NEURONS
Neurons – Functional unit of nervous system
It Consists of:
• Cell body
• Processes

54. 1.CELL BODY :-
 It is basically a cell nucleus surrounded by cytoplasm.
 Nuclei of nerve cells are: large, round and euchromatic with a
single prominent nucleolus.

55.  Centrioles- absent.
 Cytoplasm of nerve cell bodies is abundantly supplied with: -
masses of RER ,numerous Golgi bodies, lysosomes

56. 2.PROCESSES (NEURITES)
Two types:-
• Axon
• Dendrites

57. 1.Axon:-
• long, cylindrical process up to 1m
• Nissl substance absent
• Axon hillock
• Impulse:- away from cell body.
• Telodendria.
• Terminal boutons.
• Commenly refer to as nerve fibers

58. 2. Dendrites:-
• Numerous, Highly branched
• Irregular
• Terminate near the cell body.
• Nissl granules – present
• Impulse- towards the cell body

59. Types of Neuron:-
1. According to the shape of cell body
2.According to variation in axon
1.According to the shape of cell body:- shape of the cell body
dependent on the number of processes arrising from it. There are
three types .

60. 1.Multipolar neurons many processes arises form the cell body
e.g.:- motor neuron

61. 2.Bipolar neuron single dendrites and axon eg:- olfactory
neuron, retina.
3.Unipolar neuron single dendrite and the axon arise form
common stem of the cell body. E.g.:- dorsal root ganglian.

62. 2.According to variation in axon 2 types
1.Golgi type I:-
• long axon and connect remote regions
2.Golgi type II:-(micro neurons)
• short axon and end near the cell body.
• Inhibitory in function.

63. AUTONOMIC NERVOUS
SYSTEM

64. INTRODUCTION
 The peripheral nervous system, or PNS, consists of the cranial
nerves, spinal nerves and ganglia.
 The peripheral nervous system subdivided into:
1. Autonomic nervous system:
• Sympathetic nervous system
• parasympathetic nervous system
2. Somatic nervous system

65.  The Autonomic nervous system (ANS or visceral nervous
system) is the part of the peripheral nervous system that acts as a
control system functioning largely below the level of
consciousness, and controls function.
 Responsible for control of “involuntary” or visceral bodily
function:
• Cardiovascular
• Respiratory
• Digestive, urinary and reproductive function.
• Key role in the bodies response to stress

66. CONTINUE….
General function of the autonomic nervous system.
• The autonomic nervous system (ANS) regulates the activities of
cardiac muscle, smooth muscle, and glands.
• It is classically divided into two subsystems:

67. 1.SYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM:
• Allow body to function under stress
• Fight or flight
• Primes body for intense skeletal muscle activity

68. 2.PARASYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
• Maintenance functions
• Rest-and-digest
• Counterbalances sympathetic function

69. NEUROTRANSMITTERS

70. INTRODUCTION
 Neurotransmitters is a chemical substance or chemical messenger
(within brain) that is secreted by neurons and that allow
communication between nerve cells to produce physiological
response such as muscle contraction.

71.  Neurotransmitters are chemical substances secreted by neurons and
they convey messages from one neuron to a target cell.
 At the target cells, the neurotransmitters may alter ion flow
(depolarise or hyperpolarise), or they may alter the cellular
metabolism.
 The transmitter substances carry out the actual passage of a signal
across a synapse.

72. PROPERTIES OF NEUROTRANSMITTERS
1) Synthesized in the presynaptic neuron
2) Localized to vesicles in the presynaptic neuron
3) Released from the presynaptic neuron under physiological
condition
4) Rapidly removed from the synaptic cleft by uptake or degradation
5) Presence of receptor on the post-synaptic neuron.
6) Binding to the receptor elicits a biological response

74. 1.ACETYLCHOLINE (ACH)
 Acetylcholine was the first neurotransmitter to be discovered.
 Isolated in 1921 by a German biologist named Otto Loewi.
 Uses choline as a precursor - cholinergic neurotransmitter.

75.  Used by the Autonomic Nervous System, such as smooth muscles
of the heart, as an inhibitory neurotransmitter.
 Responsible for stimulation of muscles, including the muscles of
the gastro-intestinal system.
 Used everywhere in the brain.
 Related to Alzheimer's Disease.

76. 2. DOPAMINE
 Is synthesized in three steps from the amino acid tyrosine.
 Associated with reward mechanisms in brain.
 Generally involved in regulatory motor activity, in mood,
motivation and attention.
 Schizophrenics have too much dopamine.
 Patients with Parkinson's Disease have too little dopamine.
Dopamine.

77. 3.NOREPINEPHRINE
• Norepinephrine (nor adrenaline) Synthesized directly from dopamine.
• Direct precursor to epinephrine.
• It is synthesized in four steps from tyrosine.
• Synthesized within vesicles.

78. CONTINUE….
• Norepinephrine is strongly associated with bringing our nervous
systems into "high alert."
• It increases our heart rate and our blood pressure.
• It is also important for forming memories. Norepinephrine

79. 3.GLUTAMATE
• It is an amino acid.
• It the most commonly found excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain.
• It is involved in most aspects of normal brain function including
cognition, memory and learning.
• Glutamate is formed from α – ketoglutarate, an intermediate of
Kreb’s cycle.

80. 4. γ-AMINO BUTYRIC ACID (GABA)
• Synthesized directly from glutamate.
• GABA is the most important inhibitory neurotransmitter.
• Present in high concentrations in the CNS, preventing the brain
from becoming overexcited.
• If GABA is lacking in certain parts of the brain, epilepsy results.

81. 5.SEROTONIN (5-HT)
• Synthesized in two steps from the amino acid tryptophan .
• Regulates attention and other complex cognitive functions, such as
sleep (dreaming), eating, mood, pain regulation.
• Too little serotonin has been shown to lead to depression, anger
control etc.

82. 2.NEUROENDOCRINOLOGY

83. Neuro-Endocrinology –
• It is the study of the interaction between the nervous system and the
endocrine system and the effects of various hormones on cognitive
emotional and behavioral functioning.
• Human endocrine functioning has a strong foundation in central
nervous system under the direction of hypothalamus which has a
direct control over pitutary gland.

84. 1.PITUITARY GLAND
“The Master gland of the body”
 Pituitary gland is the small structure in the head and main endocrine
gland.
 The normal adult pituitary gland is a reddish-grey bean shaped
gland.

85.  It is also called the Master gland because it produces the hormones
that control other glands and many body functions including
growth.

86. Anatomy of Pituitary Gland
 The pituitary gland is a pea sized, weighs 500 mg located at the
base of brain.
 It is 1cm in diameter.
 The pituitary gland lies in the Hypophyseal fossa (Slella turcica) of
the Sphenoid bone below the hypothalamus.

87.  A fold of durameter covers the pituitary gland and has
an opening for the passage of infundibulum (stalk)
connecting the gland to the hypothalamus.

88. Division of pituitary gland
It consists of two main parts that originate from different type of
cells.
1.Anterior pituitary gland (Adeno hypophysis):
• It is an up growth of glandular epithelium from the pharynx.
• It secrete peptide hormones.

89. 2.Posterior pituitary gland (neurohypophysis):
• It is formed from the nervous tissue and nerve cells, surrounding
by supporting glial cells (pituicytes).
• It stores hormones secreted by the hypothalamas.

90. Hormones of the pituitary gland
 The hormones of the pituitary gland send signals to other
endocrine glands to stimulate or inhibit their own hormone
production. For example, the anterior pituitary lobe will release
adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) to stimulate cortical
production in the adrenal glands when you’re stressed.

91. CONTINUE….
 The Anterior lobe releases hormones upon receiving releasing or
inhibiting hormones from the hypothalamus. These hypothalamic
hormones tell the anterior lobe whether to release more of a specific
hormone or stop production of the hormone.

92. Hormones produced by anterior pituitary gland
• Growth hormone (GH)
• Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)
• Adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH)
• Prolactin (PRL)
• Gonadotrophins
• Luteinizing hormone (LH)
• Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)

93. 1.Growth hormone
 Its release is stimulated by GHRH (growth hormone releasing
hormone) suppressed by GHRIH (growth hormone release
inhibiting hormone) secreted by hypothalamus.
 Secretion is also stimulated by hypoglycemia, exercise and anxiety.
 Secretion is greater during night sleep than day.

94.  GHRIH also suppress the secretion of TSH and gastrointestinal
secretion, e.g. gastric juice, gastrin and cholecystokinin.

95. 2.Thyroid Stimulating Hormone(TSH)
 The release of this hormone is stimulated by the Thyrotrophin
Releasing Hormone(TRH) from the hypothalamus.
 It stimulates the growth and activity of thyroid gland.
 Thyroid gland secretes the thyroxine (T4) and Tri- Iodothyronine
(T3).

96.  Its level is highest during the night.
 When blood level of thyroid hormone is high, secretion of TSH
is reduced.

97. 3.Adrenocorticotrophic hormone(ACTH)
 ACTH secretion is stimulated by the release of Corticotrophin
releasing hormone(CRH) from hypothalamus.
 ACTH level is highest at midday and lowest at midnight.
 It stimulates the synthesis and secretion of adrenal cortical
hormone.

98.  It is stimulated by the hypoglycemia, stress, exercise and other
emotional states.
 Its secretion is suppressed when blood level of ACTH rises.

99. 4.Prolactin
 This hormone is secreted during pregnancy for lactation.
 It is stimulated by prolactin releasing hormone (PRH) from
hypothalamus.
 After birth suckling stimulate the Prolactin secretion and lactation.

100. 5.Gonadotrophins (FSH and LH)
 Just before puberty two Gonadotrophins are secreted in gradually
increasing amounts by the anterior pituitary gland.
 Its secretion is stimulated by Gonadotrophin releasing hormone
(GNRH) or luteinizing releasing hormone(LRH) from
hypothalamus.

101.  Rising level of this hormone during puberty enhances the
maturation of reproductive organs.
Conadotrophin is combination of:
 Follicle stimulating hormone(FSH)
 Luteinizing hormone(LH)

102. 1.Follicle stimulating hormone:
• In both male and female it stimulates the production of gametes
(ova and sperms from ovaries and testis respectively).
2.Luteinizing hormone(LH):
IN FEMALES:
• LH and FSH stimulate the secretion of Oestrogen and
Progesterone from corpus luteum during the menstrual cycle.
• As the level of oestrogen and progesterone rises in blood,
secretion of LH and FSH is suppressed

103. Continue….
IN MALES:
• LH also called interstitial cell stimulated releasing hormone
(ICSH).
• It stimulates the interstitial cells to secrete testosterone.

104. Hormones produce by posterior pituitary gland
 Posterior pituitary hormones are synthesized in the nerve cells
bodies, transported along the axons and stored in vesicles within the
axon terminals in the posterior pituitary gland.
 Nerve impulses from hypothalamus trigger the exocytosis of
vesicles (of pituitary gland) releasing their hormone into blood
stream.

105. CONTINUE….
 Axon terminal release these two hormone within the posterior
pituitary gland.
1. Oxytoxin
2. Antidiuritic hormone (ADH, Vasopressin)

106. 1.Oxytocin
 It is also called anti stress hormone. Oxytocin is produced in both
males and females, but its main physiological roles seem to take
place in the female. In the female, oxytocin is involved in a number
of important physiological actions:
1. Stimulates the contraction of the uterus (myometrium).
2. 2. Stimulates the contraction of the myoepithelial cells that eject
milk from the breast.

107. 2.Antidiuritic hormone (ADH, Vasopressin).
 The main effect of the antidiuretic hormone is to reduce urine
output (diuresis is the production of a large amount of urine)
therefore it is called Antidiuritic.
 Its secretion is determined by osmotic pressure by circulating
osmoreceptors in blood.
 Increase water intake > decrease in ADH > increase in urine
output.
 Decrease in water intake > Increase in ADH > Decrease in urine
output.

108. 2.THE THYROID GLAND
 The thyroid gland is a butterfly-shaped organ located in the base of
your neck. It releases hormones that control metabolism—the way
your body uses energy. The thyroid's hormones regulate vital body
functions, including:
• Breathing
• Heart rate Central and peripheral nervous systems
• Body weight
• Muscle strength
• Menstrual cycles›
• Body temperature
• Cholesterol levels

109. Continue….
 The thyroid gland is about 2-inches long and lies in front of your
throat below the prominence of thyroid cartilage sometimes called
the Adam's apple. The thyroid has two sides called lobes that lie
on either side of your windpipe, and is usually connected by a
strip of thyroid tissue known as an isthmus. Some people do not
have an isthmus, and instead have two separate thyroid lobes.

110. How the Thyroid Gland Works
 The thyroid is part of the endocrine system, which is made up of
glands that produce, store, and release hormones into the
bloodstream so the hormones can reach the body's cells. The
thyroid gland uses iodine from the foods you eat to make two
main hormones:
• Triiodothyronine (T3)
• Thyroxine (T4)

111.  It is important that T3 and T4 levels are neither too high nor too
low. Two glands in the brain—the hypothalamus and the pituitary
communicate to maintain T3 and T4 balance.

112.  The hypothalamus produces TSH Releasing Hormone (TRH) that
signals the pituitary to tell the thyroid gland to produce more or
less of T3 and T4 by either increasing or decreasing the release of a
hormone called thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH).

113.  When T3 and T4 levels are low in the blood, the pituitary gland
releases more TSH to tell the thyroid gland to produce more
thyroid hormones.
 If T3 and T4 levels are high, the pituitary gland releases less TSH
to the thyroid gland to slow production of these hormones.

114. Why You Need a Thyroid Gland
 T3 and T4 travel in your bloodstream to reach almost every cell
in the body. The hormones regulate the speed with which the
cells/metabolism work.

115.  For example, T3 and T4 regulate your heart rate and how fast
your intestines process food. So if T3 and T4 levels are low, your
heart rate may be slower than normal, and you may have
constipation/weight gain. If T3 and T4 levels are high, you may
have a rapid heart rate and diarrhea/weight loss.

116.  Listed below are other symptoms of too much T3 and
T4 in your body (hyperthyroidism):
• Anxiety
• Irritability or moodiness
• Nervousness, hyperactivity
• Sweating or sensitivity to high temperatures
• Hand trembling (shaking)
• Hair loss
• Missed or light menstrual periods

117. • The following are other symptoms that may indicate too
little T3 and T4 in your body (hypothyroidism):
• Trouble sleeping
• Tiredness and fatigue
• Difficulty concentrating
• Dry skin and hair
• Depression
• Sensitivity to cold temperature
• Frequent, heavy period.

118. 3.CIRCADIAN RHYTHMS
 Circadian rhythms are physical, mental, and behavioral changes
that follow a 24-hour cycle. These natural processes respond
primarily to light and dark and affect most living things, including
animals, plants, and microbes.
 Chronobiology is the study of circadian rhythms. One example of
a light-related circadian rhythm is sleeping at night and being
awake during the day. The Average Teen Circadian Cycle image
shows the circadian rhythm cycle of a typical teen.

119. CONTINUE….
 Chronobiology is the study of circadian rhythms. One example of
a light-related circadian rhythm is sleeping at night and being
awake during the day. The Average Teen Circadian Cycle image
shows the circadian rhythm cycle of a typical teen.

121. BIOLOGICAL CLOCKS
 Biological clocks are organisms’ natural timing devices,
regulating the cycle of circadian rhythms. They’re composed of
specific molecules (proteins) that interact with cells throughout the
body. Nearly every tissue and organ contains biological clocks.
 Researchers have identified similar genes in people, fruit flies,
mice, plants, fungi, and several other organisms that make the
clocks molecular components.

122. MASTER CLOCK:-
 A master clock in the brain coordinates all the biological clocks in a
living thing, keeping the clocks in sync.
 In vertebrate animals, including humans, the master clock is a
group of about 20,000 nerve cells (neurons) that form a structure
called the suprachiasmatic nucleus, or SCN. The SCN is in a part of
the brain called the hypothalamus and receives direct input from the
eyes.’

123. How Do Circadian Rhythms Affect Health
Circadian rhythms can influence important functions in our bodies, such
as:
• Hormone release
• Eating habits and digestion
• Body temperature

124. • However, most people notice the effect of circadian rhythms on
their sleep patterns. The SCN controls the production of
melatonin, a hormone that makes you sleepy. It receives
information about incoming light from the optic nerves, which
relay information from the eyes to the brain. When there is less
light—for example, at night—the SCN tells the brain to make
more melatonin so you get drowsy.

125. What Factors Can Change Circadian Rhythms?
 Changes in our body and environmental factors can cause our
circadian rhythms and the natural light-dark cycle to be out of sync.
For example:
 Mutations or changes in certain genes can affect our biological clocks.
 Jet lag or shift work causes changes in the light-dark cycle.
 Light from electronic devices at night can confuse our biological
clocks.
 These changes can cause sleep disorders, and may lead to other
chronic health conditions, such as obesity, diabetes, depression,
bipolar disorder, and seasonal affective disorder.

126. TREATMENT OF CIRCADIAN RHYTHM
DISORDERS
 Behavior therapy or advice about sleep hygiene.
 Avoid naps, caffeine, and other stimulant
 Bright light therapy
 Blue blocking glasses therapy
 Medications such as melatonin and modafinil (Provigil)
 Sleep phase chronotherapy

127. NURSES RESPONSIBILITY
 Obtain a thorough and careful sleep history both from patient and
partner. Episodes of parasomnias and other sleep disorders are
unrealized by the patient, but can be described in detail by the partner
 Ask patient to maintain a sleep diary which include all sleep histories.
 Maintain a regular and consistent bed time and wake time that is
similar to both workdays and non-work days.

128.  Develop a regular relaxing bed time routine about 1 to 2 hour
before sleep onset.
 Establish comfortable sleeping conditions most conducive to
good sleep.(cooler room temperature, darkness, and low noise
levels)
 Exercise regularly, but avoid vigorous exercise within 2 to 3 hours
of sleep onset.
 Spend some time outside each day.
 Avoid exposure to bright light in the evening before bed and
encourage exposure to bright light in the morning on.

129.  Do not use alcohol to facilitate sleep initiation; this is likely to
result in sleep fragmentation later in the night as blood alcohol
levels fall.
 Avoid stimulants such as stimulants in the evening.
 Refer patient to a sleep specialists for diagnostic procedures like
polysomnography actigraphy etc.

130. 3.GENETIC

131. • Genetics:- Genetics is the branch of science concerned with
genes, heredity, and variation in living organisms. It seeks to
understand the process of trait inheritance from parents to
offspring, including the molecular structure and function of genes,
gene behaviour in the context of a cell or organism (e.g.
dominance and epigenetics), gene distribution, and variation and
change in populations.

132. GENETIC CONCEPTS
• Heredity describes how some traits are passed from parents to their
children.
• The traits are expressed by genes, which are small sections of DNA
that are coded for specific traits.
• Genes are found on chromosomes.
• Humans have two sets of 23 chromosomes-one set from each parent.

133. Mendelian Inheritance
1. The inherited traits are determined by genes that are passed from
parents to children.
2. A child inherits two sets of genes-one from each parent.
3. A trait may not be observable, but its gene can be passed to the
next generation.

134. How We Get Our Genes
 People get (inherit) their chromosomes, which contain
their genes, from their parents. Chromosomes come in
pairs and humans have 46 chromosomes, in 23 pairs.
Children randomly get one of each pair of chromosomes
from their mother and one of each pair from their father.

135.  The chromosomes that form the 23rd pair are called the sex
chromosomes. They decide if a person is male or female. A
female has two X chromosomes, and a male has one X and one Y
chromosome. Each daughter gets an X from her mother and an X
from her father. Each son gets an X from his mother and a Y from
his father.

136. GENETIC DISORDERS
 Genetic disorders can happen for many reasons. Genetic disorders
often are described in terms of the chromosome that contains the
gene. If the gene is on one of the first 22 pairs of chromosomes,
called the autosomes, the genetic disorder is called an autosomal
condition. If the gene is on the X chromosome, the disorder is called
X-linked.
 Genetic disorders also are grouped by how they run in families.
Disorders can be dominant or recessive, depending on how they
cause conditions and how they run in families:

137. 1.DOMINANT:-Dominant diseases can be caused by only one copy
of a gene with a DNA mutation. If one parent has the disease, each
child has a 50% chance of inheriting the mutated gene.
2.RECESSIVE:-For recessive diseases, both copies of a gene must
have a DNA mutation in order to get one of these diseases. If both
parents have one copy of the mutated gene, each child has a 25%
chance of having the disease, even though neither parent has it. In
such cases, each parent is called a carrier of the disease. They can
pass the disease on to their children, but do not have the disease
themselves.

138. 4.NEURO PSYCHIATRIC
DISORDERS

139. INTRODUCTION
Neuropsychiatric disorder is a blanket medical term that
encompasses a broad range of medical conditions that involve
both neurology and psychiatry.
• Common neuropsychiatric disorders include:
• seizures
• attention deficit disorders
• cognitive deficit disorders
• palsies
• uncontrolled anger
• migraine headache
• addictions
• eating disorders
• Depression
• anxiety

140. 1.SEIZURES
 A Seizure is a sudden, uncontrolled electrical disturbance in the
brain. It can cause changes in your behavior, movements or
feelings, and in levels of consciousness. Having two or
more seizures at least 24 hours apart that aren't brought on by an
identifiable cause is generally considered to be epilepsy.

141. 2.ATTENTION DEFICIT DISORDERS
 ADHD is a disorder that makes it difficult for a person to
pay attention and control impulsive behaviors. He or she may also
be restless and almost constantly active. ADHD is not just a
childhood disorder. Although the symptoms of ADHD begin in
childhood, ADHD can continue through adolescence and
adulthood.

142. 3.COGNITIVE DEFICIT DISORDERS
 Cognitive disorders are defined as any disorder that significantly
impairs the cognitive functions of an individual to the point where
normal functioning in society is impossible without treatment.
Alzheimer disease is the most well-known condition associated
with cognitive impairment.

143. 4.PALSIES
 Peripheral nerve palsies are a type of nerve disorder that can result
from trauma, injury, nerve compression, a genetic disorder, or a
disease such as diabetes. Your peripheral nerves are located outside
of your spinal cord and brain.
 Included are the nerves that extend to the limbs and many sensing
organs, including your skin, eyes, ears and nose. With palsy, you
experience paralysis and a loss of feeling in the affected parts of
the body.

144. 5.UNCONTROL ANGER
• Anger is a natural, instinctive response to threats. Some anger is
necessary for our survival.
• Anger becomes a problem when you have trouble controlling it,
causing you to say or do things you regret.

145. • A 2010 study Trusted Source found that uncontrolled anger is bad for
your physical and emotional health. It can also quickly escalate to
verbal or physical violence, harming you and those around you.

146. 6.MIGRAINE HEADACHE
• A migraine can cause severe throbbing pain or a pulsing sensation,
usually on one side of the head. It's often accompanied by nausea,
vomiting, and extreme sensitivity to light and sound. Migraine attacks
can last for hours to days, and the pain can be so severe that it
interferes with your daily activities.

147. 7.Addiction is an inability to stop using a substance or engaging in
a behavior even though it is causing psychological and physical
harm.
8. Anxiety is your body's natural response to stress. It's a feeling of
fear or apprehension about what's to come. The first day of school,
going to a job interview, or giving a speech may cause most
people to feel fearful and nervous.

148. 9.An eating disorder is a mental disorder defined by abnormal
eating habits that negatively affect a person's physical and/
or mental health.
10.Depression is classified as a mood disorder. It may be described
as feelings of sadness, loss, or anger that interfere with a person’s
everyday activities.

149. CAUSES
• Some of the most common causes include:
• traumatic head injury (TBI)
• infections
• medication side effects
• attention deficit hyperactivity syndrome (ADHD)
• genetic predisposition
• environmental factors

150. SYMPTOMS
• The key component of neuropsychiatric disorders is that the
symptoms tend to impact brain function, emotion and mood.
• These can range from problems with focus and learning in the case of
ADHD to sadness, irritability, memory problems, mood problems,
depression to a variety of other psychiatric and/or neurological
symptoms.

151. Neuropsychiatric Disorder Care Options
 Medications, psychological and/or psychiatric therapy are common
treatments for neuropsychiatric disorders. Specific treatments will
vary based on the precise cause, clinical presentation and severity.

152. 5. PSYCHOIMMUNOLOGY

153. INTRODUCTION
 Psycho immunology is relatively new field of study , examines
the effect of psychosocial stressors on the body’s immune system.
 Nervous system and the immune system represent two networks
within the body. 7

154. DEFINITION
 “ The branch of medicine that studies the effect of psychological
and social factors on the functioning of the immune system”.
 “The study of the connection between the mind and the immune
system”.

155. 1.NORMAL IMMUNE RESPONSE
• The immune response is how your body recognizes and defends itself
against bacteria, viruses, and substances that appear foreign and
harmful.

156. • The immune system protects the body from possibly harmful
substances by recognizing and responding to antigens. Antigens
are substances (usually proteins) on the surface of cells, viruses,
fungi, or bacteria. Nonliving substances such as toxins, chemicals,
drugs, and foreign particles (such as a splinter) can also be
antigens. The immune system recognizes and destroys, or tries to
destroy, substances that contain antigens.
• Your body's cells have proteins that are antigens. These include a
group of antigens called HLA antigens. Your immune system
learns to see these antigens as normal and usually does not react
against them.

158. INNATE IMMUNITY
Innate, or nonspecific, immunity is the defense system with which
you were born. It protects you against all antigens. Innate
immunity involves barriers that keep harmful materials from
entering your body. These barriers form the first line of defense in
the immune response. Examples of innate immunity include:
• Cough reflex
• Enzymes in tears and skin oils
• Mucus, which traps bacteria and small particles
• Skin
• Stomach acid

159. ACQUIRED IMMUNITY
Acquired immunity is immunity that develops with exposure to
various antigens. Your immune system builds a defense against
that specific antigen.

160. BLOOD COMPONENTS
• The immune system includes certain types of white blood cells. It also
includes chemicals and proteins in the blood, such as antibodies,
complement proteins, and interferon. Some of these directly attack
foreign substances in the body, and others work together to help the
immune system cells.

161. • Lymphocytes are a type of white blood cell. There are B and T
type lymphocytes.
• B lymphocytes become cells that produce antibodies. Antibodies
attach to a specific antigen and make it easier for the immune cells
to destroy the antigen.
• T lymphocytes attack antigens directly and help control the
immune response. They also release chemicals, known as
cytokines, which control the entire immune response.

162. INFLAMMATION
• The inflammatory response (inflammation) occurs when tissues are
injured by bacteria, trauma, toxins, heat, or any other cause. The
damaged cells release chemicals including histamine, bradykinin, and
prostaglandins. These chemicals cause blood vessels to leak fluid into
the tissues, causing swelling. This helps isolate the foreign substance
from further contact with body tissues.
• The chemicals also attract white blood cells called phagocytes that
"eat" germs and dead or damaged cells. This process is called
phagocytosis. Phagocytes eventually die. Pus is formed from a
collection of dead tissue, dead bacteria, and live and dead phagocytes.

163. IMMUNE SYSTEM DISORDERS AND ALLERGIES
• Immune system disorders occur when the immune response is
directed against body tissue, is excessive, or is lacking. Allergies
involve an immune response to a substance that most people's
bodies perceive as harmless.

164. IMMUNIZATION
• Vaccination (immunization) is a way to trigger the immune
response. Small doses of an antigen, such as dead or weakened
live viruses, are given to activate immune system "memory"
(activated B cells and sensitized T cells). Memory allows your
body to react quickly and efficiently to future exposures.

165.  COMPLICATIONS DUE TO AN ALTERED IMMUNE
RESPONSE
• An efficient immune response protects against many diseases and
disorders. An inefficient immune response allows diseases to
develop. Too much, too little, or the wrong immune response
causes immune system disorders. An overactive immune response
can lead to the development of autoimmune diseases, in which
antibodies form against the body's own tissues.

166. Complications from altered immune responses include:
• Allergy or hypersensitivity
• Anaphylaxis, a life-threatening allergic reaction
• Autoimmune disorders
• Graft versus host disease, a complication of a bone marrow
transplant
• Immunodeficiency disorders
• Serum sickness
• Transplant rejection

167. 2.IMPLICATIONS OF PSYCHIATRIC ILLNESS

168. • Mental illness, also called mental health disorders, refers to a wide
range of mental health conditions — disorders that affect your
mood, thinking and behavior. Examples of mental illness include
depression, anxiety disorders, schizophrenia, eating disorders and
addictive behaviors.
• Many people have mental health concerns from time to time. But a
mental health concern becomes a mental illness when ongoing
signs and symptoms cause frequent stress and affect your ability to
function.

169. CONTINUE….
• A mental illness can make you miserable and can cause problems
in your daily life, such as at school or work or in relationships. In
most cases, symptoms can be managed with a combination of
medications and talk therapy (psychotherapy).

170. CAUSES
Mental illnesses, in general, are thought to be caused by a variety of
genetic and environmental factors:
• Inherited traits. Mental illness is more common in people whose
blood relatives also have a mental illness. Certain genes may
increase your risk of developing a mental illness, and your life
situation may trigger it.
• Environmental exposures before birth. Exposure to
environmental stressors, inflammatory conditions, toxins, alcohol or
drugs while in the womb can sometimes be linked to mental illness.

171. CONTINUE….
• Brain chemistry. Neurotransmitters are naturally occurring brain
chemicals that carry signals to other parts of your brain and body.
When the neural networks involving these chemicals are impaired,
the function of nerve receptors and nerve systems change, leading
to depression and other emotional disorders.

172. RISK FACTORS
• Certain factors may increase your risk of developing a mental
illness, including:
• A history of mental illness in a blood relative, such as a parent or
sibling
• Stressful life situations, such as financial problems, a loved one's
death or a divorce
• An ongoing (chronic) medical condition, such as diabetes
• Brain damage as a result of a serious injury (traumatic brain injury),
such as a violent blow to the head

173. • Traumatic experiences, such as military combat or assault
• Use of alcohol or recreational drugs
• A childhood history of abuse or neglect
• Few friends or few healthy relationships
• A previous mental illness
Mental illness is common. About 1 in 5 adults has a mental illness
in any given year. Mental illness can begin at any age, from
childhood through later adult years, but most cases begin earlier in
life.
The effects of mental illness can be temporary or long lasting. You
also can have more than one mental health disorder at the same
time. For example, you may have depression and a substance use
disorder.

174. SYMPTOMS
• Signs and symptoms of mental illness can vary, depending on the
disorder, circumstances and other factors. Mental illness symptoms
can affect emotions, thoughts and behaviors.
• Examples of signs and symptoms include:
• Feeling sad or down
• Confused thinking or reduced ability to concentrate
• Excessive fears or worries, or extreme feelings of guilt
• Extreme mood changes of highs and lows
• Withdrawal from friends and activities
• Significant tiredness, low energy or problems sleeping
• Detachment from reality (delusions), paranoia or hallucinations

175. • Inability to cope with daily problems or stress
• Trouble understanding and relating to situations and to people
• Problems with alcohol or drug use
• Major changes in eating habits
• Sex drive changes
• Excessive anger, hostility or violence
• Suicidal thinking
Sometimes symptoms of a mental health disorder appear as
physical problems, such as stomach pain, back pain, headaches, or
other unexplained aches and pains.

176. COMPLICATION
• Mental illness is a leading cause of disability. Untreated mental
illness can cause severe emotional, behavioral and physical health
problems. Complications sometimes linked to mental illness
include:
• Unhappiness and decreased enjoyment of life
• Family conflicts
• Relationship difficulties
• Social isolation
• Problems with tobacco, alcohol and other drugs

177. CONTINUE….
• Missed work or school, or other problems related to work or
school
• Legal and financial problems
• Poverty and homelessness
• Self-harm and harm to others, including suicide or homicide
• Weakened immune system, so your body has a hard time resisting
infections
• Heart disease and other medical conditions

178. PREVENTION
There's no sure way to prevent mental illness. However, if you have a
mental illness, taking steps to control stress, to increase your
resilience and to boost low self-esteem may help keep your symptoms
under control. Follow these steps:
• Pay attention to warning signs. Work with your doctor or therapist
to learn what might trigger your symptoms. Make a plan so that you
know what to do if symptoms return. Contact your doctor or therapist
if you notice any changes in symptoms or how you feel. Consider
involving family members or friends to watch for warning signs.

179. • Get routine medical care. Don't neglect checkups or skip visits to
your primary care provider, especially if you aren't feeling well.
You may have a new health problem that needs to be treated, or
you may be experiencing side effects of medication.
• Get help when you need it. Mental health conditions can be
harder to treat if you wait until symptoms get bad. Long-term
maintenance treatment also may help prevent a relapse of
symptoms.
• Take good care of yourself. Sufficient sleep, healthy eating and
regular physical activity are important. Try to maintain a regular
schedule. Talk to your primary care provider if you have trouble
sleeping or if you have questions about diet and physical activity.

180. IMPLICATIONS FOR
NURSING
 Psychiatric nurses must integrate knowledge of the biological
sciences into the practices if they are insure safe and effective care
to people with mental illness. Nurse must be understand of the
following:
1. Neuro Anatomy and neuro physiology: the structure and
functioning of the various parts of the brain and there correlation
to human behavior and psychology.

181. 2.Neuronal Processes: The various function of the nerve cells,
including the role of Neurotransmitters, receptors, synaptic
activity and informational pathways.
3.Neuroendocrinology:- The interaction of the endocrine and
nervous system, and the role that the endocrine glands and their
respective hormones play in behavioral functioning.
4. Circadian rhythms:- regulation of biochemical functioning over
period of rhythmic cycles and their influence in predicting certain
behaviors.
5. Genetic influence:- Heredity factors that predispose individuals to
certain psychiatric disorders.

182. 6. Psychoimmunology:- The influence of stress on the immune
system and its role in the susceptibility to illness.
7. psychopharmacology:- The increasing use of psychotropic in the
treatment of mental illness, demanding greater knowledge of
psychopharmacology principles and nursing interventions
necessary for sale and effective management.
8. Diagnostic technology:- The importance of keeping informed
about the latest in technological procedures for diagnosing
alteration in brain structure and function.

183. CONTINUE….
• Psychobiology perspectives must be incorporated into nursing
practice, education and research to attain the evidence based outcomes
necessary for the delivery of competent care.
• It is also important for nurses to keep abreast of the expanding
diagnostic technologies available for detecting alterations in
psychobiological functioning.
• Integrating knowledge of the expanding biological focus into
psychiatric nursing is essential if nurses are to meet the changing
needs today’s psychiatric clients.

184. RESEARCH ABSTRACT
 Study of Psychobiology in First-episode Schizophrenia at Hillside Hospital
• Heterogeneity has been a consistent problem in the research and treatment of
schizophrenia. Despite marked variation in the onset, phenomenology, treatment
response and outcome of schizophrenic patients, our ability to identify subtypes is
remarkably limited. A major problem in schizophrenia research has been the use
of cross-sectional study designs and heterogeneous patient samples at different
stages of the illness and who have been previously exposed to neuroleptics which
have potentially confounding effects on the disease

185. CONTINUE….
This study intends to identify biologic correlates of the phenomenology and course
of schizophrenia by using a prospective, longitudinal, repeated measures design
assessing biologic and clinical parameters including measures of psychopathology,
side effects, and social adjustment to examine clinical variables of treatment
response, illness course, and outcome; measures of central nervous system
dopamine activity and brain morphology in patients, from the onset of their illness.
Patients were ascertained at hospital admission and assessed with a battery of
clinical, neuropsychologic, and biologic measures before undergoing standardized
treatment for the acute and maintenance phases of the illness.

186. Upon completion, approximately 120 first-episode patients will have entered the
study and will have been followed prospectively for up to 5 years and assessed at
specific time intervals. Preliminary results reveal significant abnormalities in brain
morphology, growth hormone secretion, eye movement function, and psychotogenic
response to dopamine agonists in first-episode, treatment-naive patients which are
associated with treatment response and outcome. This article describes the study's
rationale, design, and methods, and a summary of the published results to date.
These are discussed in terms of their significance for putative clinical subtypes and
pathophysiological models of schizophrenia.

187. SUMMARY
• Psychobiology is a branch of psychology that analyzes how the
brain, neurotransmitters, and other aspects of our biology
influence our behaviors, thoughts, and feelings. The field of
biopsychology is related to several other areas,
including comparative psychology and evolutionary psychology.

188. CONCLUSION
• psychobiology, also called physiological psychology, is the study of
the biology of behavior; it focuses on the nervous system, hormones
and genetics. Biological psychology examines the relationship
between mind and body, neural mechanisms, and the influence of
heredity on behavior. The biological approach believes behavior to
be as a consequence of our genetics and physiology. It is the only
approach in psychology that examines thoughts, feelings, and
behaviors from a biological and thus physical point of view.

190. BIBLIOGRAPHY
Book references:-
• TOWENSEND C. MARRY, MENTAL HEALTH NURSING
,8TH EDN,PUBLISHED BY JAYPEE PUBLICATIONS
Internet References:-
• http://www.verywellmind.com
• http://www.study.com
• http://en.m.wikipedia.org
• http://cos.northeastern.edu