BLOOD GROUPING AND BLOOD TYPING .pptx
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Karl Landsteiner discovered the ABO blood group system in 1901 and was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1930. His discovery found that if a red blood cell antigen is present, the corresponding antibody will not be present in a patient's plasma under normal conditions. The Rh blood group system, discovered by Dr. Y.M. Bhende in 1952, involves the presence or absence of the Rh antigen on red blood cells and is also known as the HH group.
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During DNA elongation, DNA polymerase adds complementary DNA nucleotides to the 3' end of a newly synthesized strand using the template strand as a guide. On the lagging strand, DNA polymerase can only synthesize DNA in the 5' to 3' direction, so Okazaki fragments are formed that later need to be joined together. In contrast, the leading strand is synthesized continuously because DNA polymerase can add nucleotides to the 3' end that is open for elongation as the replication fork moves along.
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The lac operon is a cluster of three genes in prokaryotes that are involved in processing the sugar lactose. It consists of a promoter, operator, and structural genes. The lac operon is inducible, meaning it is only transcribed when lactose is present. Depending on whether lactose and glucose are present or absent, the lac operon will be either actively transcribed or transcriptionally inactive.
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Prokaryotic DNA replication begins at the origin of replication site where the replication fork is formed. DnaA and other proteins recognize the origin site and unwind the DNA double helix. RNA primers are synthesized which allows DNA polymerase III to begin bidirectional DNA synthesis of the leading and lagging strands. Okazaki fragments are formed and ligated on the lagging strand. Replication terminates when the replication forks meet at the termination site and the daughter chromosomes are separated.
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DNA has a double helix structure that resembles a twisted ladder. It is composed of nucleotides, each containing a sugar, phosphate group, and one of four nitrogen bases (A, T, C, or G). The bases on opposite strands bond together via hydrogen bonds between A-T and C-G to form the structure. Erwin Chargaff discovered that the amounts of A and T are equal, as are the amounts of C and G in any DNA sample. There are three types of DNA structures: A-DNA, B-DNA, and Z-DNA.
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The document describes the lac operon system, which was the first operon described in 1961 and controls the catabolism of lactose in prokaryotes. The lac operon has 5 structural units - a promoter, operator, three structural genes (LacZ, LacY, LacA) that encode enzymes for lactose breakdown, CAP binding sites, and a regulatory gene. When lactose is absent, a repressor protein binds to the operator, preventing transcription of the structural genes. When lactose is present, it binds to the repressor and causes a conformational change that releases it from the operator, allowing transcription and the breakdown of lactose.
LAC OPERON 2.pptx
The lac operon is a cluster of three genes in prokaryotes that are involved in processing the sugar lactose. It consists of a promoter, operator, and structural genes. The lac operon is inducible, meaning it is only transcribed when lactose is present. Depending on whether lactose and glucose are present or absent, the lac operon will be either actively transcribed or transcriptionally inactive.
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DNA is a double-stranded molecule composed of nucleotides that contain nitrogenous bases, a deoxyribose sugar, and a phosphate group. The bases--cytosine, thymine, adenine, and guanine--form rungs of a twisted ladder structure, while the alternating sugar and phosphate molecules form the sides. Watson and Crick discovered that the bases pair up specifically through hydrogen bonds to form the DNA double helix, which contains the genetic information needed to build an organism. DNA can take on different secondary structures including A-DNA, B-DNA, and Z-DNA forms.
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DNA repair mechanisms are necessary to correct damage to DNA that could otherwise lead to mutations and cancer. There are several types of DNA repair mechanisms that address different types of damage, including base repair through excision, resynthesis and ligation of bases, nucleotide excision repair to address mismatches, and mismatch repair to fix errors. Double stranded breaks can be repaired through non-homologous end joining or homologous recombination repair.
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This document discusses the structure and types of DNA. It begins by introducing DNA and its components. DNA is made up of deoxyribonucleotides and carries genetic information found in chromosomes, chloroplasts, mitochondria and nuclei. The structure of DNA is a double helix formed from nucleotides containing a sugar, phosphate group and one of four nitrogenous bases. There are three main types of DNA structures: A-DNA, B-DNA, and Z-DNA. B-DNA is the most common form found in cells under normal physiological conditions. It is a right-handed double helix with 10.5 base pairs per turn and a diameter of 20 angstroms. A-DNA and Z-DNA are less common structures
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DNA is a double-stranded molecule that is twisted into a helix shape and found in chromosomes, mitochondria, where it carries genetic information. Each DNA nucleotide is composed of a sugar, nitrogen base, and phosphate group. The structure of DNA was elucidated by James Watson and Francis Crick and provides the basic unit of heredity.
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DNA damage can occur endogenously through normal cellular processes like respiration or replication errors, or exogenously through environmental factors like radiation, chemicals, and alkylating agents used in chemotherapy. Common types of DNA damage include depurination, deamination of cytosine and adenine, alkylation of bases, insertion/deletions of nucleotides, base analog incorporation, cross-linkages induced by bifunctional alkylating agents and UV light, and oxidative free radical formation. This damage can lead to mutations in the DNA sequence, including point mutations like missense, nonsense, and silent mutations, or frameshift mutations involving insertions, deletions, or inversions.
RNA Polymerase.pptx
RNA polymerase is an enzyme that copies DNA sequences into RNA sequences during transcription. There are differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic RNA polymerase. Prokaryotic RNA polymerase consists of four subunits and a sigma factor and only one type exists, while eukaryotic RNA polymerase has five types with 10-12 subunits each. The types of RNA polymerase are RNA polymerase 1 which synthesizes rRNA in the nucleolus, RNA polymerase 2 which synthesizes pre-mRNAs and mRNAs, and RNA polymerase 3 which synthesizes tRNAs and rRNAs in the nucleus. RNA polymerase 4 and 5 are found in plant chloroplasts and mitochondria.
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This document summarizes RNA splicing and mRNA formation. It discusses how introns are removed from pre-mRNA and exons are joined in a process called RNA splicing that occurs in the nucleus after transcription. It describes different splicing pathways and explains that most genes contain introns and exons, with introns being removed by splicing and exons being joined to form mRNA that can then be transported to the cytoplasm and translated into protein. Alternative splicing is discussed as a mechanism for generating multiple protein isoforms from a single gene. Examples are given of how mutations can affect splicing and cause diseases.
LAC OPERON.pptx
The lac operon controls the transport and metabolism of lactose in E. coli. It contains three genes - lacZ, lacY, and lacA - that encode enzymes for breaking down lactose. When lactose is absent, the lac repressor binds to the operator region and prevents transcription of the genes. However, when lactose is present, it binds to the lac repressor and causes a conformational change that releases it from the operator, allowing transcription and expression of the lac genes. The lac operon was the first to be discovered and helped establish the operon model of gene regulation.
Different Types and Structure.pptx
DNA is a double-stranded molecule composed of repeating nucleotides that form a helical structure and contains the genetic information of organisms. Nucleotides consist of a nitrogenous base, a pentose sugar called deoxyribose, and a phosphate group. The two strands of the DNA double helix are held together by hydrogen bonds between complementary purine bases adenine (A) and guanine (G) and pyrimidine bases thymine (T) and cytosine (C). Different DNA structures include A-DNA, B-DNA, and Z-DNA which vary in their helical sense, base pair orientation, and groove size.
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DNA polymerase is the enzyme required for DNA replication and copies DNA in the 5' to 3' direction, while RNA polymerase is required for transcription and contains subunits that allow it to copy DNA into RNA. Both polymerases have a structure resembling an open right hand with sub-domains for catalysis, nucleotide recognition, and binding the DNA or RNA substrate. The main differences between them are that DNA polymerase requires the separation of DNA strands before copying, while RNA polymerase can copy double-stranded DNA directly.
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- 3. •KARL LANDSTEINER DISCOVERED THE ABO BLOOD GROUP SYSTEM IN 1901. •HE WAS AWARDED NOBEL PRIZE IN 1930.
- 4. IF AN ANTIGEN IS PRESENT ON A PATIENT’S RED BLOOD CELLS THE CORRESPONDIND ANTIBODY WILL NOT BE PRESENT IN THE PATIENT PLASMA, UNDER NORMAL CONDITION.
- 6. •RH POSITIVE PRESENCE OF RH ANTIGEN ON THE SURFACE OF RBCs. •RH NEGATIVE LACK OF RH ANTIGEN ON THE SURFACE OF RBCs.
- 7. •DISCOVERED BY DR. Y.M. BHENDE IN 1952. •IT IS ALSO CALLED THE HH GROUP.
- 9. TUBE METHOD
- 10. SLIDE METHOD