3. The Importance of RomeThe Importance of Rome
Cultural achievements
◦ Roman cultures affects: language, law, politics,
religion, and art affect our modern lives
Some examples:
◦ Road network of modern Europe is based on
Roman roads from 2000 years ago
◦ We use the Roman alphabet
◦ Calendar we use is a modified form of the 12-
month calendar introduced by Julius Caesar in
45 B.C.E.
4. The Importance of RomeThe Importance of Rome
In early history, they saw themselves as the
divinely appointed rulers of the world.
Spread Roman culture from the north of England to
Africa, from Spain to India.
Greek art and literature were spread and
incorporated into the Western tradition by the
Romans, not the Greeks themselves.
Adopted Christianity as official religion of the empire
in 4th
century C.E.
Were surprisingly modest in their own cultural
achievements: Romans thought their strengths
lay in good government and military prowess
rather than in artistic and intellectual
attainments.
5. Importance of RomeImportance of Rome
Some Roman contributions were not
impressive:
Role of music
◦ Religious events: weddings, funerals,
background for social occasions
No intellectual or philosophical significance
Did develop the tuba, an extension of the Greek
trumpet into a longer and louder bronze
instrument.
◦ Used on public occasions like games, processions, battle
attacks and retreats
Music was enjoyed by aristocrats rather than the
general population
6. The Importance of RomeThe Importance of Rome
Roman genius lay in absorbing and
assimilating influences from outside and
going on to create something Roman.
For example, Roman sculpture and drama
is less highly rated because of
comparisons to that of the Greeks.
However, study of Roman culture involves
examining the influences that went to
make the culture up.
7. The Importance of RomeThe Importance of Rome
Historical division:
◦ Monarchy/ Etruscan Age (753-510 B.C.E.)
Ruled by kings
Foundation of the city, Rome, 8th
century B.C.E.
◦ Republican Rome (509-31 B.C.E.)
Democratic rule/government was developed and
allowed to collapse
Romans began conquest of neighboring peoples
Italy, Europe, Asia, and North Africa
◦ Imperial Rome (31 B.C.E. - C.E. 476)
Ruled by an emperor
476 C.E. marks the deposition of the last Roman
emperor
8. The Etruscans and Their ArtThe Etruscans and Their Art
Rome founded in mid-8th c. by Latins
◦ Latins were farmers and herdsmen,
established small village settlements
Etruscan culture was flourishing north
of Rome
Etruscans gained control of Rome by
616 B.C.E.
◦ Origins of the Etruscans unknown; language
is yet to be deciphered
◦ Established themselves in Tuscany (named
for them) by 700 B.C.E.
9. The Etruscans and Their ArtThe Etruscans and Their Art
Showed an outstanding sophistication and
technological ability:
◦ Had material prosperity and superb
craftsmanship
Gold treasures buried in tombs
◦ Etruscan cities developed rich artistic traditions
◦ Developed urban centers, engineering
Occupied Rome from 616 – 510 B.C.E.
Engineers drained a large marshy area, which
became the Roman Forum
10. The Etruscans and Their ArtThe Etruscans and Their Art
Etruscan Art
◦ Primitive but sophisticated, natural focus
◦ Valued emotion over intellectual appeal,
wanted to affect the viewer
Other Etruscan contributions in Rome
◦ Built temples, shrines, and roads
◦ Public games like chariot racing
◦ Toga, most characteristic form of Roman dress
In 1st
century B.C.E., Etruscans received
right of Roman citizenship and were
absorbed in to the Roman Empire.
12. [Image 4.2]
Capitoline She-Wolf
Capitoline She-Wolf, c. 500-480 B.C.E.
Although this statue or one very like it became the mascot of Rome, it was
probably made by Etruscan craftsmen. The twins Romulus and Remus,
legendary founders of the city, were added during the Renaissance.
13. [Image 4.3]
Apollo of Veii
Apollo of Veii
From the roof of the
Portonaccio Temple,
Veii, Etruscan, c. 510-
500 B.C.E.
The figure, which was
originally painted, is
striding energetically,
the body clearly visible
beneath the drapery.
One of Apollo
14. [Image 4.4]
Wall painting from the Tomb of Hunting and
Fishing
Wall painting from the Tomb of Hunting and Fishing,
Tarquinia,c. 520 BCE
Men fish, and birds are all rendered naturalistically, with acute observation. Note the
bird perched on the waves to the left of the diving fish and the hunter at right.
15. Republican RomeRepublican Rome
Etruscan expulsion by the Romans in 510
B.C.E.
New government established
◦ Governed by the people somewhat along the
lines of the Greek city-states
Less democratically
◦ Consuls – 2 chief magistrates, 1 year terms
◦ Senate (principle assembly) - members were
from Roman aristocratic families
◦ Patricians – upper class, power was
concentrated here
◦ Plebeians – lower class, formed its own
assembly
16. Republican RomeRepublican Rome
Tribunes – leaders elected by the
plebeian assembly
◦ Represented plebeian’s interests and protected
them against state officials who treated them
unjustly
Forum – meeting place for Senate and
assemblies of the people
◦ Large open space at the foot of the Palatine
and Capitoline hills
Roman Republic’s history was dominated
by agitation for political equality.
17. [Image 4.6]
The Roman Forum
The Roman forum – center of the political, economic, and
religious life of the Roman world as it appears today. The
buildings there were constructed over a period of more than a
thousand years.
• The small round Temple to Vesta, 500 B.C.E. (bottom left
corner)
• part of Temple of Concord, 376 B.C.E. (columns to the right)
• Arch of Titus, C.E. 81, in the distance
• remains of the Colosseum, C.E. 69-79
18. Republican RomeRepublican Rome
Conflicts of political equality / Balance of
Power
◦ Plebeians and patricians conflicted but showed
flexibility and spirit of compromise
Resulted in growth of plebeian power while
avoiding a disastrous split
◦ Hortensian Law – (287 B.C.E.) decisions of
the plebeian assembly were biding on the
entire Senate and Roman people
19. Republican RomeRepublican Rome
Increasing power / expansion caused
problems:
◦ Carthage – city in Phoenician’s territory
◦ Rome first target Carthage to expand the
empire
The Phoenicians had founded Carthage
◦ Punic Wars resulted – Romans defeated
Carthaginians and confiscated their territories
20. Republican RomeRepublican Rome
Roman empire expanded, but ruling the
empire was somewhat chaotic; the
Romans had no clear plan.
Social and political unrest → civil war
◦ Incompetent and corrupt provincial
administration
◦ Roman insensitivity and brutality existed
toward conquered peoples
◦ Political instability at home:
Rise of the middle class, equites, disturbed
balance between plebeians and patricians.
◦ Eventually caused the collapse of the Republic
21. Republican RomeRepublican Rome
Political system devised for early Rome
was inadequate for the Empire.
Social War, 90-88 B.C.E.
◦ Tremendous cost in lives and economic stability
◦ Ineffectual Senate and frustration of the
Roman people led to power struggles among
statesmen for supreme power
◦ Marius – popular leader who briefly held power
◦ Sulla, Roman general replaced Marius
Brief and violent rule; ruled as a dictator (82
B.C.E. – 79 B.C.E.)
22. Republican RomeRepublican Rome
Series of political skirmishes between
Pompey and Julius Caesar occurred after
Sulla’s resignation
◦ Pompey was self-appointed defender of the
Senate
◦ Caesar withdrew to Gaul, but returned in 49
B.C.E. and defeated Pompey in 48 B.C.E.
Assassinated in 44 B.C.E.
Civil wars led to the end of the Republic.
23. Literary DevelopmentsLiterary Developments
During the RepublicDuring the Republic
Most Roman energies were focused on
politics and military affairs
◦ Left little time for art and literature
◦ Were overwhelmed intellectually and
artistically by the Greeks
◦ From 3rd
century B.C.E. Roman works followed
Greek models in form and content
24. Literary DevelopmentsLiterary Developments
Ennius (239-169 B.C.E.); influenced by
the Greeks
◦ Father of Roman poetry
◦ Annals – chronicles the history of Rome
Greek metrical scheme was used to write Latin
verse
◦ Tragedies adapted from Greek models
Plautus (254-184 B.C.E.) and Terence (185-
159 B.C.E.); Roman playwrights
◦ 1st
Roman writers whose works have surivived
◦ Roman adaptations of Greek comedies
◦ Fond of elaborate plots, mistaken identities,
identical twins, general confusion
25. Literary DevelopmentsLiterary Developments
Plautus (254-184 B.C.E.) and Terence (185-
159 B.C.E.); Roman playwrights
◦ 1st
Roman writers whose works have survived in
quantity
◦ Plays are Roman adaptations of Greek
comedies
◦ Fond of elaborate plots, mistaken identities,
identical twins, general confusion
Plautus – more boisterous style than
Terence
◦ Fond of comic songs and farcical intrigues
26. Literary DevelopmentsLiterary Developments
Terence’s sophisticated style is more
refined and his characters show greater
realism.
Plautus was the more successful Roman
playwright.
Both authors were fond of elaborate plots
involving mistaken identities, identical
twins, and general confusion.
27. Literary DevelopmentsLiterary Developments
Roman lyric poetry was often romantic;
most rewarding genres of Latin literature.
Catullus (80-54 B.C.E.)
◦ 1st
great Roman lyric poet
◦ Relied on personal experience to write poetry;
romantic relationships
◦ Makes his own experiences universal
◦ Influenced by Sappho
◦ Charted his own love affair with a woman he
calls Lesbia
Chronicles course of the relationship from
beginning to breakup.
28. Literary DevelopmentsLiterary Developments
Julius Caesar (100-44 B.C.E.); politician,
general, administrator
◦ Commentaries – wrote history of his own
military campaigns
◦ He repaired much of the damage from the
previous decades
◦ Assassinated on March 15, 44 B.C.E. by
devoted republicans
Marcus Tullius Cicero
◦ Lawyer, orator, served as consul
◦ Supported Pompey; never really trusted Caesar
◦ Epistolary legacy – wrote many letters (p.95)
Wrote almost 900 letters
29. Roman Philosophy and LawRoman Philosophy and Law
EpicureanismEpicureanism
Romans’ practical nature made them
suspicious of professional philosophers
Epicureanism & Stoicism were imported
from Greece
◦ Roman philosophers expounded, or
explained, Greek philosophy to a Roman
audience
30. Roman Philosophy and LawRoman Philosophy and Law
EpicureanismEpicureanism
Epicureanism was founded by Epicurus
(341-271 B.C.E.)
Goal and principle of human actions is
pleasure
Stresses moderation and prudence
◦ Romans saw it as a typically Greek enthusiasm
for self-indulgence and debauchery
◦ Philosophy never gained many followers
31. EpicureanismEpicureanism
Extolled/explained by poet Lucretius (99-
55 B.C.E.)
◦ Intellectual and rational vs. self-indulgent
◦ On the Nature of Things
Gods play no part in human affairs
Pleasure and calm composure in the face
of disasters; events in the world are
outside out control
World is two parts:
◦ Atoms and empty space
◦ In death, body, mind, and soul are lost
32. Roman Philosophy and LawRoman Philosophy and Law
StoicismStoicism
Stoicism – much more accepted by the
Romans
◦ World governed by Reason
◦ Role of Divine Providence – watched over
virtuous, never allowing them to suffer
◦ Key to being virtuous lay in willing or desiring
only that which was under one’s own control
◦ Riches, power, and health, all subject to whims
of fortune, were excluded as objects of desire.
33. StoicismStoicism
Roman Stoics
◦ Seneca
Wrote essays on Stoic morality, moral fortitude
Nero, Seneca’s formal pupil, ordered him to
commit suicide
◦ Suicide was sanctioned by Stoics
◦ Epictetus
Former slave, established school of philosophy in
Rome and Greece
Enchiridion (Handbook) – stresses absolute trust
in Divine Providence
Philosopher represented the spokesman of
Providence
34. StoicismStoicism
Roman Stoics
◦ Marcus Aurelius, emperor
Struggled to maintain balance between public
duty and personal convictions
Meditations – account of his own attempt to live
the life of a Stoic
Most Romans were immune to the appeal
of philosophy
Celebrated festivals in honor of traditional deities
Examine animal entrails to try to read the future
Maintained traditions
35. Roman Philosophy and LawRoman Philosophy and Law
Science of law is one of the few original
creations of Roman literature.
Law of the Twelve Tablets
◦ Earliest Roman legal code of the Republic
Became irrelevant or outdated by the time Julius
Caesar came to power
Replaced by later legislation that was confusing
and contradictory
36. Roman Philosophy and LawRoman Philosophy and Law
Julius Caesar’s Ius Civile
◦ Created a single, unified code of civil law with
the help of eminent legal experts
◦ Served as model for later times
37. Roman Philosophy and LawRoman Philosophy and Law
Justinian’s Corpus Iuris Civilis
◦ Final revised and edited version of Ius Civile
◦ Remained in use in parts of Europe for
centuries
◦ Influenced development of modern legal
systems
◦ “There is not a problem of jurisprudence which
it does not touch: there is scarcely a corner of
political science on which its light has not
fallen.”
◦ Roman lawyer Ulpian said “Law is the art of the
good and the fair.”
38. ◦ Romans developed this “art” over the centuries
during which they built up their empire of
widely differing peoples.
◦ Law was international
Adapted Roman notions/ideas to local conditions
Changed and developed
39. Roman Philosophy and LawRoman Philosophy and Law
Roman science of law
◦ Many jurists had administrative experience
from serving in the provinces
◦ Legal experts were in great demand
◦ State encouraged public service
◦ Acquired reputations for wisdom and integrity
Objective system of natural justice
◦ Emperor could fulfill his duty to serve his
subjects, and bring all peoples together under
a single government
40. Roman Law and PhilosophyRoman Law and Philosophy
Romans built up a body of legal opinion
that was
◦ Comprehensive
◦ Concerned with absolute and eternal values
◦ Valid for all times and places
◦ At its heart was the principle of “equity” –
equality for all
41. Republican Art and ArchitectureRepublican Art and Architecture
Late Republic shows the translation of
Greek styles into new Roman forms
Roman portraiture
◦ Political scene was dominated by individuals
such as Cicero and Caesar
Individualism was captured in portrait busts
◦ Portraiture represents Roman art at its most
creative and sensitive
◦ Realistic details express outer appearance and
inner character
◦ Propagandistic – statesmen and politicians
could project their chosen self-image through
their portraits
42. Republican Art and ArchitectureRepublican Art and Architecture
Architecture as political medium
◦ Used to express political authority
◦ Public buildings for personal display and glory
of leaders
Sanctuary constructed by Sulla at Praeneste (Fig.
4.8)
Caesar cleared large area in the center of Rome
for the construction of a forum, to be named after
him
44. Imperial RomeImperial Rome
(31 B.C.E. - C.E. 476)(31 B.C.E. - C.E. 476)
Julius Caesar assassinated 44 B.C.E.
◦ Brief respite from civil war was followed by
turmoil
◦ Caesar’s nephew, Octavius, and Caesar’s
lieutenant, Mark Antony, tried to avenge his
death and punish the conspirators
◦ Caesar has named Octavius as his heir
Octavius adopted the name Octavian
◦ After defeat of conspirators, peace was
obtained by putting Octavian in charge of the
western provinces and sending Antony to the
East.
45. Imperial RomeImperial Rome
(31 B.C.E. - C.E. 476)(31 B.C.E. - C.E. 476)
Antony’s affair with the Egyptian
Cleopatra alienated much of his support in
Rome
Battle of Actium (31 B.C.E.)
◦ Octavian vs. Mark Antony
◦ Forces of Antony, reinforced by those of
Cleopatra, were routed and the couple
committed suicide.
46. Imperial RomeImperial Rome
(31 B.C.E. - C.E. 476)(31 B.C.E. - C.E. 476)
Octavian inaugurated as Augustus (27
B.C.E.)
Marked the end of the Roman Republic
Empire was in ruins
◦ Civil and external wars for most of the century
◦ Political and cultural institutions were beyond
repair
◦ Economy was wrecked
◦ Large areas of Italy were in complete turmoil
By Octavian’s death (C.E. 14), Rome had
achieved a peace and prosperity
unequaled in its history – before of after.
47. Imperial RomeImperial Rome
(31 B.C.E. - C.E. 476)(31 B.C.E. - C.E. 476)
Augustus (AKA. Octavius/Octavian)
◦ First Roman emperor – assumed the title
Augustus
◦ Inaugurated the second great period in Roman
history – the empire
◦ Stupendous cultural achievement – Golden Age
of Rome
48. Imperial RomeImperial Rome
(31 B.C.E. - C.E. 476)(31 B.C.E. - C.E. 476)
Built new political order
◦ Took all effective power into his and his
imperial staff’s hands while making it look as if
the Roman people and Senate held the power
◦ The emperor and his bureaucracy controlled
virtually all decisions
A huge civil service developed
◦ Various career paths
◦ Opportunities for advancement
49. Imperial RomeImperial Rome
(31 B.C.E. - C.E. 476)(31 B.C.E. - C.E. 476)
Reformed army
◦ Principle function was to guard the frontiers
◦ Made up of approx. 250,000 Roman citizens
and about the same number of local recruits
◦ Commanders looked to emperor as general-in-
chief
◦ Troops did more than fight: They served as
engineers: built roads and bridges; sowed and
harvested crops; helped police countryside
◦ Won respect and gratitude of Roman provincial
subjects
50. Imperial RomeImperial Rome
(31 B.C.E. - C.E. 476)(31 B.C.E. - C.E. 476)
Empire expanded economically
◦ Freedom and travel and trade
◦ Goods circulated with no tariffs or customs
duties
◦ Traders only had to pay harbor dues
◦ Roman road systems carried increasing
numbers of travelers
Not all later emperors were as diligent or
successful as Augusts
◦ I.e., Caligula, Nero
51. Augustan Literature: VergilAugustan Literature: Vergil
Roman art promoted Augustan worldview
Augustus supported and encouraged
writers and artists of his day
◦ Propagandistic
Official, public, served state purposes
Themes of Augustan politics: Return of peace,
land and agriculture, simple life over ostentation
and luxury, Rome’s destiny as world leader
Greatest works of Roman sculpture commemorate
Augustus and his deeds
Poetry relates in some way to Augustan worldview
No reason to doubt the sincerity of the gratitude
toward Augustus in poetry and art
52. Augustan Literature: VergilAugustan Literature: Vergil
Vergil’s - Greatest Roman poet (Full name
is Publius Vergilius Maro)
◦ Aeneid –divided into 12 books
◦ Epic poem that honors Rome and Augustus
not completely finished at Vergil’s death
53. Augustan Literature:Augustan Literature: AeneidAeneid
◦ Aeneas is the hero, Trojan prince flees the
ruins of a burning Troy and sails west to Italy
◦ Founded new city, the predecessor to Rome
Aeneas’s Trojan birth establishes connection with
world of Homer
Arrival in Italy involves origins of Rome
Theme of fresh beginnings corresponds to
Augustan mood of revival
◦ Prevailing mood of poem is melancholy regret
for sadness of human lives and the inevitability
of human suffering
54. Augustan LiteratureAugustan Literature
Eclogues (Bucolics) – ten short pastoral
poems
◦ Deals with joys and sorrows of the country and
the shepherds and herdsmen who live there
Vergil was the son of a farmer
Georgics (4 books)
◦ Practical guide to farming
Advice on things like cattle breeding, beekeeping
Agricultural richness of Italy
◦ Does not disguise hardships of a farmer’s life:
poverty, hard work, and disappointment
◦ Regardless, life in the country brings true
peace and contentment
56. Augustan SculptureAugustan Sculpture
Characteristics of Vergil’s poetry can be
found in contemporary sculpture.
Ara Pacis (see pg. 103, fig. 4.11)
◦ Depicts Aeneas performing a sacrifice on his
arrival in Italy
◦ Depicts abundance of nature that could flourish
in the peace of Augustan age
◦ Depicts procession led by Augustus
South - priests, family members
North – senators and dignitaries
◦ Lower part of walls is decorated with band of
fruit and floral motifs, and swans
◦ Entrance to the altar is flanked by two reliefs:
right – Aeneas; left – Romulus and Remus
57. Augustan SculptureAugustan Sculpture
◦ Political and social message
How Augustus wanted people to view his reign
First among equals rather than supreme ruler
Reliefs of Aeneas and Romulus and Remus –
Rome’s past
◦ Dedicated to the spirit of Peace – not Augustus
or any Roman deity
◦ Augustus is shown as first among equals
◦ Celebrates the abundance of nature
58.
59. Augustan SculptureAugustan Sculpture
Augustus of Prima Porta (see p.104, fig.
4.12)
◦ Best preserved statue of the emporer
◦ Dates to time of emperor’s death
Face depicts vigor of life, calm, determination
◦ Breastplate depicts scene that recalls Augustus’
victory over Parthians
◦ Symbolizes national pride
Augustus’ successor - problem that he
could not solve
◦ Death of other candidates forced him to fall
back on his unpopular stepson Tiberius
61. Evidence of PompeiiEvidence of Pompeii
Vesuvius: erupted August 24, C.E. 79
Pompeii is the most famous of the
destroyed towns
◦ Preservation gives us rich and vivid impression
of provincial way of life
Pliny the Younger – Roman politician and
literary figure
◦ Eyewitness account about the eruption comes
from two letters he wrote (p.105-107)
◦ His uncle, Pliny the Elder, died from the fumes
while trying to investigate the explosion
62. Evidence of PompeiiEvidence of Pompeii
Works of art unearthed at Pompeii are not
masterpieces
◦ Show us how the ordinary Pompeian lived,
worked, and played
Preservation of ordinary Pompeian life
◦ Buildings – cool, comfortable houses, charming
frescoes, quiet gardens
3 sets of public baths, a theater, concert hall,
large amphitheater, brothels
◦ Domestic ornaments – high quality
◦ Food – dates, walnuts, sunflower seeds, bread
63.
64.
65. Roman Imperial ArchitectureRoman Imperial Architecture
Roman achievement in both architecture
and engineering had a lasting effect on
the development of later architectural
styles.
◦ Use of the arch, probably borrowed from the
Etruscans, was widely imitated
Triumphal arches, internal arches, vaults
◦ Triumphal arch commemorated military victory
(fig. 4.19)
◦ Internal arches and vaults – provide roofs for
structures of increasing size and complexity
◦ Barrel vault and dome (fig. 4.20)
66. Roman Imperial ArchitectureRoman Imperial Architecture
◦ Arches were used for bridges and aqueducts
◦ Vaults made it possible to roof large buildings
◦ Domes were used to construct elaborate
buildings capable of holding thousands of
people at a time.
Used bricks, concrete, & combo of vaults, barrel
vaults and domes to build public buildings
Much of these works were destroyed
during the Barbarian invasions of the 5th
and 6th
centuries
Hadrian’s Pantheon and imperial fora (see
p. 110, fig. 4.21)
◦ One of the most superb of all imperial
structures
◦
67. Roman Imperial ArchitectureRoman Imperial Architecture
◦ Dome – houses the oculus
◦ Oculus – the building’s only light source
Opening of 30 feet across at the top of the dome
◦ Corinthian Capitals (fig. 4.22)
◦ Imperial fora – complex of public buildings,
monuments to the emperors
◦ Elsewhere in the city there were baths,
theaters, temples, racetracks, and libraries
Roman architecture greatly influenced designs of
buildings from Spain to the Middle East
68.
69. Roman Imperial ArchitectureRoman Imperial Architecture
Engineering Achievements
◦ Aqueducts
Constant need for water in urban centers
Network of pipes brought millions of gallons of
water to baths and private villas of the wealthy
Pont du Gard – aqueduct in southern France (fig.
4.24)
Made of uncemented stone
Largest block weighs 2 tons
◦ Covered sewers
Street drains were built eliminating open sewers
70.
71. Roman Imperial ArchitectureRoman Imperial Architecture
Overcrowding- the average Roman lived
in an apartment block, of which there
were some 45,000 (fig. 4.25)
◦ Height of the apartment blocks was controlled
by law to prevent the construction of unsafe
buildings
Collapse and fire were two common dangers
Humble private residences (see p. 112,
fig. 4.25)
◦ Public buildings intended to distract poorer
Romans from thoughts of their own homes
72. Rome as the Object of SatireRome as the Object of Satire
Juvenal (C.E. 60-130) – served as a
magistrate in Rome
Left Rome and then returned and lived in
considerable poverty
◦ Satirical poet (sixteen Satires)
Liked neither Rome or Romans
Writes out of fierce outrage at the corruption and
decadence of his day, depraved aristocracy, and
general greed and meanness
Loathed foreigners
◦ Biting sarcasm and irony
◦ Misogyny – disliked women
73. The End of the Roman EmpireThe End of the Roman Empire
Actual date of fall of empire is debated
◦ Traditional date is C.E. 476 – the deposition of
emperor, Romulus Augustulus
Gradual decline and political disunity
◦ Insufficient army / use of mercenary troops
(men from conquered nations)
No loyalty to Rome – elected non-Roman
emperors
Threats from outside forces
◦ Increased taxes, decreased value of money
◦ Impossibility of trade
Due to threat of civil war and invasion
Any available funds were used to support the army
74. The End of the Roman EmpireThe End of the Roman Empire
Two people helped prevent total collapse
of Roman empire:
Emperor Diocletian (284-305) -
◦ Edict of Diocletian – fixed maximum for sale of
goods and for wages
◦ Collected taxes
◦ Never appeared in public to protect himself
Emperor Constantine (306-337)
◦ Moved capital from Rome to Bosporus,
Constantinople
Controlled all aspects of life
Collected taxes and administer provinces
Deposition of Romulus Augustulus (476)
75. Late Roman Art and ArchitectureLate Roman Art and Architecture
Last great Roman imperial buildings
◦ Basilica of Constantine (fig. 4.26, 4.27) –
assembly hall was a reminder of emperor’s
authority
◦ Palace of Diocletian (fig. 4.28)
Constructed on plan of military camp
76. Late Roman Art and ArchitectureLate Roman Art and Architecture
Abandonment of Classical ideals
◦ Lack of perspective and precision
Foreshadowed art of the early Middle Ages
◦ Enthusiasm for Eastern religious cults
Waning interest in Stoicism and Epicureanism
Desire for more personal religious satisfaction
◦ Religion had always been organized by the state
◦ Role of Christianity
Became official religion of the empire
Pagan art, literature, and culture represented
forces and ideals that Christianity rejected
