The presentation is about Mining & Metallurgy of ancient India. It deals with Gemology, alchemy, brick making and other techniques.

1. Khani Shastra
Mining and Metallurgy of Ancient India
Dr. Ashok S. Nene
Retd. Professor of Civil Engineering
V.N.I.T. Nagpur

2. INTRODUCTION
“Shilpa” is derived from a Sanskrit root –
Sheel samadhau
literally means anything that pleases your
mind.
नानाविधानाां िस्तुनाां यांत्राणाां कल्पसांपदा ।
धातुनाां साधनाांच िास्तुनाां शिल्पसां्ञीततां ॥
भृगुसांहिता

3. Terminology
Shilpashastra - The engineering Philosophy related
to a particular subject comprising different
techniques skills or arts.
Shilpa-samhita –A compilation of rules and
procedure related to a particular science.
Vidya –A techniques related to creation or execution
of a Shilpa.
Kala - An art or skill acquired by practice and
experience. Even a blind of deaf person can master
any particular skill.

4. Ten –Engineering Sciences (Shastras)
•Krishi -Biological Sciences
•Jala shastra -Water Resources
•Khani shastra -Mining & Metallurgy
•Ratha shastra -Surface Transportation
•Nauka shastra -Water Transportation
•Vyomayan shastra -Air or Space Transportion
•Veshma shastra –Habitation
•Prakaara shastra -Forts& Castles
•NagarRrachana shastra -Town planning
•Yantra shastra -Machines and Mechanisms

5. Vidyas and Kalas: Four Techniques (Vidya) and
twelve Arts or Skills related to Khani shastra
(Mining & Metallurgy) are;
T1- Druti Vidya- Gemology
T2- Bhasmkaran Vidya- Calcinations
T3- Sankaran Vidya- Alloy Making
T4- Pruthhakaran Vidya- Separation of metals

6. S1- Ratnadisdyana- Cutting and polishing of gems
S2- Kshyariskashan- Slag removal
S3- Kshyarparikshya- Testing of chemicals
S4- Snehaniskashan- Removal of oils
S5- Ishtikabhajan- Bricks, tiles, pottery etc making
S6- Dhatusanyog- Combination of metals with herbs

7. S7- Kachapatradikaran- Glass making
S8- Lohabhisar- Iron Smithy
S9- Bhanda kriya- Making metal pots
S10- Swarnadidarshan- Grading of gold
S11- Makarandadikruti- Powder making with the
help of honey
S12- Sanyog dhatudyana- Metal alloys

8. • Sage Agastya, desirous of strength, used his pick-axe
for the benefit of men and vegetation..
• Sage Agastya explored water wells and mines.
• An intelligent person acquires gold and lives long
• An experienced person sharpens a steel axe and
uses for cutting.
Khanishastra in Vedic Literature

9. Eighteen States of Ancient India

10. Sn State Mountain River Tree Ores
1 Yalhik Hemkut Vipasha Pipal Gold
2 Souvir Pariyatra Sindhu Shak Mercury
3 Kaikay Himalaya Shatadru Oudumbar Silver
4 Magadh Gandhamadan Ganga Vat Copper
5 Malav Chitrakut Kalindi Plaksha Lead
6 Anga Uday Gandaki Bilwa Tin
7 Vanga Malyawan Sarayu Tulsi Bairunt*
8 Kalinga Nishadh Shona Amalaksha Iron
9 Kamboj Lokalok Irawati Palash Karkut *

11. 10 Vidarbha Vindhya Narmada Shirish Tin
11 Lat Satpuda Tapti Parijat Bell metal
12 Surashtra Raiwatak Gomati Aamla Lead
13 Aarat Sahyadri Godawari Kapittj Lodhra *
14 Ramsrushti Asta Bhimarathi Ber Blue iron
15 Vishwamit
ra Srushti
Shriparwat Krushna Bakul White iron
16 Padya Nilgiri Kaveri Patli Gold
17 Chola Malay Tamraparni Chandan Red iron
18 Madra Trikut Dhrutmala Tamarind Gems

12. 3. TECHNIQUES AND SKILLS
3.1 Gemology ( Ratnaparikshya)
• Planets, birth stone and Herbs
• Gems and Semi -precious stones
•Identification
•Cutting and Polishing

13. Opaqueness-Mala
Spot--Bindu,
streak or line-Rekha
Non uniform cuts-Tras
Marks-Kakapada
Ancient text "Yuktikalptaru" specifies a test to
identify guanine pearls.
Diamonds
Ratnapariksha mentions five defects of a
diamond

15. Sanskrit books on Gemology
Bairavatantra Bruhatasamhita
Lohapradeep, LohavarNav,
Mahavajra PaashaNavichaar
Rasaprakashsudhakar Ratna Traya Pariksha
Ratnapariksha Ratnapradip

16. 3.2. Calcinations Technique
BhasmikaraN Vidya
A. Alkali extraction -KshyaraNishkasan
B. Testing of Alkali - Kshyaraparisha
C. Oil extraction -Snehanishkasan
D. Brick making- Ishtikadibhajan

17. D1. Firing of clay bricks and tile, pottery
products - Ishtikadibhajan
•Shilparatna, (c14, v48-51).
•Vastuvidya (c6.v20-32) ,
•Shilpadipak (c10v20)
•Aparajit Pruchcha
The process of making bricks is given in

18. D2-Lime Calcination
Bhrugu Samhita (Chapter 5) describes in detail
the process of preparation of lime mortar.
D3.Glass making
Shatapatha Brahmana and Vinaya Pitaka
mentions glass. The archaeological excavations at
Takshashila, gives the evidence of glass in 3rd
century .

19. C- Oil extraction-Snehanishkasan
As per Kautilya Arthashastra Four types of oily
liquids are Ghee, mustard seeds oil, animal fat
and bone-marrow.
Oils were also extracted from seeds of Neem,
Mango stone, wood apple, etc.
It is surprising that other oils such as
cottonseed oil, groundnut oil, coconut oil or
linseed oil etc are not mentioned.

20. 3.3. Sankar vidya – Mixture of two or
more things
There are three methods to mix metals,
• Balasankar – Mixing by force, such as hitting two
metals.
• Jalasanskar – mixing by adding water such as
preparation of lime mortar by adding lime, sand and
water.
• Agnisankar –Mixing by heating to melt metals and to
form alloys. This method is mostly used under the
Metallurgy.

21. Six skills or Kala are listed below,
S1-Dhatu Aushadhi sanyog - Use of herbs in metal
smelting
S2-KachapartadikaraN - Glass making
S3-Lohabhisar - Iron smithy
S4-Bhandakriya - Making of metal pots
S5-SwarNathamya darshan - Testing purity of gold
S6-Makarandikruti - Use of honey in making metal
powder.
Skills under Sankar Vidya

22. The Iron smelting technique of Munda
blacksmiths (Karmar) is mentioned in Rig-
Veda (RV 9.112.2).
जरततशभ: औषधञीतशभ: पणेशभ: िकु नाना कर्ाार: अश्र्शभ:
द्य्भभ: हिरण्यिांतशर्च्छतत।ऋग्िेद ९.११२.२
Use of herbs in metal smelting is an
ancient Indian art mastered by tribal
iron smiths (known as Munda,
Karmars or Asura). They convert iron
into steel by treating it with dried
wood and green leaves (medicine).
The cassia auriculara is used for this
purpose.

23. Skill 3-Lohabhisar – Iron smithy
A Blacksmith makes many
kinds of tools and other
objects out of metal. The
first metals used were
Bronze and Iron. There are
two main methods of
metalworking used to
produce decorative and
functional items. Forging
and casting.

24. The ancient Indian texts on Dhanurved by Jamadnya
or Vishamitra. describe techniques of wars and
weapons. These texts describe the techniques of
tempering of steel. Modern metallurgists should verify
these techniques using modern instruments.
Tempering of steel by herbs and salts

25. Process of tempering by Sage Jamadnya
• Grind Pimpali (Piper longum,Linn ),
Saindhav (Rock salt-salt of Sindh ) and
Kusta ( Saussurea Lappa) in cow’s urine
(Gomutra)
• Coat the tiller with this mixture and heat
it in a fire till the color of steel turns yellow.
Immerse in oil till it cools down.

26. Process of tempering by Sage Vishamitra
• Grind five types of salts# (Panchlavan) to
fine powder
• Add mustard (Sasharp) seeds and honey.
• Coat the tiller with this mixture and heat
it in a fire till the color of steel turns blue
Immerse in cold water.

27. The art of metal work is known to Indians for almost
5000 years from now.
Indian craftsmen have been using different metals like
iron, copper, silver and alloys like bronze, bell metal,
white metal etc
They produce items such as pots, pans, utensils, photo
frames, sculptures of deities, mythological figures and
animals.
Banaras is well known for cast sculptures. Moradabad is
famous for brass works
Skill 4-Bhandakriya - Making of metal pots

28. Skill 5-SwarNathamya darshan –
Testing purity of gold or silver
Traditional Goldsmiths of India, test gold by
‘touch stone or Kasoti stone. The stone is
cleaned by rubbing with charcoal and then by
seed of Castor.

29. Skill 6-Makarandikruti –
Use of honey in making metal powder
Nano-particles (NP) in consumer products are
made from Zinc or Titanium oxide. Different
products such as optoelectronic devices,
sunscreens, paint pigments, rubber
components, cosmetics, food additives, and
medicines contain such Nano-particles.

30. Green synthesis method are developed
to produce metal Nano-particles by using
natural compounds or plant components
In place of honey .
A- Aloevera plant extract
B- Neem tree leaf extract
C-Honey Solution for Zinc sulphide

31. 3.4- Pruthhakaran Vidya-
Separation of metals

32. MINING IN ANCIENT INDIA
Glossary of Sanskrit Terms
Sanskrit English Sanskrit English
haritala arsenic kanchanika Gold ore
sasyaka opal gomedaka agate
khanyadhyaks
hah
superintende
nt of mines
lohadhyaksh
ah
superintendent
of metals
Vimalaka A type of gem Vajrakhanda Yam
vaikrintaka mercury rakta brass
kansa bronze tala Sulphurate of
arsenic
Manasheel Antimony Fenasham Arsenic
Navasagar Ammonium
Chloride
Paarad Mercury

33. Kautilya’s Arthashashtra (450 B.C.) contains ten books
(volumes) and 150 chapters. Chapter 12 and 13 of the
book two is related to Mining and Metallurgy.
As per the text the superintendent of mines shall
examine old and mines. The richness of ore can be
ascertained by weight, depth of color, piercing smell,
and taste.

34. • Sulphurate of arsenic (haritala) - Liquids
which ooze out from pits ceaves, slopes, or
deep excavations of well-known mountains;
which are as yellow as ripe turmeric.
• Ores of gold (kanchanika) - Color as that of
petals of a lotus, or the feathers of a parrot or
a peacock; which are greasy , transparent ,
and very heavy. Color of ore indicates the
metal or minerals in it.
Visual identification of few ores is described

35. • Vimalaka (a kind of precious stone - colour
of a conch-shell, camphor, alum, butter, a
pigeon, turtle-dove.
• opal (sasyaka)- color of that of the neck of a
peacock.
• agate (gomedaka) - color of that of
granulated sugar
• Silver ores smell like raw meat, are disjoined
gray or blackish white, and are marked with
lines or spots; and which, when roasted, do
not split, but emit much foam and smoke.

36. • The heavier the ores, the greater will be
the quantity of metal in them .
• The impurities of ores, whether
superficial or inseparably combined with
them can be got rid of.

37. The ores are chemically treated with
concentrated urine and alkalis and are mixed
or smeared over with the mixture of the
powder of Rajavriksha (Clitoria Ternatea), Vata
(Ficus Indica), and Pelu (Carnea Arborea),
together with cow's bile and the urine and
dung of a buffalo, an ass and an elephant and
then melted.

38. • Metals are rendered soft when they are
treated with the powder of mushroom, and
Yam together with the ashes of barley, black
beans, flowers of palasa (Butea Frondosa),
and pelu (Carnea Arborea), or with the milk of
both the cow and the sheep.
• Whatever metal is split into a hundred
thousand parts is rendered soft when it is
thrice soaked in the mixture made up of honey
, madhuka (Bassia Latifolia), sheep's milk,
sesame oil, clarified butter, jiggery, kinva
(ferment/ yeast) and mushroom.

39. • ores of copper - obtained from plains or slopes of
mountains; and which are heavy, greasy, soft, tawny,
green, dark, bluish-yellow (harita), pale-red, or red
• ores of lead.- color of pigeon, or cow’s bile, and
which are marked with white lines and smell like raw
meat
• ores of tin.-variegated in color as saline soil or which
have the color of a burnt lump of earth .

40. He shall carry on the manufacture of copper,
lead, tin, mercury brass , bronze or bell-metal.
He shall attend to the collection of conch-
shells, diamonds, precious stones, pearls,
corals, and salt (kshara) and also regulate the
commerce in the above commodities.
The superintendent of metals (lohadhyakshah)

41. When gold is rendered brittle owing to its
contamination with lead, it shall be heated
with dry cow dung. When it splits into pieces
owing to hardness, it shall be drenched (after
heating) into oil mixed with cow dung.

42. Mineral Ores found in India
• Coal-electricity generation, steel production,
cement manufacturing.
• Cobalt-It is widely used in cancer treatment,
as a tracer and for radiotherapy.
• Diamond-in saw blades, drill bits and grinding
wheels for the purpose of cutting, drilling or
grinding hard materials.
• Dolomite-Glass &Ceramics
• Fluorite- a sintering agent and flux in metal
processing.

43. • Iron ore-To manufacture steel, used in civil
engineering (reinforced concrete, girders etc)
and in manufacturing.
• Lime stone-Lime stone for lime & Cement
• Magnetite-Production of glass
• Lignite-fuel for steam-electric power
generation
• Magnetite-Iron and Steel
• Marble-Building stones

44. •Pyrite-Gold
•Quartz-Oscillators in radios, watches, and
pressure gauges, and in the study of optics.
•Sandstone-Building stones
•Bauxite-Aluminum
•Zinc-Paints, rubber, cosmetics,
pharmaceuticals, plastics, inks, soaps,
batteries, textiles and electrical equipment.

45. Mineralogy of ancient India
A mineral is defined as a naturally occurring
chemical compound, usually of crystalline form
and not produced by life processes.
A mineral has one specific chemical
composition, whereas a rock can be an
aggregate of different minerals. The study of
minerals is called mineralogy.

46. Classification of Minerals: Minerals can be
grouped under three heads a) Metallic, b)
Non-metallic and c) Energy minerals. Metallic
minerals are further divided into three groups
a) Ferrous, b) Non-ferrous and c) Precious.
Metallic Minerals such as Gold, Silver, Copper
etc. are precious and are mixed with other
metals and impurities.

47. Non Metallic minerals such as Nitrate,
potash, coal are known as fuels as these
produce heat. Petroleum and Coal are Plant
and animal remains (fossil fuel).
Ferrous Minerals which have iron content
are Cobalt, Nickel, Manganese.
Non-Ferrous Minerals which have no iron
content, are Copper, Tin and aluminum.

48. Lime Stone, Manganese, bauxite and Iron ore
Cobalt, Dolomite, Lignetite and Magnetite
Fluorite, Pyrite, Marble and Granite.
Minerals of India

49. Metal ores in the Arthashastra
Heavier the ore, more is the metal content.(KA
2/12/7). Ores of gold can be identified by
following symptoms; (KA 2/12/5)
1. Color yellow or red
2. Contains blue or green lines.
3. Emits smoke or foam when heated.

50. • Ores containing lead or Antimony smells like raw
flesh and has variegated white lines or spots. It
emits smoke or foam when heated. The color may
be crow black. (KA 2/12/6).
• Ores containing copper is heavy, unctuous and
soft. The color is tawny, green, reddish or red. . (KA
2/12/12).
• Iron ore contains round stones, whitish red or
Sinduvira.(KA 2/12/15).
• Vikranta ore has a color of crow’s eggs or birch-
leaf. .(KA 2/12/16).
• Gem ore is smooth, produces sound, hard anf of
light color. .(KA 2/12/17).

51. Addition of bulbous roots of plantain, and Yam
along with alkali ashes (made by burning barley ,
black masha. Sesame , plakshya ) and milk of goat
make the ore soft. (KA 2/12/9).
Honey, sugar syrup , goats milk, sesame oil mixed
with ghee, jiggery and yeast together with
plantain stem juce, when applied to leather three
times becomes soft. (KA 2/12/10).
Softening of materials

52. Soft metals can be made hard by smearing powder
of teeth or horns of cow on red hot material and
then quenching in cold water. (KA 2/12/11).
Hardening of materials

53. NON FERROUS METALS
Brass: Fusion of zinc with copper
Bronze: dancing girl´ statue from Mohenjo-Daro.
alloying copper with tin, lead or arsenic.
Mohenjo-daro, the presence of tin is 4.5 to 13 per cent
Copper: extensive evidence for the ancient mining of copper
ores from the Khetri region of Rajasthan in northwestern India
dating to about the 3rd-2nd millennium BC.

54. Early gold and silver ornaments from the
Indian subcontinent are found from Indus
Valley sites such as Mohenjo-Daro (ca 3000
BC). These are on display in the National
Museum, New Delhi.
Gold and Silver

55. Lead
The mineral-rich Aravalli region of Rajasthan
was one of the important early lead mining
regions in antiquity. The use of low melting
lead-tin eutectic as a solder became
common in Europe by the late medieval
period

56. Mercury
The Sanskrit name for ‘chemistry’ is Rasayan
shastra. Rasa means a liquid or mercury, which is
the only metal available in liquid state. If powdered
mica is mixed with mercury and rolled into a ball, it
is converted into solid form. Such material is sold in
market as Paarada-maNi or Paarada-shivaling.

57. • Mercury is a volatile metal which is easily produced
by heating cinnabar followed by downward distillation
of the mercury vapor.
• Mercury was also main constituent in alchemical
transmutation experiments as mentioned in Indian
alchemical texts which were precursors to the
development of chemistry.

58. Tin -The earliest references to metal tin has been
made in the Yajur Vedic Rudra Camaka , as 'Trapu '.
Name of its chief ore cassiterite, is possibly derived
from Sanskrit ‘ Kastira '. tin ore was found in Tosham,
Hariyana.
Zinc - The Rasaratnakara, describes this method of
production of zinc. Rasa Rasaratnasamuccaya, a
thirteenth century text gives details of the distillation
process by tiryak patina yantra (distillation by
descending). at Zawar, where the ancient zinc mines
(earliest so far is 430 BC) were found.

59. Bidriware
Bidriware, is famous all over the world. Bidri
is an alloy which contains zinc, copper, lead,
tin and a trace of iron. The art was developed
in 14th century AD. Several impressive
vessels, ewers, pitchers, vessels, huqqa bases
etc. were made of bidri ware with patterns
influenced by the fine geometric and floral
patterns.

60. literally means an alloy of five metals) most
widely used for making icons and idols. This five-
metal combination of Cu, Au, Ag, Pb, and Zn was
considered to be a highly auspicious composition
It is widely believed that wearing jewellery made
of Panchdhatu brings balance in life, self-
confidence, good health, fortune, prosperity, and
peace of mind.
Panchaloha

61. 6-IRON AND STEEL IN ANCIENT INDIA
The meaning of the Sanskrit word “ayas” has
been debated for a long time.
Types of Iron: According to Rasaratna
Samuchchaya (dated to the eighth to twelfth
century AD), Iron was classified into three basic
categories, which are applicable even today –
Wrought iron (Kanta Loha)
Carbon steel (Tikshna Loha)
Cast iron (Munda Loha)

62. Bhramaka kanta loha (Soft magnetic iron)
Chumbaka kanta loha (Mild magnetic iron)
Karshaka kanta loha (Attracts iron objects)
Dravaka kanta loha (Very strong magnetic
iron)
Ramaka kranta loha (Permanent magnet
and very powerful)
Kanta Loha
Munda Loha
Mrudu munda loha (Soft brittle iron)
Kunda munda loha (Mottled grey iron)
Kadara munda loha (White cast iron)

63. Teekshna Loha
Khara teekshana loha (Brittle but develops good
cutting edge)
Sara teekshana loha (Fibrous looking softer iron)
Hrunnala teekshana loha (Hard and tough
fibrous structure)
Taravata teekshana loha ( excellent cutting edge)
Vajra teekshana loha (hard and has excellent
tampering property)
Kala teekshana loha (Develops very hard edge
after tampering)

64. • The word derived from the Kannada ´ukku´ and the
Tamil ´ekku´, meaning crucible steel.
• This high carbon, wootz steel from ancient India has
a characteristic wavy pattern, with alternating light
and dark shades due to the large quantities of carbon
added to the iron.
• The famous Damascus Sword and Prophet
Mohammed´s ‘Teling’ sword were manufactured using
wootz steel.
Wootz steel

65. 7- CASE STUDIES OF METAL CASTINGS
7.1-Iron Pillar at Delhi
•The famous Iron Pillar belongs to 4th century with a
height of 7.20 m, with 93 cm buried below
•It is a wonder that iron has not rusted despite the
sixteen centuries that have passed since then.
•an excellent example of advanced metallurgy of
those times and is a marvel in itself.
•high amounts of phosphorus is the secret

66. 7.2 -The iron pillar at Kodachadri KS
Dwaja-Sthamba (flag-staff) of the Ambika temple or
the Kodachadri iron mast or pillar.
the iron pillar is about 10 m above the ground level,
with a rectangular cross-section of 8.5 cm x 5.8 cm .
The weight of this flag-staff can be estimated as about
500 kg.

67. 7.3 -Dhar iron pillar
Dhar iron pillar, in its original condition, was larger
than the Delhi iron pillar. Dhar pillar monument with
its total length of 13m’ is currently lying in three
broken pieces at Dhar iM.P.

68. 7.4-Huge Gun Metal Bells in India
Temple bells are comparatively big and of weight
less than 20Kg. Only two big bells of India worth
mentioning are Naroshankar Bell at Nasik (MS)
and other is a bell at MeNawali (MS), installed by
Nana Fadanavis in 16th century.

69. 7.5- The metal mirrors of Aranmula
The few traditional bronze smiths in Aranmula,
Kerala, create, the world-famous metal mirrors.
The polishing process can go on for two to three
days. The mirror is then mounted on bronze
frames with exquisite carvings.

70. 7.6-The Dhokra Technique of Bastar and Bankura
The lost wax process is the only technique used by
the tribal artist of Bastar (M.P) and Bankura (W.B.)
to create the Dhokra sculptures. All the artwork is
one of a kind and never reproduced on a large scale.

71. Sanskrit Names for Minerals
Sanskrit Roman English
अभ्रक Abhrak Mica
अलक Alak Orpiment
गगन gagan Mica
क्षारराज Kshyar raj Borax
लिण LavaN Salt
निसार Navsar Salt of ammonia
सुधा Sudha Lime
व्योर् Vyoma Mica

72. Sanskrit terms for various Metals
Sanskrit Roman English Sanskrit Roman English
अर Aar Brass metal अिी Ahi lead metal
अयस Ayah Iron अयस्कां त Ayaskant Load stone
/ magnet
भानु Bhanu Copper चांद्र Chandra silver
चांद्राका Chandrark Amalgam of
gold and
silver
गैररक Gairik/ Geru Red ochre
काांस्य / कृ ष्ण कषोपल Gun metal Testing
stone
Hartal Orpiment
कशसस /खग kasis / Khag Ferrous
Suphate
खपार Kharpar Zinc ore
ककट्ट Kitta Rust of iron क्षार Kshyar Alkali

73. Sanskrit Roman English Sanskrit Roman English
टांक Tank Borax क्षेत्रज Kshyetraj Variety of
gold
कु हटल / िांग Kutil / Vang Tin र्ांडूर Mandur Rust of iron
र्िारत्न Maharatna nine
precious
stones
िुल्ब Shulwa Copper
नाग Naag lead metal सौविर Soubir Galena /
Lead
sulphide
पारद Parad Mercury ताम्र Tamra Copper
शसांदूर Sindur Lead oxide तार tar silver

74. Sanskrit terms for Properties of metals
Sanskrit Roman English
रज Saumaka Of the moon = Cool
पांचघ्न Panca=ghna Non-malleable
करालघ्न Carala-ghna Anti-toxin
उष्णिीन Usna-Iiana Heat-proof
भािीन Bhara-rhana Weight-proof
िञीततिीन Sita rhana Cold-proof
आम्लिीन Arnla-rhana Acid-proof = Alkaline
अ्ग्नहिान Agni rhin Fire-proof
घ्निन Ghna, han means to kill, quench.
उष्णिन U sna- hana Heat + bearing
विषम्भर Visam-bhara Poison + bearing Toxic (weapon-
grade)
उष्णपा Usnarrr-pa Heat + protecting Heat conducting
रज Raja Shining = White

75. 9C-Alchemy in ancient India
Ancient text ‘Manasollas’ by King Someshwara
contains a full chapter (64) on alchemy
(Dhatuwad).The translation Sanskrit verses (377-394)
is given below.
377 - With the help of alchemy wealth can be earned. Copper
can be converted into gold and Tin can be converted into silver.
378 - Crush completely dried flowers of Palash (flame of forest),
mix with milk of she-goat and apply it for three days to
complete the process.
379 - Smear the Tin surface with the powder (one-sixth in
proportion and the heat it till it becomes beautiful like silver.
380 - Apply a juice of white lotus on Tin for thirty-two day.
381 - Heat the smeared Tin or lead and heat it till the black color
and smell is removed and it becomes silver like.

76. Sources of metal ores
SN Metal Synonyms Sanskrit Names Availability
01 Gold Hiranya, kanchana, manohara,
haataka, kanaka, mangalyaka
In India Karnataka , Bihar,
02 Silver Roupya, taara, chandraloha,
chandrahaasa, shubhraka
Bihar, M.P.
03 Copper Shulba, suryaloha, raviloha,
bhaskara, arka, ravipriya,
lohitayasa
Bihar, Rajasthan in India
04 Iron Ayas, shastraloha, saaraloha,
teekshnaka
South Bihar, W.Bengal, Orissa,
Rajasthan, AP, MP.
05 Lead Seesaka, seesa, bhujanga, phani,
kuranga, Aasheevisha, vabhra
Kashmir, Punjab, Rajasthan, TN,
Bihar.
06 Tin Rangaka, Shukraloha, Trapu,
Kuroopya, Trapusha, Trapusa
Bihar in India.
07 Zinc Jasad, Yasad, Reetihetu,
Kharparaja, Rangasankaasha
Kashmir, Punjab, Rajasthan, TN,
Bihar, MP, UP
08 Brass Reetika, Kapiloha, Kapila, Pingala,
Peetaka
----
09 Bronze Tamratrapuja, Ghosha, Ghoshaka,
Deeptaloha, Vahniloha, Kamsaka
----
10 Cast Iron Panchaloha, Pancharasa, Bharta, Vartula ----

77. Apparatus for Smelting of Iron by Indian
tribals
Leuva, K. K., 1963, " The Asur: A Study of Primitive Smelters “,
Bharatiya Adimjati Sevak Sangh, New Delhi,

78. Ancient Metallurgical Equipment
India had 20,000 furnaces operating across the
country indicating the geographical spread of this
knowledge.
hundreds of other beautiful sculptures and icons in
bronze and copper, belonging to periods earlier
than 2000 BCE,
Ref. Brhad-vimana-shastra. Rasa-ratna-
samuccayah.
A-Crucibles:
B-Tortoise Furnace:
C- Air Blowers (Bellows)

79. 9 F-Testing of metals
As per Bhrugu Shilpa Samhita there are eight
types of tests for metals.
• Cross-section (Anga)- In the test the metal piece is cut or
drilled. The inspection of cross-section is first test. -100
• Color (Roop): Every metal has its own color. The color can
be blue, black, red, yellow etc. -4
• Caste (Jaatee):The metal has its own positive or negative
properties by which metal can be identified. -4
• Trade mark (Netra): As humans can be identified by eyes,
similarly trade mark of manufacturer (in addition to the cross-
section) helps in identification. It has its own positive or
negative properties by which metal can be identified. -30

80. • Purity (Arishtha): Few metals are marked (by experts)
with its percentage of purity. -30
•Origin (Bhoomi): The mine from which the metal ore is
excavated is its origin. -2
•Sound (Dhwani)-The sound emitted when a metal is
struck by metal, helps in the identification. The engineer
should know the different sounds of metals. -8
•Section (Maan)- The metals are cast into different sections
(circular or square rods, angles, channels or beams etc) for
end users. -Infinite

81. 8 REFERENCES
Arthshastra by Kautilya,
Brihat Samhita (of Varah Mihir),
Brihan Nighantu
Dhatukalpa- Loharnava
Rasa-ratna-samuccayah, Vagbhatah (12th Century AD)
Rasendra-sarasangrahah (9th century AD)
Ratnapariksha
Mahavajra
Lohapradeep
Bhairavtantra
PashaN vichar
Shilparatna

82. This presentation is based on
Authors E Book
“ Mining & Metallurgy of ancient India “
Available at “BookGanganga.com”

83. 83