LEAD 901 Chapter 7

1. Chapter 7
Data Collection

2. Questions for Discussion
• What are the steps in the overall data collection process of
qualitative research?
• What are the key ethical considerations when collecting data?
• How does a researcher find people or places to study?
• What are typical access and rapport issues?
• What decisions influence the selection of a purposeful
sampling strategy?
• What type of information typically is collected?
• How is information recorded?
• What are common issues in collecting data?
• How is information typically stored?
• How are the five approaches both similar and different during
data collection?
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3. Data Collection Activities
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4. Data Collection by Approach (1)
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5. Data Collection by Approach (2)
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6. Ethical Considerations
• Protect anonymity by assigning numbers
or aliases
• Explain to participants the purpose of the
study
• Be aware of information shared off the
record that may harm individuals if
reported
• Become familiar with the context and
respectful of marginalized populations
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7. Institutional Review Boards
Submit a proposal
Most qual studies expedited
Minors or high risk: full review
Qual description may require quan language
Argue: qual interviews give participants control
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8. Data Collection: Site or Individual
• Narrative
– Find 1+ individuals
– Facet of relationships
• Phenomenology & grounded theory
– Need not be single site
• Ethnography
– Need single site
• Case study
– Single or multiple sites
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9. The Site or Individual
Narrative
• Individuals who are accessible, willing to talk
• Inform participants of researcher motivation
• Individuals can shed light on the issue
Phenomenology
• Individuals must have experienced phenomenon
• Can articulate their lived experiences
Grounded Theory
• Participants participated in the process or action the
researcher is studying
• May be dispersed to provide contextual information
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10. The Site or Individual (continued)
Ethnography
• Single site
• Intact culture-sharing group has developed shared
values, beliefs, and assumptions
Case study
• Select a site or sites to study
• May be programs, events, processes, activities,
individuals, or several individuals
• Collective case study is acceptable
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11. The Site or Individual (continued)
• Study in your own organization or place of
work raises issues of power and risk to
researcher, participants, and site
• Data collection may introduce power
imbalance between researcher and
participants
• Can be political and jeopardize jobs
• When necessary, include multiple validation
strategies
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12. The Consent Form Elements
• Right of participants to voluntarily withdraw from
the study at any time
• Central purpose of the study and the procedures
to be used in data collection
• Protection of the confidentiality of the respondents
• Known risks associated with participation
• Expected benefits to accrue to the participants
• Signature of the participant as well as the
researcher
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13. Purposeful Sampling Strategy
• Qualitative researcher use a purposeful
sampling approach.
• Major decisions in purposeful sampling
– Whom to select as participation or sites
– The specific type of sampling strategy
– The size of the sample to study
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14. Typology of Sampling Strategies (1)
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15. Typology of Sampling Strategies (2)
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16. Forms of Data Collection
• Observations
– Field notes
– Participant to non-participant
• Interviews
– Closed to open-ended
– Focus groups
• Documents
– Private to public
– Journals, letters, (auto)biographies, and records
• Audiovisual materials
– Photos, videos, website, sounds, text messages, and
objects
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17. Innovative Data Collection
• Online data collection
– Virtual focus groups, web-based interviews
– E-mail or text-based chat
– Internet message boards and social media
– Consider ethics: consent forms
• Arts-based research methods
• Visual ethnography
• Photo elicitation
– Photovoice: participants take pictures
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18. Procedures for Interviewing
Decide transcription logistics
Use good interview procedures
Obtain consent
Locate distraction-free place
Refine through pilot testing
Design & use an interview protocol
Use adequate recording procedures
Distinguish type of interview
Identify interviewees
Determine open-ended research questions
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19. Types of Observation
• Complete participant
– Helps establish rapport
• Participant as observer
– Participant role more salient
– Recording data may distract researcher
• Nonparticipant/observer as participant
– Researcher as outsider
• Complete observer
– Researcher neither seen nor noticed
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20. Steps for Observation
Prepare thick and rich notes immediately
Withdraw slowly
Have someone introduce you to build rapport
Record description and interpretation
Design and use an observational protocol
Distinguish type of observation base on observer role
Identify who or what to observe
Select site
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21. Recording Procedures
• Interview protocol
– Use a header
– Place space between questions
– Memorize questions & order
– Write closing comments
• Observational protocol
– Header
– Descriptive notes
– Reflective notes
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22. Field Issues (1)
• Entry and organizational access
– Convincing individuals to participate
– Building trust & credibility
– Researcher’s ‘stance’
• Procedures for observations
– Role of inquirer & when to switch
– Taking field notes, recording quotes
– Funneling broad to narrow picture
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23. Field Issues (2)
• Dynamics between interviewer and interviewee
– Phrasing of questions
– Equipment; transcribing
– Interviewer-interviewee relationship
• Power dynamics
• Interviewees’ ability to articulate
• Documents and audiovisual materials
– Locating materials & obtaining permission
– Journaling
• What instructions
• Appropriateness re writing skills
• Reading handwriting
– Recording: room sounds, camera location
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24. Data Storage and Handling
Back up collected information
Use high quality recording equipment
Develop master list of information
types
Protect anonymity by masking names
Develop data collection matrix
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25. Five Approaches Compared
• Types of data collection
– Case and narrative studies: multiple forms
– Grounded theory and phenomenology: primarily interviews
– Ethnography: participant observation and interviews
• Unit of analysis
– Narrative, phenomenology, grounded theory: individuals
– Case study: group of individuals
– Ethnography: cultural systems
• Field issues
– Ethnographers have written extensively, varies widely across all
approaches
• Intrusiveness
– Phenomenology and grounded theory: less intrusive
– Narrative, ethnography, and & case study: more intrusive
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