Zoology is a fascinating subject that covers a vast range of topics. It is the study of the animal kingdom and all its wonders. Whether you're interested in animal behavior, anatomy, ecology, or evolution, zoology has something for everyone. We hope this beginner's guide has given you a glimpse into the world of zoology and inspired you to learn more about the animal kingdom.
2. Dr. K. ASHOK
Assistant Professor,
Department of Microbiology and Biotechnology,
Bharath Institute of Higher Education and Research
(BIHER), Chennai- 600 073, Tamil Nadu, India
Dr. M. BABU
Assistant Professor,
Department of Microbiology and Biotechnology,
Bharath Institute of Higher Education and Research
(BIHER), Chennai- 600 073, Tamil Nadu, India
3. Introduction to Zoology
Zoology is the scientific study of animals. It encompasses
everything from the smallest invertebrates to the largest
mammals. Zoologists study animal behavior, physiology,
anatomy, genetics, ecology, and evolution. They try to
understand the relationship between animals and their
environment
4. The ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle (384 BC – 322 BC) is
often considered the “father of zoology”. He was one of the first to
classify animals into groups based on their physical characteristics
and behavior, and he wrote extensively about the habits and
characteristics of animals. His book “Historia Animalium” is one
of the earliest works of zoology and contains detailed observations
and descriptions of a wide range of animals, including mammals,
birds, fish and insects.
5. Main branches of Zoology
Biogeography : Study of the patterns of geographic distribution
of organisms and the factors that determine those patterns.
Classification : The method of arranging the organisms into
groups is called classification.
Developmental Biology : Study of the process by
which animals and plants grow and develop.
Ethology : Study of animal behaviour.
Evolutionary Biology : Subfield of biology that studies the
evolutionary processes that produced the diversity of life on
Earth.
6. Molecular Biology : Study of chemical and physical structure of
biological macromolecules is known as molecular biology.
Physiology : Study of functions and mechanisms in a living
system.
Structural Zoology : Understanding the structure and function
of cells is fundamental to all of the biological sciences. The
similarities and differences between cell types are particularly
relevant to molecular biology. Anatomy considers the forms of
macroscopic structures such as organs and organ systems.
Vertebrate and Invertebrate Zoology : Invertebrate Zoology
deals with the study of Invertebrates and the vertebrate
Zoology is the study deals with the study of vertebrates.
7. Sub-Branches of Zoology
Acarology : Study of tick and mites
Actinobiology / Radiobiology : Study of effects of radiations on living organism
Aerobiology : Study of flying organisms
Andrology : Study of male reproductive organs
Angiology : Study of blood vessels
Anthropology : Study of human races
Apiculture : Rearing of honey bees
Apiology : Study of honey bees
Aquaculture : Culturing of aquatic organisms
Araneology : Study of spiders
Arthrology : Study of joints
Bacteriology : Study of bacteria
Bionics : Study of mechanical systems like living organisms and parts of
living organisms
Batracology : Study of rays and skates
Biochemistry : Study of chemistry of living organisms :
Bioclimatology : Study of effect of climate on distribution of organisms
8. Biodynamics : Biology dealing with energetics of organisms
Biometry : Applicaitn of mathematics in living organisms
Biophysics : Study of physical principles of living organisms
Biostatistics : Application of statics in living organisms
Biotechnology : Biotechnology is the use of biology to develop new
products, methods and organisms intended to improve human health
and society. Biotechnology, often referred to as biotech, has existed since
the beginning of civilization with the domestication of plants, animals
and the discovery of fermentation.
Bioinformatics : Bioinformatics, as related to genetics and genomics, is a
scientific subdiscipline that involves using computer technology to
collect, store, analyze and disseminate biological data and information,
such as DNA and amino acid sequences or annotations about those
sequences. Scientists and clinicians use databases that organize and
index such biological information to increase our understanding of
health and disease and, in certain cases, as part of medical care.
9. Bionanotechnology : Bionanotechnology is defined as the incorporation
of biological molecules into nanoartifacts
Carcinology : Study of crustaceans
Cardiology : Study of heart
Chiropterology : Study of bats
Chondrology : Study of cartilage
Cnidology : Study of cnidarians
Conchology : Study of molluscan
Craniology : Study of cranium
Cryobiology : Study of life at low temperature
Ctetology : Study of acquired characters of plants and animals
Demography : Study of populations
Dermatology : Study of skin
Entomology : Study of insects
Epidemiology : Study of epidemic diseases
Ethology : Study of animal behaviours
Etiology : Study of origin of disease
Eugenics : Study of improvement of human races by the application of
genetic laws
Euphenics : Study of improvement of human races by altering protein
synthesis in the cell
10. Euthenics : Study of improvement of human race by providing better conditions
Exobiology : Study of life in the other plants
Gerentology : Study of aging in man
Gnatobiology : Study of germ free living organisms
Gynaecology : Gynaecology
Haematology : Study of blood
Heiminthology : Study of Helminths
Herpetology : Study of frogs
Ichnology : Study of foot prints
Ichthyology : study of molluscan shells
Immunology : Study of immune systems in the body and antigen-antibody
reactions
Laryngology : Study of larynx
Lepidopterology : Study of butterflies
Limnology : Study of life in fresh water bodies
Malcology : Study of molluscs
Mammology : Study of mammals
Mastology : Study of breasts
Microbiology : Study of micro-organism (viruses and bacteria)
11. Myrmecology : Study of ants
Neonatology : Study of newly born organisms
Neontology : Study of recently formed organisms
Nephrology : Study of nephrons
Nidology : Study of bird nests
Odontology : Study of teeth and gums
Onchology : Study of cancer
Ontogeny : Study of history of an individual
Ophilogy : study of snakes
Ophthalmology : Study of eyes
Organology : Study of organs
Ornithology : Study of birds
Osteology : Study of bones
Otology : Study of ear
Parazoology : Study of sponges
Pedology : Study of soil
Phenology : Study of seasonal behaviours flowering in plants, migrations
in animals
Phrenology : Study of brain and its working
Phylogeny : Study of racial history
12. Pisciculture : Culturing of fishes
Pleurology : Study of lungs
Protozoology : Study protozoans
Psychology : Study of human mind
Renology : Study of kidneys
Rhinology : Study of nose
Sarcology or myology : Study of muscles
Saurology : Study of lizars
Sericulture : Rearing of silk worms
Serology : Study of serum
Sonology : Study of wounds
Splanchnology : Study of visceral organs
Syndesmology : Study of joints and ligaments
Tectology : Study of structural organization of body
Teleology : Study of interpretations of structures in terms of utility and
purpose
Teratology : Study of abnormal
Torpedology : Study of fishes
Traumatology : Embryos (terats)
Trichology : Study of hair
13. Urology : Study of excretory system
Veterinary science/ Veterinary medicine : Veterinary medicine is the branch
of medicine that deals with the prevention, management, diagnosis, and
treatment of disease, disorder, and injury in animals.
Virology : Study of viruses and virus-like agents.
Vermiculture : Artificial rearing or cultivation of worms (Earthworms).
Zymology / Enzymology : Study of enzymes.
Zoography (Descriptive Zoology) : Study of animals and their respective
habitats.
Zoogeography : Study of geographical distribution of animal species.
Zoometry : Study of measurement including size and length of animal parts.
Zootomy : Study of animal anatomy.
14. Zoological Names of animals and birds
Common name Scientific name
Bison Bos gaurus
Black buck Antelope cervicapra
Chinkara Gazella bennettii
Nilgai Boselaphus tragocamelus
Wolf Canis lupus
Lion Panthera leo
Elephant Elephas maximus
Wild Ass Equus africanus asinus
Leopard or panther Panthera pardus
Kashmir stag or hangul Cervus canadensis hanglu
Peacock Pavo cristatus
15. Common name Scientific name
Siberian crane Grus leucogeranus
Fox Vulpes vulpes
Rhinoceros Rhinoceros unicornis
Tiger Panthera Tigris
Crocodile Crocodylus palustris
Gavial or Gharial Gavialis gangeticus
Horse Equus caballus
Zebra Equus quagga
Buffalow Babalus bubalis
Wild boar Sus scrofa
Arabian camel Camelus dromedaries
Giraffe Giraffa camelopardalis
House wall Lizard Hemidactylus flaviviridis
Hippopotamus Hippopotamus amphibius
16. Common name Scientific name
Rhesus monkey or baudar Macaca mulatta
Dog Canis lupus familiaris
Cat Felis domesticus
Cheetah Acinonyx jubatus
Black rat Rattus rattus
House mouse Mus musculus
Rabbit Oryctolagus cuniculus
Great horned owl Bubo virginianus
House sparrow Passer domesticus
House crow Corvus splendens
Common myna Acridotheres tristis
Indian parrot Psittacula eupatria
Bulbul Molpastes cafer
Koel Eudynamis scolopaccus
17. Common name Scientific name
Pigeon Columba livia
Indian Cobra Naja naja
King cobra Ophiophagus hannah
Sea snake Hydrophiinae
Indian Python (Ajgar) Python molurus
Dhaman or rat snake Ptyas mucosa
House crow Corvus splendens
Hen Gallus gallus domesticus
Giraffe Giraffa camelopardalis
Deer Cervidae
Polar bear Ursus maritimus
Goat Capra aegagrus hircus
Arabian camel Camelus dromedarius
African elephant Loxodonta
18. Scope of Zoology
Zoology is the scientific study of animals, including their behavior,
physiology, anatomy, genetics, ecology, evolution, and classification. It
encompasses a wide range of topics, from microscopic organisms such as
bacteria and protozoa to complex animals like primates and whales.
The scope of zoology is broad and diverse, and includes many subfields
such as:
Anatomy and physiology: The study of the structure and function of
animals, including their organs, tissues, and cells.
Behavioral ecology: The study of how animals interact with their
environment and each other, including their social behavior,
communication, and mating strategies.
Evolutionary biology: The study of how animals have evolved over
time and how they have adapted to their environment.
Genetics: The study of how genes and heredity influence the
characteristics and traits of animals.
19. Marine biology: The study of marine organisms and their ecosystems,
including their distribution, behavior, and adaptations.
Neurobiology: The study of the nervous system and how it functions in
animals.
Systematics and taxonomy: The study of the classification and naming
of animals, including their evolutionary relationships and phylogeny.
Wildlife conservation: The study of how to protect and manage animal
populations and their habitats.
Overall, zoology plays a vital role in understanding and preserving the
biodiversity of our planet, and it has many practical applications in
fields such as medicine, agriculture, and environmental science.
20. Job opportunities in Zoology
Zoology is the scientific study of animals and their behavior,
physiology, genetics, and ecology. It's a diverse field that offers a
variety of job opportunities for those with a degree in Zoology. Here
are some of the job opportunities available in Zoology:
Wildlife Biologist - Conducts research on animal behavior, ecology,
and population dynamics to help manage and conserve wildlife
populations.
Zookeeper - Cares for and manages animals in zoos, aquariums, and
wildlife parks, and educates the public about animal behavior and
conservation.
Animal Behaviorist - Studies animal behavior to understand how
animals interact with their environment and other animals.
21. Conservation Biologist - Works to protect endangered species
and their habitats by developing and implementing
conservation plans.
Research Scientist - Conducts research on animal biology,
genetics, and physiology to develop new treatments for human
diseases and improve animal health.
Veterinarian - Diagnoses and treats animal illnesses and
injuries, and provides preventive care to maintain animal
health.
Animal Trainer - Trains animals for use in entertainment,
research, or other specialized applications.
Wildlife Educator - Educates the public about wildlife
conservation and ecology, and promotes the importance of
protecting wildlife habitats.
These are just a few of the many job opportunities available in
Zoology. With a degree in Zoology, can also pursue careers in
academia, government agencies, and private industry.
22. There are various academic job options available for individuals with a BSc
in Zoology. Some of the common academic job roles include:
Research Assistant: Research assistants work with senior researchers or
professors and help them in their research projects. Their role involves
collecting data, conducting experiments, analyzing results, and presenting
findings.
Laboratory Technician: Laboratory technicians work in academic
institutions and help in conducting experiments, maintaining laboratory
equipment, and assisting in the preparation of laboratory reports.
Wildlife Biologist: Wildlife biologists study animals in their natural habitats,
their behavior, ecology, and evolution. They also work on projects that help
in the conservation of endangered species.
Animal Behaviorist: Animal behaviorists study the behavior of animals in
different environments and their interaction with other animals and humans.
They also work on projects that involve animal welfare and training.
23. Zookeeper or Animal Caretaker: Zoos and other animal facilities hire
zoology graduates as animal caretakers. They are responsible for feeding and
caring for the animals, as well as maintaining their living environment.
Environmental Consultant: Environmental consultants advise organizations
on environmental issues such as pollution, conservation, and sustainability.
They work on projects that involve the management and protection of
natural resources.
These are just a few examples of the academic job roles available for
individuals with a B.Sc in Zoology. The specific opportunities available will
depend on the individual's skills, experience, and interests.
24. As a B.Sc Zoology graduate, you may be eligible for various
government jobs in India. Some of the government job
options for BSc Zoology graduates include:
Wildlife Inspector: You can apply for the post of Wildlife
Inspector in various government agencies, such as the Wildlife
Crime Control Bureau, Forest Department, and the Central
Zoo Authority.
Fishery Officer: You can apply for the post of Fishery Officer in
various government departments such as the Department of
Fisheries, Ministry of Agriculture, and Rural Development.
Forest Officer: You can apply for the post of Forest Officer in
various government departments such as the Forest
Department, Indian Forest Service, and Wildlife Conservation
Society.
25. Zookeeper: You can apply for the post of Zookeeper in various
zoos across the country, including the National Zoological
Park, Delhi and the Mysore Zoo.
Research Assistant: You can work as a Research Assistant in
various government-funded research projects in the field of
Zoology, such as the Zoological Survey of India and the
Central Institute of Fisheries Education.
These are just a few examples of the many job opportunities
available to B.Sc Zoology graduates in the Indian government
sector. You may want to explore these options further and find
the one that best suits your interests and skills.
26. There are several private industry job opportunities available for
individuals with a B.Sc in Zoology. Some of these options include:
Wildlife Biologist: This job involves studying animal behavior and
populations in the wild, and providing recommendations for
wildlife management and conservation. Wildlife biologists may
work for government agencies, non-profit organizations, or
private consulting firms.
Zookeeper: Zoos and aquariums often hire individuals with a
degree in zoology to care for animals and educate the public about
them. Zookeepers may be responsible for feeding animals,
cleaning enclosures, and providing enrichment activities.
Biotech Researcher: Biotechnology firms may hire zoology
graduates to work in research and development, specifically in
areas related to animal genetics, cloning, and drug development.
27. Animal Behaviorist: This job involves studying animal behavior in
various settings, such as in the wild, in captivity, or in laboratory
settings. Animal behaviorists may work for universities, zoos, or
private consulting firms.
Environmental Consultant: Environmental consulting firms may
hire zoology graduates to work on projects related to habitat
restoration, species monitoring and environmental impact
assessments.
These are just a few examples of the many job opportunities
available to individuals with a B.Sc in Zoology. It is important to
research and explore different career paths to find one that aligns
with your interests and skills.
28. 26 Best Universities for Zoology in India
University of Agricultural Sciences, Dharwad
Indian Institute of Science
University of Lucknow
Banaras Hindu University
University of Delhi
Forest Research Institute
Jawaharlal Nehru Centre for Advanced Scientific Research
Annamalai University
Punjabi University Patiala
Aligarh Muslim University
North Eastern Hill University
University of Kerala
Andhra University
University of Calcutta
University of Mysore
University of Calicut
29. University of Burdwan
University of Kalyani
Madurai Kamaraj University
Bangalore University
Panjab University
Indian Agricultural Research Institute
University of Madras
U.P. Pandit Deen Dayal Upadhyaya Veterinary University
Central Institute of Fisheries Education
University of Allahabad
30. Animal Classification
Zoologists classify animals based on their characteristics.
The classification system includes seven levels: Kingdom,
Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus and Species. The
most common classification system is based on the
Linnaean system, which is named after the Swedish
botanist Carl Linnaeus
31. Carolus Linnaeus, also called Carl Linnaeus, Swedish Carl von Linné,
(born May 23, 1707, Råshult, Småland, Sweden-died January 10, 1778,
Uppsala), Swedish naturalist and explorer who was the first to frame
principles for defining natural genera and species of organisms and to
create a uniform system for naming them (binomial nomenclature).
32. Classification of animals
Animals can be classified in various ways depending on the criteria
used. One of the most common classification systems is the
taxonomic classification system, which groups animals based on
their evolutionary history and physical characteristics. The
taxonomic classification system groups animals into the following
hierarchical categories, from the most general to the most specific:
Kingdom: The highest level of classification, which includes all living
organisms. Animals belong to the Kingdom Animalia.
Phylum: The second level of classification, which groups animals
based on their general body plan. There are over 30 animal phyla,
but the most common ones are Chordata, Arthropoda and Mollusca.
Class: The third level of classification, which groups animals based
on their specific characteristics. For example, mammals belong to
the class Mammalia, while birds belong to the class Aves.
33. Order: The fourth level of classification, which groups animals based on
their characteristics and behavior. For example, primates belong to the
order Primates, while carnivores belong to the order Carnivora.
Family: The fifth level of classification, which groups animals based on
their genetic relationships. For example, cats belong to the family Felidae,
while dogs belong to the family Canidae.
Genus: The sixth level of classification, which groups animals based on
their evolutionary history and physical characteristics. For example, the
genus Panthera includes lions, tigers, leopards, and jaguars.
Species: The most specific level of classification, which groups animals
based on their genetic similarity and ability to interbreed. For example,
the species Panthera leo includes all lion populations.
34. The Animal Kingdom, also known as Kingdom Animalia, is a vast and
diverse group of living organisms that includes animals ranging from
tiny, single-celled creatures to the largest animals on Earth. There are
several different classification systems used to categorize animals
within the Animal Kingdom. One of the most widely accepted
classification systems is as follows:
Phylum Porifera (sponges)
Phylum Cnidaria (jellyfish, corals, sea anemones)
Phylum Platyhelminthes (flatworms)
Phylum Nematoda (roundworms)
Phylum Annelida (segmented worms)
Phylum Mollusca (clams, snails, octopuses)
Phylum Arthropoda (insects, spiders, crustaceans)
Phylum Echinodermata (starfish, sea urchins, sea cucumbers)
Phylum Chordata (vertebrates and their close relatives)
Classification of Animal Kingdom
35. Within the Phylum Chordata, there are several subphyla, including:
Subphylum Urochordata (tunicates)
Subphylum Cephalochordata (lancelets)
Subphylum Vertebrata (vertebrates)
The Subphylum Vertebrata is further divided into several classes,
including:
Class Agnatha (jawless fish)
Class Chondrichthyes (cartilaginous fish)
Class Osteichthyes (bony fish)
Class Amphibia (amphibians)
Class Reptilia (reptiles)
Class Aves (birds)
Class Mammalia (mammals)
Each of these classes contains many different orders, families, genera,
and species, making the Animal Kingdom one of the most diverse
groups of organisms on Earth.
36. Animal Anatomy
The anatomy of animals is essential for understanding
how they function. Zoologists study the internal and
external structure of animals, including their organs,
bones, muscles, and tissues. The study of animal
anatomy is critical for understanding how animals move,
breath and reproduce
37. Herophilus, also known as “The Father of Anatomy”, was born in
335 BCE. in the town of Chalcedon, Asia Minor, and is believed to
have lived until 255 BCE.
38. Definition
Anatomy : The study of the structure of the animal body and the
relationships of its many parts.
“ana” “tome”
“ana” – again or go back
“tome” – to cut
“cut again” or “go back and cut”
Physiology : The study of the functions of living things.
Mechanical, physical or biochemical
39. Field of anatomy
Gross anatomy (Gross: large)
Deals with the structure of the body that
are visible to the naked eye such as
muscles, bones, digestive organs and skin
Microscopy anatomy (Micro: small)
Use of microscopes to examine the smallest
structures of the body such as tissues, cells
and molecules
Cytology : Study of cells
Histology : Study of cells
Sub divided
Developmental anatomy
Study of the structural changes right from
the fertilization to the maturity stage
Applied anatomy
Application of anatomical knowledge to
diagnosis and treatment
40. The anatomical structure of animals can be divided into internal and
external structures.
External structure: The external structure of an animal includes all of its
visible physical features, such as its body shape, size, color, and texture.
It also includes its appendages, such as legs, arms, wings, and tails. In
addition, the external structure of an animal can also include features
such as scales, fur, feathers and skin.
Internal structure: The internal structure of an animal includes all of its
physical features that are not visible from the outside. These features
include the animal's organs, bones, muscles and nervous system. The
internal structure of an animal can vary greatly depending on the
species. For example, some animals have complex digestive systems with
multiple stomachs, while others have simple digestive systems. Similarly,
some animals have complex respiratory systems with lungs, while others
have gills or rely on simple diffusion for gas exchange.
Anatomical structure of animals
41. The internal structure of an animal also includes its reproductive
system, which can be either internal or external, and its circulatory
system, which is responsible for transporting blood and nutrients
throughout the body.
Animals come in many shapes and sizes, but they all share some
common features in their internal and external anatomy. Here are some
examples of animal structures:
Skeletal system: Many animals have an internal framework of bones or
cartilage that provides support and protection. Examples include the
human skeleton, the bird's beak, and the shark's cartilaginous skeleton.
Muscular system: Animals have muscles that allow them to move and
perform other functions. Examples include the human biceps, the
cheetah's powerful legs, and the butterfly's wings.
Digestive system: Animals have a digestive system that breaks down
food and absorbs nutrients. Examples include the human stomach, the
cow's four-chambered stomach, and the bird's crop.
42. Respiratory system: Animals need oxygen to survive, and many have
specialized respiratory structures to take in air. Examples include the
human lungs, the fish's gills, and the insect's tracheal system.
Circulatory system: Animals have a circulatory system that pumps
blood throughout the body. Examples include the human heart, the
octopus's three hearts, and the insect's open circulatory system.
Nervous system: Animals have a nervous system that allows them to
sense their environment, make decisions, and communicate. Examples
include the human brain, the octopus's distributed nervous system, and
the bee's simple nervous system.
Reproductive system: Animals have a reproductive system that allows
them to reproduce and pass on their genes. Examples include the human
reproductive system, the bird's cloaca, and the fish's external
fertilization.
These are just a few examples of the many structures that animals
possess, and there is a great deal of variation within and between animal
groups.
43. The excretory system of animals is responsible for the elimination of waste
products from the body. This system includes the kidneys, ureters, bladder,
and urethra in mammals, and analogous organs in other animal groups.
The internal and external anatomy of the excretory system can vary
greatly depending on the animal species.
Internal Structure
The kidneys are the primary organs of the excretory system, responsible
for filtering the blood and producing urine. They are located in the
abdominal cavity, on either side of the spine. Each kidney consists of an
outer cortex and an inner medulla. The functional unit of the kidney is the
nephron, which is responsible for filtering the blood and reabsorbing
essential nutrients and ions. The ureters are muscular tubes that transport
urine from the kidneys to the bladder. The bladder is a muscular sac that
stores urine until it is eliminated from the body via the urethra.
External Structure
The external anatomy of the excretory system can also vary depending on
the animal species. In mammals, the urethra is a tube that carries urine
from the bladder to the outside of the body.
44. In males, the urethra also serves as a passageway for semen during
sexual reproduction.
In birds, the excretory system includes the kidneys, ureters, and cloaca,
which is a common chamber for the excretion of urine, feces, and
reproductive products.
In reptiles, amphibians, and some fish, excretion occurs through
specialized structures called cloacal glands, which secrete waste
products directly into the cloaca.
Overall, the internal and external anatomy of the excretory system
reflects the diverse evolutionary adaptations of different animal groups
to the challenges of waste elimination.
45. Animals and human beings share many anatomical structures,
but there are also some notable differences. Here are a few
examples:
Skeletal structure: While animals and humans both have a
skeletal system made up of bones, the structure and arrangement
of these bones can differ between species. For example, many
animals have more vertebrae in their spine than humans do, and
some animals, like birds, have lightweight, hollow bones for
flight.
Muscles: Humans and animals both have muscles that allow them
to move, but the size and strength of these muscles can vary. For
instance, some animals like elephants have extremely strong
muscles to support their massive bodies, while humans have
developed fine motor control of their muscles for complex tasks
like writing or playing an instrument.
46. Organs: The organs of animals and humans share many
similarities in function and structure, but there are also some
differences. For example, some animals have multiple stomachs
for digesting tough plant material, while humans have a single
stomach. Additionally, the size and shape of organs like the heart
or lungs can differ between species.
Reproductive organs: Male and female reproductive organs can
vary greatly between different animal species. For example, male
birds have a cloaca that serves as both their reproductive and
excretory system, while male humans have a penis. Similarly,
female mammals have a uterus for gestating offspring, while
female birds have a cloaca that is used for both reproduction and
excretion.
These are just a few examples of the many differences in
anatomical structures between animals and humans. While there
are certainly similarities, each species has evolved unique
adaptations to suit their specific environments and lifestyles.
47. Animal Behavior
Animal behavior is an essential aspect of zoology. Zoologists
study animal behavior to understand how animals interact
with their environment and each other. They investigate
animal communication, mating habits, and social
interactions. Understanding animal behavior helps
zoologists to protect endangered species and manage animal
populations
48. Lorenz is recognized as one of the founding fathers of the field
of ethology, the study of animal behavior. He is best known for his
research of the principle of attachment, or imprinting, through
which in some species a bond is formed between a newborn animal
and its caregiver.
49. Animal behavior refers to the way in which animals act
and interact with their environment and other organisms.
This includes everything from basic survival behaviors
such as hunting and foraging, to complex social behaviors
like communication, mating, and territoriality. Animal
behavior can be influenced by a variety of factors,
including genetics, environment, and learning.
Studies of animal behavior can provide insight into
evolutionary processes, as well as help us better understand
and manage animal populations. Animal behavior research
also has practical applications in fields such as animal
husbandry, conservation biology, and animal training.
50. Some common areas of study in animal behavior include:
Behavioral ecology: The study of how animals behave in their natural
environments, and how behavior is influenced by factors such as
competition, predation, and resource availability.
Ethology: The study of animal behavior, particularly in natural
settings, with an emphasis on the evolution and development of
behavior.
Comparative psychology: The study of behavior in different species,
with an emphasis on similarities and differences in behavior across
different groups of animals.
Animal cognition: The study of mental processes and abilities in
animals, including perception, learning, memory, and decision-making.
Animal communication: The study of how animals use signals such as
vocalizations, body language, and chemical signals to communicate
with each other.
51. Types of animal behavior
There are several types of animal behavior, some of which are:
Instinctive behavior: This type of behavior is innate and doesn't require
learning. Examples of instinctive behavior include bird migration, nest-
building in birds, and salmon swimming upstream to spawn.
Learned behavior: This type of behavior is acquired through experience
and can be modified by learning. Examples of learned behavior include
dogs learning tricks, chimpanzees using tools to gather food, and birds
learning to recognize their own offspring.
Aggressive behavior: This type of behavior is characterized by a threat
or attack towards another animal. Examples of aggressive behavior
include dogs growling or barking at intruders, cats hissing or swatting at
other cats, and male lions fighting for dominance.
52. Territorial behavior: This type of behavior involves animals defending a
specific area, such as a nest or a feeding ground, from other animals.
Examples of territorial behavior include birds singing to establish their
territory, wolves marking their territory with scent, and squirrels
defending their feeding area from other squirrels.
Courtship behavior: This type of behavior involves actions that animals
undertake to attract a mate. Examples of courtship behavior include
peacocks displaying their feathers, birds performing a mating dance,
and male gorillas beating their chests to show dominance.
Social behavior: This type of behavior involves animals living in groups
and interacting with each other. Examples of social behavior include
meerkats working together to hunt for food, elephants forming close
bonds with family members, and bees working together to build a hive
and collect food.
53. Animal behavior can be classified in various ways depending on the
context, but one commonly used classification scheme is based on the
following categories:
Innate behavior: This refers to behavior that is genetically
programmed and does not require any learning. Examples include
reflexes, fixed action patterns, and instincts.
Learned behavior: This refers to behavior that is acquired through
experience or observation. Examples include operant and classical
conditioning, habituation, and imprinting.
Social behavior: This refers to behavior that occurs in the context of
social interactions and can include communication, aggression,
cooperation, and parental care.
Communication behavior: This refers to the exchange of information
between animals, often through visual, auditory, or chemical signals.
54. Agonistic behavior: This refers to behavior that is associated with
conflict or competition, such as fighting or territorial defense.
Courtship behavior: This refers to behavior that is involved in the
process of attracting and selecting a mate, including displays, rituals,
and vocalizations.
Reproductive behavior: This refers to behavior that is involved in the
process of reproduction, such as mating, nesting, and caring for
young.
Migration behavior: This refers to behavior that involves the
movement of animals from one location to another in response to
environmental cues, such as seasonal changes or availability of food.
These categories are not mutually exclusive, and animal behavior can
often be classified under multiple categories depending on the
context.
55. Animal Ecology
Ecology is the study of the interaction between animals
and their environment. Zoologists investigate how animals
interact with their environment, including other animals,
plants, and natural resources. They study the impact of
human activities on animal populations and work to
protect endangered species.
56. Humboldt is often considered as father of ecology. He was the first
to take on the study of the relationship between organisms and
their environment
57. Animal ecology is the scientific study of the relationships between animals
and their environment, including the interactions among animals, and
between animals and their physical and biological environment. This field of
study is concerned with understanding the behavior, distribution,
abundance, and evolution of animal populations in different habitats, as well
as their interactions with other organisms and the ecosystem as a whole.
Animal ecologists use a variety of techniques to study animals in their
natural habitats, including observational studies, field experiments, and
laboratory experiments. They also use tools such as satellite tracking, remote
sensing, and genetic analysis to better understand the movement, behavior,
and genetic diversity of animal populations.
Some of the key areas of research within animal ecology include animal
behavior, population dynamics, community ecology, conservation biology,
and ecosystem ecology. By studying these topics, animal ecologists can gain
insight into how animals interact with each other and with their
environment, and how they adapt to changes in their habitat or in the wider
ecosystem.
58. Animal ecology is the scientific study of the relationships between animals
and their environment. It encompasses a wide range of fields, including
behavioral ecology, population ecology, community ecology, and ecosystem
ecology. Here are some types of animal ecology with examples:
Behavioral Ecology: This field focuses on the study of how an animal's
behavior is influenced by its environment and how it influences the
environment in return. Examples include:
Migration behavior of birds
Foraging behavior of predators
Territorial behavior of animals
Population Ecology: This field focuses on the study of the dynamics of
animal populations, including their growth, reproduction, and interactions
with other populations. Examples include:
The population growth of deer in a forest
The impact of hunting on the population of elephants
The effect of climate change on the population of polar bears
59. Community Ecology: This field focuses on the study of how different species
interact with each other in a given ecosystem. Examples include:
The relationship between predator and prey in a savannah ecosystem.
The competition between different species of plants in a rainforest.
The mutualistic relationship between bees and flowers.
Ecosystem Ecology: This field focuses on the study of how energy and
nutrients flow through ecosystems and how they are transformed by living
and non-living components. Examples include:
The carbon cycle in a marine ecosystem.
The nitrogen cycle in a grassland ecosystem.
The impact of deforestation on the water cycle in a tropical ecosystem.
These are just a few examples of the different types of animal ecology and
there are many more subfields and areas of study within this broad and
fascinating discipline.
60. Animal Evolution
Evolution is the process by which species change over time.
Zoologists study the evolution of animals and how they
have adapted to their environment over time. They also
study the origin of new species and the relationship
between different animal groups.
61. Charles Darwin is well known for his theory of Natural Selection,
which has been the most widely accepted Theory of Evolution. He
wrote the book “The Origin of Species” in which he describes his
observations on natural selection. It is because of his pioneering
contribution in this field that he is known as the Father of Evolution.
62. Animal evolution is the process by which animals change over time
through genetic variation and natural selection. The study of animal
evolution involves understanding the origin of different animal species, as
well as how they have adapted to changing environments over millions of
years.
The first animals are believed to have evolved from single-celled organisms
around 600 million years ago during the Cambrian period. From there,
animal evolution has led to a diverse range of species, from the smallest
insects to the largest mammals.
The process of animal evolution involves various mechanisms, such as
genetic mutations, genetic drift, and natural selection. Mutations are
changes in DNA that occur randomly, and some of them may lead to
advantageous traits that increase an animal's chances of survival and
reproduction. Over time, these advantageous traits become more prevalent
in the population through natural selection, while less advantageous traits
become less common.
63. The study of animal evolution also involves understanding the
relationships between different animal species. Scientists use techniques
such as comparative anatomy, DNA sequencing, and fossil analysis to
determine how different species are related and how they evolved over
time.
Overall, the study of animal evolution provides important insights into the
history of life on Earth and how organisms have adapted to changing
environments over millions of years.
There are several types of animal evolution, including:
Divergent evolution: This occurs when two or more species evolve from a
common ancestor and become increasingly different over time. For
example, the evolution of the Galapagos finches, which adapted to
different environments on different islands and developed different beak
shapes and sizes.
64. Convergent evolution: This occurs when unrelated species evolve similar
traits as a result of living in similar environments. For example, the wings
of birds and bats both evolved for flight, even though they have different
bone structures.
Coevolution: This occurs when two or more species evolve together as a
result of their interactions with each other. For example, the evolution of
flowers and their pollinators, such as bees and butterflies, which have
coevolved to benefit each other.
Parallel evolution: This occurs when two or more related species evolve
similar traits independently. For example, the development of similar body
shapes and swimming abilities in dolphins and ichthyosaurs.
Adaptive radiation: This occurs when a single species evolves into many
different species to fill different ecological niches. For example, the
evolution of the different beak shapes and sizes in Darwin's finches on the
Galapagos Islands.
65. Animal evolution, the process by which species of animals change over time,
has numerous applications in various fields. Here are some examples:
Understanding biodiversity: Animal evolution helps us understand the
diversity of life on earth, including the evolutionary history of different species
and the relationships among them.
Conservation: The study of animal evolution is important in conservation
biology because it can provide insights into the evolutionary processes that
shape populations and species, as well as the threats they face from human
activities.
Biomedical research: Animal evolution can be used in biomedical research to
understand the genetic and molecular mechanisms underlying various diseases
and disorders.
Anthropology: Animal evolution can provide insights into human evolution
and the relationships between humans and other animals, such as the
evolution of our close primate relatives.
66. Forensic science: The study of animal evolution can be applied in forensic
science to help identify the origin of animal remains found at crime scenes,
or to trace the movement of animals in the wild.
Bioprospecting: Animal evolution has produced a wide range of chemical
compounds with potential applications in medicine, agriculture, and
industry. For example, venom from snakes, spiders, and scorpions contains
molecules that can be used as painkillers, anti-coagulants, and anti-cancer
drugs. Similarly, some marine organisms produce compounds with anti-
inflammatory, anti-fungal, and anti-bacterial properties.
Biomimicry: By studying the design principles and structures of animals,
biotechnologists can develop new materials, devices, and processes. For
instance, the shape and texture of shark skin have inspired the
development of anti-fouling coatings for ships and medical devices that
reduce bacterial infections. Also, the wings of birds and insects have
inspired the design of aerodynamic vehicles and wind turbines.
67. Genetic engineering: Understanding the genetic basis of animal traits can
enable researchers to modify or replicate those traits in other organisms. For
example, the bioluminescence of fireflies and certain jellyfish can be
transferred to bacteria and plants for use as biological sensors and indicators.
Phylogenetics: Phylogenetics is the study of evolutionary relationships among
different species. By analyzing DNA sequences, bioinformaticians can
construct phylogenetic trees, which show the relationships between different
species. These trees are essential in understanding how species evolved and
how they are related to one another.
Comparative genomics: Comparative genomics is the study of the differences
and similarities in the genomes of different species. By comparing the
genomes of different animals, bioinformaticians can identify genetic changes
that have occurred over time, which can help us understand the evolution of
various traits and functions.
68. Functional genomics: Functional genomics is the study of the function of
genes and their products. By comparing the genomes of different animals,
bioinformaticians can identify genes that are conserved across species and
determine their functions. This can help us understand how different animals
have evolved to perform similar functions.
Population genetics: Population genetics is the study of the genetic variation
within and between populations. By analyzing the genetic variation in
different animal populations, bioinformaticians can infer the history of their
evolution, including migration patterns, genetic drift, and natural selection.
Evolutionary genomics: Evolutionary genomics is the study of how genes and
genomes have evolved over time. By comparing the genomes of different
animals, bioinformaticians can identify genetic changes that have occurred
during evolution and study their effects on gene expression, protein function,
and organismal development.
69. Biomechanics: Animal evolution has produced a variety of unique and
complex structures, such as wings, fins, and limbs, which have led to a better
understanding of biomechanics. By studying the biomechanics of animal
locomotion and movement, scientists have developed a deeper understanding
of the physics of movement and the forces involved, which has been applied to
fields such as robotics, aerospace engineering, and sports science.
Structural biology: The evolution of proteins and enzymes has been crucial to
the development of modern biophysics. The study of protein structure and
function has allowed scientists to understand how biological molecules
interact and how they can be manipulated for therapeutic purposes. The
structure of proteins is often highly conserved across different species, and by
comparing protein structures across species, researchers can gain insights into
the evolution of protein function and the molecular basis of disease.
70. Molecular evolution: By studying the genetic differences between species,
scientists can gain insights into the mechanisms of evolution and the forces
that drive it. Molecular evolution has been applied to biophysics in areas
such as protein design and drug discovery, where it has been used to create
novel enzymes and drugs with improved efficacy and specificity.
Neuroscience: The evolution of the nervous system has been critical to the
development of modern neuroscience. By studying the neural structures
and functions of different animal species, scientists have gained insights into
the workings of the human brain and the mechanisms of behavior. This has
led to new treatments for neurological disorders, such as Parkinson's
disease and epilepsy.
71. Some useful links for Zoology students
Zoological Survey of India: http://zsi.gov.in/
National Geographic - Animals:
https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/
The Zoological Society of London: https://www.zsl.org/
The American Society of Mammalogists: https://www.mammalsociety.org/
The Society for Conservation Biology: https://conbio.org/
The Marine Biological Association of the UK: https://www.mba.ac.uk/
The Society for Integrative and Comparative Biology: https://www.sicb.org/
The Animal Behavior Society: https://www.animalbehaviorsociety.org/
The Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (RSPCA):
https://www.rspca.org.uk/
The Wildlife Conservation Society: https://www.wcs.org/
72. Some useful websites for zoology students
Animal Diversity Web: https://animaldiversity.org/
The National Center for Biotechnology Information:
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/
The Tree of Life Web Project: https://tolweb.org/tree/
Zoological Society of London: https://www.zsl.org/
The American Society of Mammalogists: https://www.mammalsociety.org/
The Society for Integrative and Comparative Biology:
https://www.sicb.org/
The International Union for Conservation of Nature: https://www.iucn.org/
The British Ecological Society: https://www.britishecologicalsociety.org/
The Entomological Society of America: https://www.entsoc.org/
The Society for the Study of Amphibians and Reptiles:
https://ssarherps.org/
73. Free software programs that may be useful for zoology students. Here are
some suggestions
R: R is a free statistical software program that is widely used in the field of
zoology for data analysis and visualization. It can be used for various
types of statistical analysis, from basic descriptive statistics to advanced
modeling and simulation.
ImageJ: ImageJ is a free image processing software that can be used for
analyzing and manipulating images of biological samples. It is
particularly useful for analyzing micrographs and histological images.
Audacity: Audacity is a free and open-source audio editing software that
can be used for analyzing and manipulating animal sounds, such as bird
songs and animal vocalizations.
QGIS: QGIS is a free and open-source geographic information system
(GIS) software that can be used for mapping and spatial analysis in
zoology research. It can be used to create maps of animal distributions
and habitats, and to analyze spatial patterns in animal behavior.
74. BioEdit: BioEdit is a free biological sequence alignment editor and
analysis program that is widely used in zoology research for molecular
biology and genetics studies. It can be used for DNA and protein sequence
analysis, multiple sequence alignment, and phylogenetic tree
reconstruction.
Tracer: Tracer is a free program for analyzing and visualizing Bayesian
MCMC (Markov chain Monte Carlo) output. It is particularly useful for
phylogenetic analysis and molecular clock calibration.
BLAST: BLAST (Basic Local Alignment Search Tool) is a free and widely
used bioinformatics software program that can be used for sequence
similarity searches, such as comparing DNA sequences of different
species or identifying homologous genes.
Primer3: Primer3 is a free program for designing PCR primers, which are
used for amplifying specific DNA sequences in molecular biology
research. It can be used to design primers for PCR amplification,
sequencing, and genotyping.
75. Conclusion
Zoology is a fascinating subject that covers a vast
range of topics. It is the study of the animal
kingdom and all its wonders. Whether you're
interested in animal behavior, anatomy, ecology, or
evolution, zoology has something for everyone. We
hope this beginner's guide has given you a glimpse
into the world of zoology and inspired you to learn
more about the animal kingdom.