Ideas in social sciences

STRUCTURAL FUNCTIONALISM
SUBMITTED BY: CYRIL M. AMPOLOQUIO

“SOCIETY IS MORE THAN JUST THE SUM OF ITS PARTS. -EMILE DURKHEIM

STRUCTURAL FUNCTIONALISM IS THE PERSPECTIVE WHICH
DESCRIBES THE SOCIETY AS A SOCIAL SYSTEM THAT HAS A SOCIAL
STRUCTURE OF ITS OWN.

STRUCTURALISM
Structuralism is the term used that
believes that is a “must” the
human should be part of a big
structure. Humans should be
interrelated with or other
individuals. The saying “no man
is an island” greatly describe what
structuralism is.

PILLARS OF THE HUMAN SOCIETY
THE SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS ARE THE PILLARS OF THE
HUMAN SOCIETY AND THESE ARE THE GOVERNMENT,
ECONOMY, EDUCATION, RELEGION, AND THE FAMILY.

MANIFEST
AND
LATENT
FUNCTIONS
IN STRUCTURAL FUNCTIONALISM, TO
DESCRIBE THE EFFECTS OF SOCIETAL
ELEMENTS, THE TERMS FUNCTIONAL AND
DISFUNCTIONAL

THERE ARE TWO TYPES OF FUNCTIONS: MANIFEST AND
LATENT:
2 TYPES OF
FUNCTIONS
EDUCATION TELEVISION
MANIFEST FOR TRANSMISSION OF
KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS TO
THE SOCIETY
FOR ENTERTAINMENT,
INFORMATION AND
NEWS
LATENT USED FOR BABY-SITTING TO
CONTAINED THE CHILDREN
WHILE THE PARENTS ARE
BUSY EARNING A LIVING OR
DOING OTHER THINGS.
TO SCAPE BOREDOME
WHILE AT HOME

MARXISM
WE ARE IN MARX’S TERM, “ AN ENSEMBLE
OF SOCIAL RELATIONS AND WE OUR LIVES
AT THE CORE OF THE INTERSECTION OF A
NUMBER OF UNEQUAL SOCIAL RELATIONS
BASED ON HIERARCHICALLY INTERRELATED
STRUCTURES WHICH, TOGETHER, DEFINE
THE HISTORICAL SPECIFICITY OF THE
CAPITALIST MODES OF PRODUCTION AND
REPRODUCTION AND UNDERLAY THUER
OBSERVABLE MANIFESTATIONS
- MARTHA E. GIMENEZ AND CLASS,
GENDER AND RACE;:.’

KARL MARX
Karl Marx was a German philosopher,
economist, historian, sociologist, political
theorist, journalist and socialist
revolutionary. Born in Trier, Germany,
Marx studied law and philosophy at
university. He married Jenny von
Westphalen in 1843.
Born: 5 May 1818, Trier, Germany
Died: 14 March 1883, London, United
Kingdom
Children: Eleanor Marx, Laura
Marx, Jenny Marx Longuet, Edgar
Marx, Jenny Eveline Frances Marx, Henry
Edward Guy Marx
Parents: Heinrich Marx, Henriette
Pressburg

MARXISM
MARXISM IS A PERSPECTIVE THAT THE WORLD IS FULL OF CONFLICT.
THIS PERSPECTIVE IS FROM KARL MARX’S CLASSICAL WORKS. MARXISM
IS THE COMPLETE OPPOSITE OF THE STRUCTURAL FUNCTIONALISM
WHERE IT STATES THAT GROUPS WORK TOGETHER IN HARMONY
THROUGH SOCAL EQUILIBRIUM. BUT FOR THIS PERSPECTIVE, IT STATES
THAT THE SOCIETY IS COMPOSED OF DIFFERENT GROUPS WITH THERE
OWN INTEREST TO PROTECT AND EACH GROUP IS COMPETING FOR
POWER AND RESOURCES. IT FOCUSES ON CLASS RELATIONS AND SOCIAL
CONFLICTS PROMOTING SOCIAL INEQUALITY IN THE HUMAN SOCIETY.

SOCIAL INEQUALITY
THIS HAPPENS WHEN RESOURCES (EX: INCOME, PROPERTIES, CAPITAL) IN A GIVEN
SOCIETY ARE DISTRIBUTED UNEQUALLY, WHICH SOCIALLY DEFINE OR DIVIDE PEOPLE
INTO CATEGORIES.
ONE OF THE CONCEPTS OF MARXISM IS ABOUT HISTORICAL DIALECTICAL
MATERIALISM. IN ORDER TO REMOVE PROPERTY RIGHTS WE NEED TO KNOW THE
HISTORYOF MAN’S MEANS OF SUBSISTENCE. THE BASIS OF HISTORY IS NOT OF SPIRIT
OUT OF EXISTENCE OF HUMAN BEINGS, HOW HUMAN BEINGS SURVIVE MEANS OF
SUBSISTENCE.
THE BASE OF HISTORY IS THE MODE OF PRODUCTION;
FORCES OF PRODUCTION- MEANS (MATERIAL AND TECHNOLOGICAL)
RELATION OF PRODUCTION- (THE INTERCOURSE/RELATIONS OF (MAN) WHO OWNS
WHAT?WHO HAS POWER OVER WHOM.

Marxism is an economic and social system based upon the political and economic
theories of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. While it would take veritably volumes to
explain the full implications and ramifications of the Marxist social and economic
ideology, Marxism is summed up in the Encarta Reference Library as “a theory in
which class struggle is a central element in the analysis of social change in Western
societies.” Marxism is the antithesis of capitalism which is defined by Encarta as “an
economic system based on the private ownership of the means of production and
distribution of goods, characterized by a free competitive market and motivation by
profit.” Marxism is the system of socialism of which the dominant feature is public
ownership of the means of production, distribution, and exchange.

Under capitalism, the proletariat, the working class or “the people,” own only
their capacity to work; they have the ability only to sell their own labor.
According to Marx a class is defined by the relations of its members to the
means of production. He proclaimed that history is the chronology of class
struggles, wars, and uprisings. Under capitalism, Marx continues, the workers,
in order to support their families are paid a bare minimum wage or salary. The
worker is alienated because he has no control over the labor or product which
he produces. The capitalists sell the products produced by the workers at a
proportional value as related to the labor involved. Surplus value is the
difference between what the worker is paid and the price for which the
product is sold.

An increasing immiseration of the proletariat occurs as the result of economic
recessions; these recessions result because the working class is unable to buy
the full product of their labors and the ruling capitalists do not consume all of
the surplus value. A proletariat or socialist revolution must occur, according to
Marx, where the state (the means by which the ruling class forcibly maintains
rule over the other classes) is a dictatorship of the proletariat. Communism
evolves from socialism out of this progression: the socialist slogan is “From
each according to his ability, to each according to his work.”
The communist slogan varies thusly: “From each according to his ability, to
each according to his needs.”

What were the Marxist views of religion? Because the worker under the
capitalist regimes was miserable and alienated, religious beliefs were
sustained. Religion, according to Marx was the response to the pain of being
alive, the response to earthly suffering. In Towards a Critique of Hegel’s
Philosophy of Right (1844), Marx wrote, “Religion is the sigh of the oppressed
creature, the feeling of a heartless world, and the soul of soulless
circumstances.” Marx indicated in this writing that the working class, the
proletariat was a true revolutionary class, universal in character and acquainted
with universal suffering. This provided the need for religion.

SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONALISM
“WHAT YOU THINK CAN DETERMINE WHAT YOU CAN ACHIEVE! SO THINK BIG TO ACHIEVE GREAT
THINGS”- DR. VIVENCIO BALLANO

ALL COMMUNICATION IS SYMBOLIC AND BASED UPON INTERACTION AND MEANING.
History and Orientation
Symbolic Interactionism, formulated by Blumer (1969) is the process
of interaction in the formation of meanings for individuals. The
inspiration for this theory came from Dewey (1981), which believed
that human beings are best understood in a practical, interactive
relation to their environment.

Core Assumptions and Statements
The theory consists of three core principles: meaning, language and thought. These
core principles lead to conclusions about the creation of a person’s self and socialization
into a larger community (Griffin, 1997).
Meaning states that humans act toward people and things according to the meanings
that give to those people or things. Symbolic Interactionism holds the principal of
meaning to be the central aspect of human behavior.
Language gives humans a means by which to negotiate meaning through symbols.
Humans identify meaning in speech acts with others.
Thought modifies each individual’s interpretation of symbols. Thought is a mental
conversation that requires different points of view.
With these three elements the concept of the self can be framed. People use ‘the
looking-glass self’: they take the role of the other, imagining how we look to another
person. The self is a function of language, without talk there would be no self concept.
People are part of a community, where our generalized other is the sum total of
responses and expectations that we pick up from the people around us. We naturally
give more weight to the views of significant others.

Conceptual Model
Not applicable. Verbal statements are preferred.
Favorite Methods
Participant observation, qualitative interviewing, interaction
analysis and context existing sources analysis.
Scope and Application
The theory is used in effective evaluating of human
interaction. Different meanings can easily lead to
communication problems. Problems can arise if the lines of
communication are not open and assumptions are made.

Example
A boy (Jeremy) and a girl (Kim) broke up last year. When Jeremy
received an email from Kim to go out he agreed and they went
a bar. Jeremy had a different kind of meaning though in
comparison with Kim. Jeremy went out as friends, where Kim
out as with the meaning of ‘potential boyfriend’. Also in the
communication the language was misunderstood. Kim wanted
have a romantic night, while Jeremy wanted to have a talk in a
bar. This is also caused by the nonverbal element of emails. The
third miscommunication is under thought. When Jeremy replied
so fast Kim thought that they were going out to a romantic
Jeremy went out just as ‘friends’. They both used an internal
dialogue to interpret the situation and to make a perception of
the evening.

PSYCHOANALYSIS
‘THE POINT OF PSYCHOANALYSIS IS TO REALLY UNDERSTAND THE ROOTS OF YOUR BEHAVIOR.
UNDERSTANDING WHY YOU ARE DOING THE THINGS YOU’RE DOING AND CONNECT YOU
UNCONSCIOUS TO YOUR CONSCIOUS’ – TUCKER MAX

Psychoanalysis is defined as a set of psychological theories
and therapeutic techniques that have their origin in the
work and theories of Sigmund Freud. The core idea at the
center of psychoanalysis is the belief that all people
possess unconscious thoughts, feelings, desires, and
memories. By bringing the content of the unconscious into
conscious awareness, people are then able to
experience catharsis and gain insight into their current
state of mind. Through this process, people are then able
to find relief from psychological disturbances and distress.

Some of the Basic Tenets of Psychoanalysis
The way that people behave is influenced by their unconscious drives
The development of personality is heavily influenced by the events of
early childhood; Freud suggested that personality was largely set in
stone by the age of five.
Bringing information from the unconscious into consciousness can
lead to catharsis and allow people to deal with the issue
People utilize a number of defense mechanisms to protect
from information contained in the unconscious
Emotional and psychological problems such as depression and
are often rooted in conflicts between the conscious and unconscious
mind
A skilled analyst can help bring certain aspects of the unconscious
awareness by using a variety of psychoanalytic strategies such as
dream analysis and free association

Key Ideas In Psychoanalysis
Psychoanalysis also involves a number of different terms and ideas
related to the mind, personality and treatment.
Case Studies
A case study is defined as an in-depth study of one person. Some of
of Freud's most famous case studies include Dora, Little Hans,
and Anna O. and had a powerful influence on the development of his
psychoanalytic theory.
In a case study, the researcher attempts to look very intensely at
every aspect of an individual's life. By carefully studying the person
so closely, the hope is that the researcher can gain insight into how
that person's history contributes to their current behavior. While the
hope is that the insights gained during a case study might apply to
others, it is often difficult to generalize the results because case
studies tend to be so subjective.

The Conscious and Unconscious Mind
The unconscious mind includes all of the things that are outside of our
conscious awareness. These might include early childhood memories, secret
desires and hidden drives. According to Freud, the unconscious contains
things that may be unpleasant or even socially unacceptable. Because these
things might create pain or conflict, they are buried in the unconscious.
While these thoughts, memories, and urges might be outside of our
awareness, they continue to influence the way that we think, act and behave.
In some cases, the things outside of our awareness can influence behavior in
negative ways and lead to psychological distress.
The conscious mind includes everything that is inside of our awareness. The
contents of the conscious mind are the things we are aware of or can easily
bring into awareness.

The Id, Ego, and Superego
Id: Freud believed that personality was composed of three key elements. The first of these to emerge
is known as the id. The id contains all of the unconscious, basic and primal urges.
Ego: The second aspect of personality to emerge is known as the ego. This is the part of the
personality that must deal with the demands of reality. It helps control the urges of the id and makes
behave in ways that are both realistic and acceptable. Rather than engaging in behaviors designed to
satisfy our desires and needs, the ego forces us to fulfill our needs in ways that are socially acceptable
and realistic. In addition to controlling the demands of the id, the ego also helps strike a balance
between our basic urges, our ideals, and reality.
Superego: The superego is the final aspect of personality to emerge and it contains our ideals and
values. The values and beliefs that our parents and society instill in us are the guiding force of the
superego and it strives to make us behave according to these morals.

THE EGO’S DEFENSE MECHANISMS
A defense mechanism is a strategy that the
ego uses to protect itself from anxiety. These
defensive tools act as a safeguard to keep the
unpleasant or distressing aspects of the
unconscious from entering awareness. When
something seems too overwhelming or even
inappropriate, defense mechanisms help keep
the information from entering consciousness in
order to minimize distress.

Some Weaknesses of Psychoanalysis
Psychoanalysis grew in its influence over the course of the
early twentieth-century, but it was not without its critics.
Freud's theories overemphasized the unconscious mind,
sex, aggression and childhood experiences.
Many of the concepts proposed by psychoanalytic
theorists are difficult to measure and quantify.
Most of Freud's ideas were based on case studies and
clinical observations rather than empirical, scientific
research.

Strengths of Psychoanalysis
Despite its critics, psychoanalysis played an important role in the development
of psychology. It influenced our approach to the treatment of mental health
issues and continues to exert an influence in psychology to this day.
While most psychodynamic theories did not rely on experimental research,
the methods and theories of psychoanalytic thinking contributed to the
development of experimental psychology.
Many of the theories of personality developed by psychodynamic thinkers are
still influential today, including Erikson's theory of psychosocial
stages and Freud's psychosexual stage theory.
Psychoanalysis opened up a new view on mental illness, suggesting that
talking about problems with a professional could help relieve symptoms of
psychological distress.

INSTITUTIONALISM
“WHAT IS THE MOST POWERFUL LEVER YOU CAN IMAGINE? A BIG IDEA, BUT ONLY IF IT’S IN THE HANDS
OF A TRULY OUTSANDING ENTREPRENEUR. IT STARTS WITH THE PERSON AND THE IDEA, AND GROWS
TO THE INSTITUTION. ALL THREE ARE INTERTWINED’’- BILL DRAYTON

INSTITUTIONALISM
Institutions
include any form of constraint (formal or informal) that human beings devise to
shape their interaction
reduce uncertainty by establishing a stable structure to human interaction
Contemporary approaches to institutionalism
Historical institutionalism (1960s)
Rational choice instutionalism (late 1970s)
Sociological institutionalism (late 1970s)
 Historical institutionalism
formal political institutions matter: but which ones and how?
the institutional structure of the polity is a crucial factor behind behaviour and
outcomes
‘structuralism’ (institutions) vs. ‘functionalism’ (needs)
a state consists of institutions which are able to influence group conflict

INSTITUTIONALISM
Key concepts of historical institutionalism
Institutions:
organizations
rules, conventions, norms, etc.
provide an environment for individuals, who benefit by following
certain patterns of behaviour
disproportionately distribute power across social groups
are central in determining historical development
are never a single factor

INSTITUTIONALISM
 Rational choice institutionalism
draws on ‘new economics of organization’ and ‘theories of agency’
institutions are both object and consequence of choice
development of institutions lowers the cost of undertaking the same activity
without them
superiors (principals) monitor and influence behaviour of their subordinates
(agents
 Sociological institutionalism
Originates from the subfield of organization theory
Institutions are:
- culturally-specific
- moral templates
Individuals internalize the norms associated with institutional roles (=> identity
and preferences)
Individuals perceive their actions in a particular context
)

N
Studies of international
institutions
Early postwar period (LoN, UN,
GATT, IMF)
Behaviouralism
Neofunctionalism
International regimes
Institutional theories
liberal institutionalism
collective security
theory
critical theory

INSTITUTIONALISM
International theory and security
relations
states cooperate to pursue common
interests
harmony not implied
reciprocity, accountability, cooperative
strategies
information and signalling mechanisms
Security institutions:
military force
use of threat
vital interests
Security institutions:
effects
strategies / state security
policies
outcomes (altering
power resources)
influence (soft power)
ideas and norms

FEMINIST THEORY
“ONE IS NOT BORN BUT RATHER BECOMES A WOMAN”
-SIMONE SE BEAUVOIR

INSTITUTIONALISM
Feminist theory is a major branch of
theory within sociology that shifts its
assumptions, analytic lens, and topical focus
away from the male viewpoint and experience
and toward that of women. In doing so, feminist
theory shines a light on social problems, trends,
and issues that are otherwise overlooked or
misidentified by the historically dominant male
perspective within social theory.

INSTITUTIONALISM
Many people incorrectly believe that feminist theory focuses
exclusively on girls and women and that it has an inherent goal of
promoting the superiority of women over men. In reality, feminist
theory has always been about viewing the social world in a way that
illuminates the forces that create and support inequality, oppression,
and injustice, and in doing so, promotes the pursuit of equality and
justice.
That said, since the experiences and perspectives of women and girls
were historically excluded from social theory and social science, much
feminist theory has focused on their interactions and experiences
within society in order to ensure that half the world's population is not
left out of how we see and understand social forces, relations, and
problems. While most feminist theorists throughout history have been
women, today people of all genders can be found working in the
discipline.

INSTITUTIONALISM
By shifting the focus of social theory away from the
perspectives and experiences of men, feminist theorists have
created social theories that are more inclusive and creative
than those which assume the social actor to always be a man.
Part of what makes feminist theory creative and inclusive is
that it often considers how systems of power and oppression
interact, which is to say it does not just focus on gendered
power and oppression, but on how it might intersect with
systemic racism, a hierarchical class system, sexuality,
nationality, and (dis)ability, among other things.

INSTITUTIONALISM
GENDER DIFFERRENCES
Some feminist theory provides an analytic framework for
understanding how women's location in, and experience of, social
situations differ from men's. For example, cultural feminists look at the
different values associated with womanhood and femininity as a
reason why men and women experience the social world differently.
Other feminist theorists believe that the different roles assigned to
women and men within institutions better explain gender difference,
including the sexual division of labor in the household. Existential and
phenomenological feminists focus on how women have been
marginalized and defined as “other” in patriarchal societies. Some
feminist theorists focus specifically on how masculinity is developed
through socialization, and how its development interacts with the
process of developing

INSTITUTIONALISM
GENDER INEQUALITY
Feminist theories that focus on gender inequality recognize that women's location
in, and experience of, social situations are not only different but also unequal to
men's. Liberal feminists argue that women have the same capacity as men for
moral reasoning and agency, but that patriarchy, particularly the sexist division of
labor, has historically denied women the opportunity to express and practice this
reasoning. These dynamics serve to shove women into the private sphere of the
household and to exclude them from full participation in public life. Liberal
feminists point out that gender inequality exists for women in a heterosexual
marriage and that women do not benefit from being married. Indeed, these
feminist theorists claim, married women have higher levels of stress than
unmarried women and married men. Therefore, the sexual division of labor in
both the public and private spheres needs to be altered in order for women to
achieve equality in marriage.

INSTITUTIONALISM
STRUCTURAL OPPRESION
Structural oppression theories posit that women's oppression and inequality are a
result of capitalism, patriarchy, and racism. Socialist feminists agree with Karl
Marx and Freidrich Engels that the working class is exploited as a consequence of
capitalism, but they seek to extend this exploitation not just to class but also to
gender. Intersectionality theorists seek to explain oppression and inequality
across a variety of variables, including class, gender, race, ethnicity, and age. They
offer the important insight that not all women experience oppression in the same
way, and that the same forces that work to oppress women and girls also oppress
people of color and other marginalized groups. One way in which structural
oppression of women, specifically the economic kind, manifests in society is in the
gender wage gap, which shows that men routinely earn more for the same work
than women. An intersectional view of this situation shows us that women of
color, and men of color, too, are even further penalized relative to the earnings of
white men.
In the late 20th century, this strain of feminist theory was extended to account for
the globalization of capitalism and how its methods of production and of
accumulating wealth center on the exploitation of women workers around the

HERMENEUTICAL PHENOMENOLOGY
“HISTORICAL EXEGESIS IS ONLY THE PRELIMINARY PART OF INTERPRETATION; APPLICATION IS ITS
ESSENCE. EXEGESIS WITHOUT APPLICATION SHOULD NOT BE CALLED INTERPRETATION AT ALL” - J.I.
PACKER

INSTITUTIONALISM
What is hermeneutic phenomenology in social
science?
Like phenomenology, hermeneutic
phenomenology is concerned with the life world or
human experience as it is lived. ... While Husserl
focused on understanding beings or phenomena,
Heidegger focused on 'Dasein', that is translated as
'the mode of being human' or 'the situated meaning
of a human in the world'.

INSTITUTIONALISM
Hermeneutic phenomenology is a qualitative research methodology
that arose out of and remains closely tied to phenomenological
philosophy, a strand of continental philosophy. Although
phenomenology’s roots can be traced back centuries, it became a
distinct philosophical project in the mid-1890s with the work of
Edmund Husserl. Husserl argued that we are always already in the
world and that our only certainty is our experience of our world, thus
to understand the structure of consciousness can serve as the
foundation for all knowledge (Husserl, 1970). Husserl’s project has
been extended, contested, and modified by countless philosophers,
including Martin Heidegger, Maurice Merleau-Ponty, Jean-Paul Sartre,
Emmanuel Lévinas, Jean-Luc Nancy, and Jean-Luc Marion, creating a
vibrant and eclectic philosophical tradition.

INSTITUTIONALISM
In the mid-1950s, however, the phenomenological “method” was also
taken up by a group of non-philosophers in the Netherlands. They
were not interested in phenomenology as a philosophy but as a
unique way to understand human existence (van Manen, 2014).
Retrospectively, this group, comprised of pedagogues, physicians,
psychiatrists, and psychologists, were called the “Utrecht School.” They
were the first to adopt phenomenology as a distinct research
methodology and greatly influenced contemporary articulations of the
methodology including Max van Manen’s Phenomenology of Practice
and Amadeo Giorgi’s descriptive phenomenological psychology.

HUMAN-ENVIRONMENT SYSTEMS
“ A NATION THAT DESTROYS ITS SOILS DESTROYS ITSELF. FORESTS ARE THE LUNGS OF OUR LAND,
PURIFYING THE AIR AND GIVING FRESH STRENGTH TO OUR PEOPLE”- FRANKLIN D. ROOSEVELT

INSTITUTIONALISM
Human-environment systems Systems which combine both human
and natural components to show complex interactions, and feedback
between them, are called human-environment systems. The most
internationally accepted framework for studying such systems is the
DPSIR model (drivers, pressures, state, impact, response). This
framework for human-environment systems recognises the human
activities which place pressure on the environment and how these
pressures modify the current state of the atmosphere, hydrosphere,
lithosphere and biosphere. This leads to impacts on the environment
as well as on social and economic systems. In turn, human society
attempts to problem-solve in order to remove, reduce or prevent the
drivers and pressures, restore the state of the environment and
mitigate impacts.

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