ROMAN ARCHITECTURE

1. CLASSICAL
PERIOD: ROME

2. CLASSICAL PERIOD: ROME
LOCATION
•Roman architecture refers to the architecture of Rome
and of the Roman Empire
•The Roman Empire was one of the largest early empires
in history, stretching from England in Northern Europe to
the Ancient Near East and Africa
•The pink area of the Map shows the greatest extent of
the Roman Empire
•Rome, located on the Italian peninsula was the capital of
the empire
•From the capital, an infrastructure of roads and
communication systems was established to connect the
whole empire
•Rome is today the capital of Italy

3. CLASSICAL PERIOD: ROME
GEOGRAPHICAL: The central position of Italy in the Mediterranean sea helped to spread
Roman Art & civilization to the rest of Europe, West Asia & North Africa. Romans first conquered
by war then ruled by laws & civilized by arts & letters. Romans adopted the language of classical
Greek architecture & improved the same to suit their purposes.
GEOLOGICAL: Rome had an abundance of building materials – Travertine was a hard
limestone, Peperino is a stone of volcanic origin, Tufa is a type of volcanic earth, plenty of marble
and the terracotta which was used commonly. But it was concrete made from Pozzolona that led
to great structural innovations. Pozzolona was a type of sand which, when mixed with lime &
water, formed an exceedingly hard & cohesive concrete that made the construction of finest
Roman monuments, possible.
CLIMATIC: Italy has a varied climate with the north having a temperate climate, central Italy
experiencing Mediterranean climate & south having an almost tropical climate. This has resulted in
varied architectural features & treatment of buildings. More over, the Roman Empire spread to
Central Europe, Spain, West Asia & North Africa, which resulted in local modifications to the
predominant Roman Style. The Roman order, as it is commonly known comprises of a
semicircular arched opening with columns on either side, supporting an entablature. The roman
semicircular arch was of Etruscan origin.

4. ROMAN CULTURE

5. ROMAN ART

6. CLASSICAL PERIOD: ROME
HISTORICAL
Period
•The city of Rome was founded in 753 BC.
•Roman civilization with Rome as capital lasted for more
than a thousand years.
•The history of the civilization can be divided into three
periods;
–753-510 BC Etruscan Period
–510 –44 BC Republican Period
–44 BC –476 A.D.Imperial Period
Period-Etruscan Period
•Romans fix the date of the founding Rome at 753 B. C.
•Prior to this date, the Etruscans established an urban culture in the Italian peninsula,
which reached the height of its development around 600 B.C.
•They had conquered and established their authority over a loose federation of cities
•Rome at its foundation was a minor city and became a colony of the Etruscans

7. Period-Etruscan Period
Rome was ruled by Etruscan Kings aided by a popular
assembly
•Towards the end of the 6th century B.C., Etruscan power
began to decline
•In 509 B.C. Rome revolted against their king and
established an independent city state
•Further decline in the power of the Etruscans was
accompanied by the rising influence and increasing
significance of Rome

8. PERIOD –REPUBLICAN PERIOD
•After the expulsion of its Etruscan Kings, Rome gradually assumed leadership of a number of
settlements for mutual defense
•This gradually led to the expanding influence and dominance of Rome
•By 273 B. C. Rome became the established dominant force in the region
•It conquered its rivals, defeating Cathage in 146 B.C., Macedonia in 168 B. C., Greece in 146
B.C., and Syria in 64 B. C.
•With time Rome also developed a system of Representative government
Rome was government by a body of elected male representatives of the population known as
the Senate
•This is why the period is referred to as republican or in other word democratic
•Towards the end of the last millennium B.C. Rome entered into a series of civil wars which
brought about the rise of some military dictators, of which Julius Caesar was the most
successful.
•This brought about the end of the republican period

9. PERIOD –IMPERIAL PERIOD
PERIOD –IMPERIAL PERIOD
•Following a series of civil wars that ended in 27 B.C. Caius Ocatavius, who later took the name Caesar
Augustus assumed the title of emperor
•This ushered in the Imperial period of Roman history
•Emperor Augustus undertook a significant reorganization of the Roman Empire
•The golden age of architectural development was witnessed during this period
•He revitalized national life and created new building works
Augustus was credited with saying that he met Rome a city of brick and left it a city of marble
•Later it was to transform to a city of concrete
•The 3rd century A.D. was a period of political confusion in the Roman Empire
•The Barbarian people living in the north of Europe started attacking the Empire
•In 286 A.D. Roman Empire was split into two; a western empire and an Eastern empire
Emperor Constantine was able to reunite the Empire again in 324 A.D. and established a new capital for the
empire at the city of Byzantium, which he renamed Constantinople
•After his death, the Empire was split again and each had a different destiny
•In 476 A.D. the western empire with its capital at Rome fell after century of attacks by Vandals and Visigoths
ending the history of that part
•The Eastern Empire with its capital at Constantinople survived and became the focus of a civilization that
lasted until 1453 A.D. when it was sacked by the Ottoman Turks

10. Introduction
–The Roman Empire consisted of Rome and all its conquered provinces
–Rome was the capital and focus of the Roman Civilization
–Roman society was made of the Latinized people living on the Italian peninsula and other
foreign people belonging to the conquered provinces
–The society was not homogenous as its puts together people of different origins
–Latin was the widely spoken language, particularly in Rome and its environment
–The Roman people were classified into citizens and non citizens; citizenship can be conferred
on non citizens
Social Characteristics & Beliefs
Citizenship confers the right to vote, make contracts and have a legal marriage
–Citizens are divided into two classes; members of the Roman Senate belonging to the
highest social class and other citizens
–The Roman people were essentially farmers and traders
–Many also aspired to became solders and warriors; being a warrior provided one of the best
means of advancing in the society

11. Social Characteristics & Beliefs
SOCIAL LIFE
–Roman society had an active social life
–The forum was the center of social life; it is very similar to the Greek Agora
–The forum was the place for social, political, recreational and religious activities
–Romans participated in a lot of entertainment activities
These activities include spectator sports such as drama, chariot racing, and gladiatorial
contest
–They also had new unique social activities such as recreational bathing
–The practice saw Romans going to a public bath at luxurious bathing through chambers
of different temperature
–In the process they engaged in both intellectual and physical interaction

12. SOCIAL CHARACTERISTICS & BELIEFS
The Romans believed that the faith of their empire lies in the hands of their various Gods
–The state spent money to built temples to the various gods
–Public assemblies, such as senate meetings, war victories and most state functions
were always started with sacrifices to a particular god in his temple
–The religious well being of the individual Roman was his own concern
RELIGIOUS BELIEFS
–Roman people were not deeply religious, particularly during the early part of their development
–They did not have religious beliefs and mythologies of their own, but borrowed from societies
they come into contact with.
–Contact with other people always resulted in changes to their culture, art and way of life
–Most of their religious beliefs were borrowed from the Greeks, and like the Greeks, they also
believed in a number of Gods

13. SYSTEM OF GOVERNMENT
–The System of government in ancient Rome was democratic
–During the Republican period, Government consisted of two elected consuls, a senate and
judiciary
–The consuls acted as the executive arm of government overseeing the activities of the
senate, army and other executive institutions such as tax collectors and police
–The senate was an assembly of selected land owners, the upper class of Roman society,
who approve budgets and suggest laws
Members of the senate are elected from a series of lower assemblies who are responsible
for enacting the laws suggesting by the senate and also implementing them;
–The judicial branch consist of 6 judges who were elected every two years, who decide
punishment for criminals
–During the imperial period, the Consuls were replaced by Emperors who wielded a lot of
power

14. ROMAN ARCHITECTURE
BUILDING TYPES
ENGINEERING STRUCTURES
THE ORDERS
MATERIALS
CONSTRUCTION
TECHNOLOGY

15. ROMAN ARCHITECTURE-BUILDING TYPES
BUILDING TYPES
•The genius of the roman architect was not in the design of a particular building
•Rather, it is in the way they were able to meet the needs of a complex society for different
building types for a thousand years
•They produced a wide range of buildings that had never been built before
•Roman buildings included bathhouses for bathing, circuses for races, amphitheaters for
gladiatorial contest, temples for religion, domus for family life and the forum as the center of
public life
•Roman architects design the buildings with interior spaces configured for specialized activities
•The Greek order was reduced to a decorative element rather than as a form generator in Greek
Architecture
•The focus of Roman building design was on functional spaces
•The Roman people demanded buildings of various functions from the Roman architect
•The architects were able to respond, creating buildings that answer to their functional requirement
by providing appropriate interior spaces
•The buildings types include theaters, amphitheaters, basilicas, circuses, basilicas, temples and
baths
•All of these buildings were erected within the dense fabric of the city

16. BUILDING TYPES-THEATERS
THEATERS
•The Romans adopted the Greek theater transforming it into
something Roman
•There was an expansion of the stage and the whole theater
was contained within a high-unbroken wall
•The Greek Theater was blended into the landscape
•In contrast, the Roman Theater was an urban form located
in a flat city
•The structure of the theater consists of massive structural
arcades on piers
A purely cosmetic layer of trabeation was added to the
front
•The trabeation was of the Greek orders and gave scale to
the building
•It also creates a rhythm of solids and voids on the
elevation

17. BUILDING TYPES-THEATER
The Theater was used for acting and drama
•The Theater Marcellus constructed between 23 to
13 B.C. was the first theater constructed in the
capital Rome
•It is a good example of a Roman theater
•Access to its banked seat is from the rear,
providing access circumferentially
•A stage runs from end to end in front
•The stage is enclosed by a tall wall
•The three orders of Greek architecture were used
on the theater elevation
•Theaters were built in every Roman City

18. BUILDING TYPES-AMPHITHEATER
AMPHITHEATER
Introduction
•The amphitheater is a roman structure with
no Greek equivalent
•Amphitheatre is a public building used for
spectator sports, games and displays
•Apart from function, the important outward
distinction between an amphitheatre and a
theatre is that amphitheatre is round or oval
in shape
•An amphitheater was first built in Pompeii
in 80 BC, but the best example of the
Roman amphitheater is the colosseum

19. BUILDING TYPES-AMPHITHEATER
COLISEUM, ROME
•The Colosseum is an amphitheater in Rome
•Its construction began under the Emperor Vespasian in
72 A.D. and was completed in A. D. 80
•It was used for spectator sports including gladiatorial
combat
•It is said that 9,000 wild animals were killed in the one
hundred inaugural days celebrating its opening
•The Colosseum hosted large-scale spectacular games
that included; fights between animals, the killing of
prisoners by animals and other executions, naval battles
via flooding the arena, and combats between gladiators
The Colosseum was ingeniously designed; most spectacle
venues have been influenced by the Colosseum's structure
into modern times
•The seating formed a uniform elliptical ring capable of
supporting the 50,000 spectator capacity of the facility

20. BUILDING TYPES-AMPHITHEATER
•The substructure of the amphitheater is very much like that of the
theater
•Vaulting was used both radially and concentrically to support the
structure
The Colosseum also had a passageway that opens into a tier of
seats from below or behind
•Each entrance and exit was numbered, as was each staircase
•The passages quickly dispersed people into their seats and upon
conclusion of the event disgorged them with abruptness into the
surrounding streets
•Seating was divided into different sections
•Above the podium was the maenianum primum, for the other
Roman aristocrats who were not in the senate
•The third level, the maenianum secundum, was divided into three
sections
•The lower part, the was for wealthy citizens, while the upper part
was for poor citizens
•A third, wooden section was a wooden structure at the very top
of the building, added by Domitian

21. BUILDING TYPES-AMPHITHEATER
The most ingenious part of the Colosseum was its cooling
system
•It was roofed using a canvas covered net-like structure made
of ropes, with a hole in the center
•The Arena where the action takes place is located at the
center of the ellipse
•Underneath the arena was the "underground", a network of
tunnels and cages where gladiators and animals were held
before contests began
The arena floor no longer exists, and the hypogeum walls
and corridors are clearly visible in the ruins of the building
•The orders were used in the elevation in the same manner
as on the theater
•The Colosseum was in continuous use until 217, when it
was damaged by fire from lightning
•It was restored in 238 and gladiatorial games continued until
Christianity gradually put an end to some sports

22. BUILDING TYPES-CIRCUSES
The Romans developed circuses or stadium for horse and
chariot racing
•Every city usually had one located close to the forum
•The circuses had stalls at one end where the chariots emerge at
the beginning of the race and a track which they race around
•The structure of the circus is very similar to that of theaters and
amphitheaters
•Circus Maxima is an example of a Roman Circus
CIRCUSE MAXENTIUS
•It is located in Rome and is one of the oldest
•It went through a series of transformation over the period of its
existence
•The image shown is its final form around 400 A.D.
•Its is 600 meters in length by 200 meters in width
•The circus had 3 tiers of seat, and there are stalls for 12 race
houses or chariots
•Each race was of 7 laps covering a distance of about 3.6
kilometers

23. BUILDING TYPES-BATH
BATH
•The Romans had a unique need for exercise, bathing and relaxation and they devised a unique
architectural element, the Bath to address that need
•The roman bath was more that just merely swimming or washing
•This practice became so popular that at some point, they took it more serious than their gods
•It was a daily practice of almost all Romans to go to a Bath once a day to relieve stress
The bathing procedure involves a pattern of exposing the body to various levels of heater air and
water
•The core program of the bath consist of a disrobing room, the apodyterium, a series of at least
two heated rooms, the tepidarium, and a hot room or cauldarium
•Besides the heated rooms, the bath may also have a swimming pool, or natatio for cold plunges
on hot summer days or a cool unheated room called the frigidarium
•Bathing also dries the skin so baths also provided rooms with special attendants to oil and towel
bathers dry
•Wealthy people and Emperors had private both, but the greatest baths were the public ones
built for the populace

24. BUILDING TYPES-BATH
BATH OF CARACALLA
•The bath of caracalla is a good example of a Roman bath
and among the best preserved
•The bath is set free standing within a square precinct
enclosed by walls
•The precinct has a water reservoir to the south, supplied by
an aqueduct to service its water need
The reservoir is located beneath a stadium used for
athletic contest
•The east and west walls have a curved exedra that
defines space for cultural activities such as library, music
performance, philosophical lectures, etc
•The front wall has a series of shops with the entrance at
the center

25. BUILDING TYPES-BATH
The main bath building is rectangular, 225 meters by 115
meters and is situated within the walled precinct
•It has a perfect bilateral symmetry along its north-south axis
•The bath has a large dressing hall, apodyterium at the
center of the building
A swimming pool or Notato is located to the north of it, while
a tepidarium and a domed circular cauldarium is located to
the south of it, where it is more sunny
•A series of supplementary rooms, including Gymnasium
and bathroom suits are arranged symmetrically on two sides
of the building
•The structure of the bath of carracalla is made up of vaults,
arches, groin vaults and domes
•The interior also shows how the Romans have been able to
adapt the Greek orders and treatment to arch and vault
construction
BATH OF CARACALLA

26. BUILDING TYPES-TEMPLE
TEMPLES
•Temples were a significant part of roman architecture
•Scores of temple were built during every period
•Most of the roman temples were combination of Etruscan and Greek prototypes
•The typical temple had an axial plan, an entrance porch with widely space columns in front
•The temple also had a cella or sanctuary
•The whole temple is raised on a high podium with frontal steps providing access
•A good example of the early form of the temple is seen in Maison Carree in Nimes
•The best preserved of the temples and the one showing the highest achievement in temple
architecture is the Pantheon

27. BUILDING TYPES-TEMPLE
MAISON CAREE, NIMES
•Maison Carree is located in Nimes France
•It was built by the Emperor Agrippa
•The temple shows Greek influence on early roman
temples
•The temple is 26.5 meters long, 15.5 meters wide and
raised on a podium 3.3 meters high
•It is a temple with 6 Corinthian columns in front, 10
diameters high
Its podium is three and half times the height of the
entablature with 15 access steps in front
•It has an entrance porch that is 3 columns deep
•The temple has a cella that is one and half times long as
its wide
The walls of the cella have attached half Corinthian
columns on its visible three sides

28. BUILDING TYPES-TEMPLE
PANTHEON
•The Pantheon is the best surviving of all classical buildings
•It is also represents the highest achievement of Roman
architecture
•It was built between AD 118 and 128 by the Emperor
Handrian on the site of an earlier temple by Agrippa
•It was built as a temple dedicated to all the Roman Gods,
hence the name Pantheon
The Pantheon essentially consist of two parts; the an
entrance portico and a circular part or rotunda
•The portico is 8 columns wide and 3 columns deep and
leads to the entrance of the temple.
•The columns are of unfluted Corinthian order
•The wall of the rotunda is 3 storeys high on the outside;
they are made up of brick faced concrete and support the
dome roof of the temple

29. BUILDING TYPES-TEMPLE
The interior has eight large niches with one serving
as the entrance and the remaining seven used
dedicated to the seven major Roman Gods
•The Dome roof forms a perfect sphere with a
diameter of 142 feet in the interior
At the head of the dome is a 30 ft wide occulus, that
opens up the great dome to the outside and
illuminates the space with light
•The interior was built of Egyptian granites, African
colored marbles and pure white marbles from the
Aegean
•The Pantheon combines scale, boldness and
mastery of every architectural art.

30. BUILDING TYPES-BASILICA
BASILICA
•Basilicas are among the most important categories of roman architecture
•There were no basilicas before the Roman era
•The basilica are rectangular and usually contained interior colonnades that divided the space
into aisles at one or both sides, with an apse at one end
•The central aisle tended to be wide and was higher than the flanking aisles, so that light could
penetrate through the clerestory windows
•The function of the basilica is close to that of the Greek stoa
It is also the place where magistrates to hold court to dispose of legal matters
•The oldest known basilica, the Basilica Porcia, was built in Rome in 184 BC
•The most splendid Roman basilica is the one constructed for traditional purposes
during the reign of the pagan emperor Maxentius and finished by Constantine after 313
•In the early Imperial period, a basilica for large audiences also became a feature of the
palaces.

31. BUILDING TYPES-BASILICA
Basilica Ulpia
•The Basilica Ulpia was built by Emperor Trajan in the
period A.D 98-117 for his imperial forum
•Basilica Ulpia stretches for 120 meters in length over the
width of the Trajan forum
•The Basilica consists of a central hall, 25 meters wide
surrounded on all sides by double colonnades
•The Basilica had two semi-circular apses at it’s two ends
The walls of the Basilica were finished with multi-colored
marble; also referred to as polychromatic marble
•The whole structure was covered with a truss roof
•Basilica Ulpia represent the generic form of the Roman
Basilica,
•It is this form that will later be adopted by the Christians
for their church

32. BUILDING TYPES-BASILICA
Basilica Maxentius
•The Basilica Maxentius was started by the Emperor
Maxentius in A.D. 308 but was completed by the Emperor
Constantine in A.D. 312
•It is also sometimes referred to as Basilica of Constantine
•It is one of the impressive buildings of the Forum
Romanum
•The Basilica Maxentius is different from other tradition
basilicas, because its design was derived from the central
halls of imperial Roman Baths
It is however larger in scale than any of the baths that was
built
•The ground plan covers 100 meters by 65 meters
•The building is divided into a central nave and side Aisles
•The central nave was 80 by 25 meters and was covered
by 3 groin vaults with a maximum height of 35 meters
•The side isles were 16 meters wide, divided into three
sections
•There is very little that is left of the Basilica now

33. BUILDING TYPES-RESIDENTIAL BUILDINGS
Residential Buildings
•Roman cities had a range of various types of private
dwellings
•The private dwellings reflected the rank and wealth of the
inhabitants
•At the lowest level are the multi-story tenements where a
large proportion of the population stayed
•They consisted of shops on the ground floor and
apartments on the upper floors
•The apartments were built around a courtyard for light
and air
The common roman house was the domus
•These were reserved for the more well off members of
the Roman society
•The domus was essentially a courtyard house, with a
peristyle colonnaded courtyard
•It had few or no windows to the outside

34. BUILDING TYPES-RESIDENTIAL BUILDINGS
It was laid out around two peristyle atriums•The atrium to
the left is for state function
•Entry is from an inconspicuous door from the top
•The residential part of the palace is arranged around the
courtyard located to the right
•To the right of the residential part is a sunken garden in
the form of a stadium
•This is the private garden of the emperor, where he can
interact with nature
At the high end are elaborate palaces and villas for the
very rich
•The Domus Augustana, also called flavian’s palace, is an
example of the high-end residential palaces
•Domus Augustana was both a house for the emperor as
well as his palace for official functions
DOMUS AUGUSTANA

35. ROMAN ARCHITECTURE-ENGINEERING STRUCTURES
ENGINEERING STRUCTURES
•Romans also contributed several engineering and architectural objects to human
civilization
•The most prominent engineering contributions are in road and bridge structures and in
the construction of aqueducts
•Road and bridge construction allowed the Romans to connect the various parts of their
empire
•Aqueducts allowed them to supply their cities with water
The structural revolution introduced by the Romans enabled them to introduce a variety
of new civil structures and building programs never seen before their time
•The ability of the Romans to create large structures enabled them to build significant
civil structures including aqueducts, bridges and sewers
•The Romans lived principally in cities and generally cities need a steady supply of fresh
water
•Rome itself was projected to have a population of more than a million at the peak of its
power

36. ROMAN ARCHITECTURE-ENGINEERING STRUCTURES
Arcuated structures or Structures built with arches played
a major role in bringing this water to the city
•The technique of arcuated construction was also applied
to the construction of bridges
•Rome also had a sanitary system to take away waste
water from the city and large warehouses to service the
needs of its port
Road and Bridges
•The Trojan’s Bridge Alexandria is an example of ancient Roman
structural achievement
•It is also amongst the most impressive of the surviving Roman bridges
•The bridge consist of tall piers and wide spanning arches
•The central arches are slightly above 27 meters in length
•The roadway is carried 48 meters above the River
•A commemorative arch stands at the center of the Bridge; the
commemorative arch bears the name of the architect of the bridge

37. ROMAN ARCHITECTURE-ENGINEERING STRUCTURES
AQUEDUCTS
•Aqueducts were used to supply water to Roman cities
•The Pont DuGardis probably the most magnificent of the Roman
aqueducts
•It was constructed around 50 A.D. to supply water to the city of
Nimes
•The Aqueduct in some places is almost 50 meters above the deep
valley of the River Gard
It was constructed of 3 tiers of arches
The Aqua Claudia is also another example of Roman aqueduct
•The Aqua Claudia was one of the eleven aqueducts that supplied
Rome with water
The aqueduct supplies water to Rome over a distance of 66
kilometers

38. ROMAN ARCHITECTURE-ENGINEERING STRUCTURES
Engineering Achievement
Introduction
•Romans created what can be referred to as a structural revolution
•This revolution centers on their understanding and use of the arch and vault
•They also discovered the groin vault
•Because of this structural revolution, they were able to span large openings
in buildings and other structures with economy and strength
•They were also able to design and construct buildings with large interior
spaces
•The revolution also allowed the Romans to construct large engineering
structures such as bridges to connect all parts of their empire, and aqueduct
to supply water to their cities

39. STRUCTURAL INNOVATION-ARCHES
The arch was not a new building form, as it had been
known by other civilizations including the Egyptians and
the Greeks
•But the Romans used it to its fullest potential
•The arch is an organic structure with the elements of the
arch resting on each other and transferring load to the
column
•It was particularly useful over doors and openings
With an arch, there are no tensile stresses as all the
forces are in compression and building stone has
enormous compressive strength
•Up to a certain point also, the more an arch is loaded the
stronger it becomes
•Arches were used over doors and openings and
sometimes, they are built over a lintel to deflect the load to
the surrounding walls.

40. VAULTS
Vaults are used to cover an area as a roof
•The simplest of the vaults is the Barrel vault,
which is just made up of an arch extended over
a certain distance
•It can be adapted to suit different types of plans
by making simple modifications to it
•The disadvantage of the vault is that it exerts a
continuous load and therefore needs some form
of continuous support
•It is also difficult to light the space under a vault
except from the ends
•The Romans invented unique ways of
overcoming these difficulties

41. VAULTS
The cross vault was created from the barrel vault to
overcome some of the problems of the ordinary vault
•This is formed by intersecting two barrel-vaults at right
angle and is called a “groin vault”
•The weight of the groin vault is concentrated at the
corners eliminating the need for continuous support
•The opening of the space in 4 directions means that
ample light can be provided to the area below it
The image shows an example of the use of arches, vaults
and groin vaults in a Roman building
•The major limitation of the groin vault is that it is limited to
a square plan
•The dome was another structure that was used in roman
architecture.
•The Romans used the true dome with its fully rounded
perfection

42. ROMAN ARCHITECTURE
Construction of Vaults & Domes
The character of roman architecture is largely dependent on the use of vaulting as a
standardized structural system. The semicircular barrel vault was constructed by having a
series of brick arches, connected by tiles, thus forming compartments into which, the
concrete was poured. The cross vault formed by the intersection of 2 semicircular vaults of
equal span was used over square spaces. The lines of intersection are known as “groins”.
Hemispherical domes were used over circular spaces & semi‐domes over exedras.
A BARREL VAULT is an EXTRUSION OF A SINGLE CURVE ALONG A GIVEN DISTANCE. It is
the simplest form of vault, effectively series of arches placed side by side. Also known as
TUNNEL VAULTS OR WAGON VAULTS.
A GROIN VAULT IS PRODUCED BY THE INTERSECTION AT RIGHT ANGLES OF TWO BARREL
VAULTS. Sometimes the arches of groin vaults may be pointed instead of round.

43. ROMAN ARCHITECTURE
•The Romans adopted the true arch with radiating voussoirs developed by the Etruscans.
Though the Romans used the columnar & trabeated style of the Greeks, they also developed
the arch, vault & the dome
• The combined use of the column, beam & arch is the key note of the Roman style.
• The Romans added the Tuscan & Composite order to the 3 orders of Greek architecture,
making them 5 in all.
• The Tuscan order is a simplified version of the Doric, about 7 dia. high, with base, unfluted
shaft, simply molded capital & a plain entablature.
•The Composite order has a capital that is a combination of Corinthian & Ionic and was used
in triumphal arches, to give an ornamental character.
•The Romans used the orders mostly as decorative features, as the vaulting & domes
employed served as the structural system.

44. ROMAN ARCHITECTURE-THE ORDERS
THE ORDERS
•Romans also contributed to the development of the orders
•They made the Tuscan order developed by the Etruscan very popular in use
•They developed the composite order, which combines Corinthian and Ionic capitals
•They developed the giant order which spans up to two storey and the miniature order used to
decorate windows
•The Romans also contributed in the development of the Triumphal arches
•Triumphal arches were constructed in Roman cities to celebrate victories in battles

45. ROMAN ARCHITECTURE-THE ORDERS
The Composite order is a mixed order, combining the
volutes of the Ionic with the leaves of the Corinthian order.
Until the Renaissance it was not ranked as a separate
order.
Instead it was considered as a late Roman form of the
Corinthian order.
The column of the Composite order is ten diameters high
The Tuscan order has a very plain design, with a plain
shaft, and a simple capital, base, and frieze.
It is a simplified adaptation of the Doric order by the
Romans.
The Tuscan order is characterized by an unfluted shaft and
a capital that only consists of an echinus and an abacus. In
proportions it is similar to the Doric order, but overall it is
significantly plainer.
The column is normally seven diameters high. Compared
to the other orders, the Tuscan order looks the most solid
TUSCAN ORDER
COMPOSITE ORDER

46. ROMAN ARCHITECTURE-THE ORDERS

47. ROMAN ARCHITECTURE-THE ORDERS

48. ROMAN ARCHITECTURE
MATERIALS
•The choice of building materials contributed to the success of Roman architecture.
•Roman building materials were very diverse and rich
•Materials that were not available locally could usually be imported from other Roman colonies
•Roman building materials included stone, marble, brick, and timber
•The art of producing fired brick was a Roman invention .Romans also invented concrete.
•The combination of concrete and brick formwork enabled Roman architects to design and vast buildings for different
uses
Concrete
•The Romans were the first to develop concrete
•The concrete developed by the Romans is different from modern concrete and is made up of lime,
sand and water
•Around the 2nd century BC, Pozzolana or volcanic ash was also added
•Concrete did away with the need for stone quarries
•It also did away with the need for the shaping and transportation of stone and for high skilled labor for
stonemasonry
Concrete has the advantage that it can be cast in any shape and in far larger sizes than the megalithic
blocks of stone used in buildings
•With concrete, it was possible to construct monolithic vaults and arches
•Concrete buildings were normally faced with other materials to hide the ugly look of the concrete.
•Fired brick used as formwork was the most popular covering material

49. ROMAN ARCHITECTURE
CONSTRUCTION
•The Roman Civilization had the most innovative construction system of the civilizations so far
studied
•Roman architects understood the underlying principles of arch and vault construction and
were able to innovate to address their shortcomings
•The combination of arch and vault construction with concrete and fire brick formwork
provided the Romans with the technology to achieve their architectural dreams
•No previous civilization had an architecture that involved the manipulation of space like that
of the Romans
In fact, roman architecture was essentially space shaped by vaults, and walls for the purpose of
ordered activities
•In terms of building technology, the contribution of the Romans includes the development of the
arch and barrel vault on freestanding piers.
•Romans also introduced the use of timber trusses in roofing
•In the Pantheon, we find Roman construction technology at the height of its application

50. ROMAN ARCHITECTURE
TECHNOLOGY
•The greatest contribution of the Romans in Building services and technology is in the aspect of
water
•The development of the aqueduct enabled ancient Romans to supply water to their cities
•Rome at the height of its development had to supply water to meet the needs of its one million
inhabitants
•Along with water supply, the Romans developed a system of waste water collection and disposal
•Sanitary sewers were used to collect waste water that is channeled outside the city for disposal
Understanding Roman buildings also requires understanding their construction technology
•Development in construction technology freed the Romans from any creative limitations
•They were therefore able to experiment, in the process creating new building types and form and
also pushing the limits of structural possibilities
•Construction technology also allowed Roman architects to produce buildings with vast interior
spaces
•Construction technology enabled Romans to transform the orders from structural elements to mere
decorative ones

51. ROMAN ARCHITECTURE
The Environment around Rome was not as rich as the Greek mainland in construction material
especially marble
–Romans construction material consists of Stone, principally local travertine and timber
–Roman also invented a system of firing brick and used brick widely in construction
–Romans were also the first people to discover concrete; Roman concrete is different from our
present day concrete
–Romans made significant improvements to the arch to address its shortcoming
They also developed new construction systems based on the arch and dome
–The combination of arch and vault construction with brick as formwork and concrete as bonding
material enabled the Romans to construct great buildings with very large interior spaces
–Roman construction also developed the system of wooden truss construction
–The architecture of Rome has its origin in Hellenistic Greek Architecture and the architecture of the
Etruscans
–Most Roman architects were either of Greek origin or Greek trained

52. ROMAN ARCHITECTURE
The Romans adopted the external language of classical Greek architecture–In Roman architecture,
the orders survived simply as ornaments applied to great concrete buildings. –But the Romans also
made unique additions to the orders that are very important. –New orders evolved and were added to
the Greek orders to form the classical language of architecture–Romans also made additions in the
entablature of temples, in the scale of buildings and the proportion of the entire design.–While the
Greeks are said to be the inventors of form, Roman architecture concentrated on the creation of
space
The Greek and Roman architecture are referred to as classical architecture–The first book on
architecture was produced by Marcus Vitruvius Pollioin 100 A.D. –The ten books of architecture written
sets down rules and procedures for creating architecture of value–The genius of Roman architecture
was expressed not in the design of a particular building, but in the production of a vast number of
various building types–Roman buildings include bathhouses for bathing, circuses for racing,
amphitheatres for gladiatorial contest, temples for religion, domus for family life and the forum as the
center of public life and national commerce

53. ROMAN ARCHITECTURE
Romans started constructing walls by using small pieces of stone such as tufa, marble,
pepperino, bricks, etc with lime and pozzolona, thereby pouring this concrete into walls
with timber shuttering.
“opus quadratum” was rectangular pieces of stone laid with mortar & secured by
cramps. “opus incertum” was concrete wall faced with irregular pieces of stone.
“opus reticulatum” was concrete wall with diagonal lines & patterns.
Concrete faced with triangular shaped bricks of 1.5” thickness was known as “opus
testaceum”. At regular intervals a brick bonding course was used. Concrete wall faced
with bands of tufa stone in between brick facing was known as “Opus mixtum”.

56. OTHER ARCHITECTURAL ELEMENTS
TRIUMPHAL ARCHES
•Other Than buildings, ancient Romans also contributed to the development of several architectural
elements •The most prominent of the elements is the triumphal arch •A triumphal arch is a structure
in the shape of a monumental gate, usually built to celebrate a victory in war•They are almost
always built in the Form, framing the paths that people follow •Romans started it as a way to
celebrate their victories in battles
Some triumphal arches are made of stone and intended to be permanent. •A number of arches from
the city's imperial era can still be seen in modern Rome. •Temporary triumphal arches were also
constructed for use for celebratory parades or ceremony and later dismantled •A Roman Triumph was
a civil ceremony and religious rite held to publicly honour the military commander of a notably
successful foreign war •Only men of senatorial or consular rank could perform a triumph celebration
and be a triumphator as the victorious generals are known
The ceremony consisted of a spectacular parade, opened by the chiefs of conquered peoples who
are afterward executed •The triumphator rode on a biga, a chariot pulled by two white horses•The
parade followed a precise route in the streets of Rome•It traveled along the Forum until it reached
the Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus, where the laurels of victory were offered to the god.
•Monuments may then be erected to celebrate the triumph•Two examples of such monuments in the
republican forum are the Arch of Titus and the Arch of Constantine

57. Triumphal Arches -Arch of Constantine
•The arch was built in A.D. 81 and dedicated to the emperor Titus•It
was built to commemorate the military victory over Jerusalem in A.D.
70•The arch has a height of 15.4 meters, a width of 13.5 meters and
was constructed of stone•The marvel of its stone construction is
evident in the keystone, which ensures the stability of the arch
It has a single opening flanked on each side by attached columns
of the Composite order•The composite order has a capital that
joins the acanthus leaves of the Corinthian order with the volutes
of the ionic order•The face of the arch is decorated with sculptural
relief depicting the destruction of the temple in Jerusalem
The arch of Constantine was built much later that than of Titus •It
was built to commemorate the victory of Emperor Constantine over
Maxentius in A.D. 312•Its form shows an attempt to create an arch
more majestic than that of Titus
It has three arched openings, a larger one in the center flanked by
two smaller ones•There are four free standing columns in front
framing the arched openings.

59. PRINCIPLES
•Roman cities fall into two broad categories
•Majority grew in an unplanned manner over the centuries
forming complex organic entities, to which sometimes
order was introduced
•Rome is a good example
ROMAN CITY PLANNING & DESIGN
The other category consist of Castrum type cities, a type
of military camp developed with an inflexible regularity of
shape-
•A well preserved example is the city of Timgad in North
Africa
•This was a city laid out by Trajan in A.D. 100 as a colony
for military veterans
•The town was laid in a grid of 12 blocks within a square
1,200 feet wide

60. ROMAN CITY PLANNING & DESIGN
The planning of most cities fall in between the two
extremes of organic growth and rigid grid planning
•All cities had a forum, theater, bath, market etc.
•Many of the cities contained buildings that were
copies or local versions of key monuments in Rome
•Focus in city design is on integrating civic buildings
with public spaces and residential neighborhoods
•Each public building had interior spaces that
responded to functional requirement with the spaces
also linked and connected with the public spaces of
the city
•The Forum was the center of the Roman city

61. ROMAN CITY PLANNING & DESIGN
FORUM
The forum was the descendant of the Greek agora for the Romans
•It began as a market place
•It rapidly became the commercial, political and ceremonial center of the civilization
•In the process it developed into an elaborate architectural space that became a part of all roman
cities
•Unlike the Greek agora which is informal in plan, and whose buildings are subordinate to the
space, in the roman forum, the organization is more formal
•The buildings surrounding it are normally large and dominate the space
•Buildings commonly found in the forum include temples, basilicas, and bath
Each individual major building in the forum was given a central inside space
•Governmental function were usually arranged on the West End; religious ceremonies were
celebrated at the east end
•The inside space of buildings was connected to one or more exterior space of the city
•Columns, statues and triumphal arches were erected as a memorial to the conquering rulers and to
the glories of the empire
•No two roman forums are really alike, as there are always differences between the forums in
different cities
•In Rome with its two forums, we find a good example of the Roman forums

62. ROMAN CITY PLANNING & DESIGN
REPUBLICLANFORUM
The Republican Forum is also called the Forum Romanum
•It was the oldest and most important forum in the city
•Soon it became an important market place
•By the 5th Century B.C. the various functions associated with
the forum began to assume their architectural shape
Additions, modification and growth by successive
republicans and emperors led to its development
•By 400 A.D. the forum had accumulated not less than 10
temples, 4 basilicas, 4 triumphal arches and many other
monuments and shrines
•All of these were arranged with no preordained order
•The buildings therefore loosely define the space of the
forum

63. ROMAN CITY PLANNING & DESIGN
IMPERIAL FORUM
During the reign of Julius Ceasar, he attempted to
reorganize the Republican forum but realized that it had
become too congested for rational order
•He therefore decided to build a new forum adjacent to but
outside the republican forum
•This idea was picked by successive emperors, who
added to it to create the imperial forum
The imperial forum is not one forum, but five forums with
each supporting the other
•There was variety in their form, but they displayed
rational order in their organization
•Each of the forum consisted of colonnaded atrium with a
temple at its head
•Of the five temples that of Trojan was most majestic, with
the basilica Ulpia sitting across it and two libraries on
either side of the central court

64. ROMAN CITY PLANNING & DESIGN
Architecture and Urban Design in Rome
•In Rome we find the best example of both Roman
architecture and city design
•The image shows a reconstruction module of a part of
Rome at the height of its development
•From the image, the organic growth of the city is evident
and is reflected in the fabric of the city
•Buildings are densely packed together, separated by a
network of narrow pathways
Within the fabric, all the Roman building types can be
identified
•These include The circus Maxentius, The Domus
Augustana, Roman Theater, An Aqueduct, A Roman
Temple, The Basilica Maxentius, and The Republican and
Imperial Forums
•From the image, the clustering of important buildings
close to the forum is highly evident