Recap of all key knowledge points and inclusion of past exam questions and answers

2.  Oncompletion of this unit the student should
be able to explain the relationship between
the brain, states of consciousness including
sleep, and behaviour and describe the
contribution of selected studies and brain
research methods to the investigation of
brain function.

3. - Roles of the central nervous system,
peripheral nervous system (somatic &
autonomic), and autonomic nervous system
(sympathetic & parasympathetic).
 Activity:
1. Can you draw a flow chart of the NS?
2. What are the 2 main functions of the Peripheral NS?
3. What are the 2 main functions of the Somatic NS?

4. The Nervous System
Text: Oxford Psychology Units 3&4 Figure 7.3 Page 149
Video: The Nervous System

5.  - Has TWO main functions (Text Pg 150)
- To communicate information from the body’s
organs, glands and muscles TO the CNS (including
information about the outside world such as
environmental temperature, and skin sensation,
via the sensory neurons).
- To communicate information FROM the CNS to the body’s organs, glands
and muscles, via motor neurons.
-
- Has 2 sub-divisions: the Somatic NS & the Autonomic NS

6. -Responsible for voluntary movement of the skeletal
muscles
- Text Pg 150
S Sensory (senses information & communicates information TO the
CNS)
A Afferent neurons
M Motor (receives & communicates information FROM the CNS)
E Efferent neurons

7.  Think Autonomic = Automatic (but don’t get them mixed
up!)
 Responsible for the regulation of automatic/involuntary
operations concerned with internal bodily functions such
as respiration & heart beat. Non-skeletal muscles. (Text
Pg 151-153)
 Also has 2 divisions. The Sympathetic & Parasympathetic
Nervous systems which are responsible for the fight-or-
flight response.
 Key Terms: Do you know what these mean?
- Fight-or-flight response
- Arousal
- Physiological response
- Homeostasis

9. Sympathetic NS. Stress = Survival
Becomes active when the organism perceives itself to be
in danger or in times of stress. It prepares the body to
fight or flee.

10.  Responsible for maintaining automatic day-to-day bodily
functions such as digestion, breathing & heart rate.
 When the fight-or-flight response is activated the
Parasympathetic NS is responsible for restoring
homeostasis, and restoring your body back to normal.
Just remember PARAsympathetic = a PARAchute bring you gently back
down.

11.  All the information from the Peripheral Nervous
System is sent to the Central Nervous System for
processing.
 The Central Nervous System is made up of the Brain
& Spinal Cord
 It has 2 main roles:
- To pass information along the
sensory neurons from the peripheral
nervous system to the brain
- To transmit information from the
brain to the peripheral nervous
system which activates motor neurons.

12.  The role of the CNS is to integrate and co-ordinate
all of the incoming neural information and to
initiate neural messages to the rest of the body.
 The role of the PNS is to carry information from the
sensory and internal organs TO the CNS and carry
information FROM the CNS to muscles, organs and
glands.

13.  The brain is broken into two halves known as
Cerebral Hemispheres.
 The two halves are connected by the Corpus
Callosum, which is a dense bundle of nerve fibres
that allow the two hemispheres to communicate
with each other.
 The Cerebrum is covered by the Cerebral Cortex
which is spongy grey matter approximately 3-
4mm thick that protects the brain.
 The surface of each area is highly convoluted
(wrinkled) to increase the surface area

14. When labelling a picture of the brain, always look for the cerebellum so you
know which way it is facing. The Cerebellum is at the back of your head.

16.  Sally is reading a story aloud to her son at bedtime. This behaviour
involves the coordinated activities of many parts of the cerebral
cortex. Explain how the three cerebral areas of the brain (Broca’s
area, Wernicke’s area and the Primary Visual Cortex) are involved in
the process of reading aloud. 3 Marks
Tips:
- You must use the terms Broc’s area, Wernicke’s area and Primary Visual
Cortex.
- - You must use the terms, Sally, reading, aloud, pronunciation, fluent
speech, grammatical, understanding.
Answer:
When reading aloud, Sally’s Primary Visual Cortex turns visual sensations
into identifiable stimuli such as letters and words (1 Mark).
Her Wernicke’s area is involved with understanding the words and giving
them meaning (1 Mark), whilst her Broca’s area assists with the
pronunciation and articulation of grammatically correct speech controlling
the muscles needed to produce fluent speech that matches the words on the
page (1 Mark)

17.  Elliot gets very nervous when he has to speak in public. However, his
nervousness subsides as soon as he starts to speak.
 After he is speaking for five minuets:
A. which branch of his autonomic nervous system is most active? (1 mark)
B. Elliot will experience physiological changes to his body. Describe two
of these changes (2 Marks)
Tips:
Read the answer carefully. This question was commonly answered
incorrectly due to being misread.
Answers:
A. Parasympathetic
B. Any two of the following: Heart rate returns to normal, breathing rate
returns to normal/reduces, digestion of food is stimulated, pupils
constrict, etc.

18. A waiter brings Karen a coffee in a glass. Karen picks up the glass of
coffee in her right hand. She decides that it is too hot to hold
comfortable and puts it back down on the table after a few seconds.
Using psychological terms, explain the role of the sensory receptors and
the brain in Karen’s action of putting the glass of hot coffee back down
on the table (4 marks)
The sensory receptors in the fingers of the right hand relay the sensation of
the temperature of the glass of coffee through the spinal cord to the
primary somatosensory cortex in the left parietal lobe (1 mark). The
decision that the coffee is to hot is made in the frontal lobe (association
cortex) (1 Mark). The information is transmitted to the primary motor cortex
in the left frontal lobe (1 mark) which sends neural impulses to the skeletal
muscles in her right hand to put the hot coffee down (1 mark).

20.  Tips to remember: Read the questions carefully, look for the terms ‘left’ or
‘right’ visual field’ if they are discussing a severed/cut Corpus Callosum, as
this means that it is only going to one hemisphere. If an image is shown to the
entire eye/visual field it will got to both hemispheres.
Question:
 A picture of an apple is flashed into Mario’s left visual field.
A. In which hemisphere(s) (left, or right, or both) would this information first
register? (1 Mark)
B. If Mario’s corpus callosum was completely severed, what would be the
best way for him to demonstrate what he had seen? Why? (2 Marks)
Answer:
A. Right hemisphere (1 Mark)
B. Mario would be able to select by touch or visually point to the apple with his
left hand, or, draw a picture of the apple with his left hand. (1 Mark)
C. The image in the left visual field would go to the right hemisphere which is
responsible for non-verbal processing and motor control of the left side of the
body, but cannot be transferred to the right hemisphere (due to the corpus
callosum being cut) to allow for verbal processing or motor responses using
the right side of the body. (1 Mark)

21.  The RAS: it is situated between the brain stem and the CNS. It is involved
in the sleep/wake cycle ad damage can lead to permanent coma.
 It helps mediate transitions from relaxed wakefulness to periods of high
attention. There is increased blood flow in the RAS during tasks that
require increased attention and alertness.

22.  The Thalamus is a symmetrical structure within the brain. Its role is to enable
attention by receiving sensory input (except smell) and relay the information
to the appropriate cortices.
 It is considered a relay station for the brain shuttling information between the
sensory neurons and the cerebral cortex.
 Its other role is to filter out unnecessary information and determine which
aspects of a stimulus require our attention

23.  A person has suffered a major trauma (a stroke) which has affected
the thalamus of the brain. The patient is experiencing a number of
symptoms as a result of the injury. Indicate two possible symptoms a
person might show if this part of the brain were damaged. (2 marks)
Tips:
 Consider that fact that the thalamus is on two sides of the body, so only
one hemisphere may be affected.
Answer:
 Anaesthesia to one side of the body opposite to the affected part of the
thalamus, painful burning or aching sensations on one side of the
body, may be mute (unable to speak) or unable to move, may have visual
tracking problems, or problems with any of the other senses (except
smell). They may have trouble paying attention to any one stimulus or be
unable to filter out unnecessary stimuli. (and of the above 2).

24. List three important functions of the reticular activating system (3 marks).
Regulating sleep, alertness and waking cycles, assisting in the regulation or vital
bodily functions such as heart beat, toileting, eating, focusing attention,
physiological changes associated with states of consciousness, behavioural
modification. (and of the above 3)
What is the main functions of the RAS and how does this influence selective
attention? (4 Marks)
The RAS is a network of neurons extending in many directions from the reticular
formation to different parts of the brain and spinal cord. (1 Mark)
Its main function is to regulate levels of arousal in the cerebral cortex. (1 Mark)
When something happens that demands attention, the RAS will send an increased
number of neural messages to specific cortical areas. (1 Mark) The RAS has the
ability to focus on the most important neural information, directing attention
towards potentially significant events. In doing so, it influences what we attend
to – selective attention (1 Mark)
** When asked ‘What’ always describe it. EG, where it is, what it looks like, and
what it does
If we had to add the thalamus in here, we would say that the RAS would have
increased blood flow and neural messages to the Primary Visual Cortex (say
because we are watching something intently). These neural messages would be
relayed to and from the RAS to the PVC via the thalamus which would filter out
all other unnecessary information such as touch or taste in order to pay more
attention to the visual stimuli.

25.  Tip:
- Associate the mouth both
with speech production and
being at the front.
- Associate an ear both with
comprehending language and
with being next to the
temporal lobe.

27.  Spatial Neglect is a common syndrome following a stroke, most
commonly in the right hemisphere.
 Patients demonstrate signs of contralesional (Describing the half
of a patient's brain or body away from the site of a lesion)
neglect.
 For example, when searching through a visual scene patients with
left neglect only tent to look at elements on the right side only.
It can also involve ‘personal’ space with patients neglecting their
own body.
 Most importantly, most patients are completely unaware that
they have these problems (anosognosia)

28.  After a stroke that damaged the right parietal lobe of her brain, a 77
year old, ET, was diagnosed with spatial neglect. In order to
understand more about the role of the brain in cognitive processes, ET
was asked to participate in research which involved the researchers
giving her a series of tasks. The findings of the research using ET were
presented at a conference on the effects of brain damage.
 What is spatial neglect? (2 marks)
 Describe one task involving cognitive processes that ET is unlikely to
do (2 marks)
 No Answers to this questions (from VCAA 2011 Sample Paper)
 What can we come up with ourselves?
 Key words: right parietal lobe, cognitive processes.

29.  Sperry & Gazzaniga were the men who conducted research into split-
brain studies without having to use brain damaged patients. This all
relates back to the hemispheres.
 Describe one finding or Sperry and Gazzaniga’s split brain studies and
explain how it contributed to out understanding of the interaction
between cognitive processes and the structure of the brain. (3 Marks)
 Any of the following:
-Findings: Words presented on the right visual field are processed in the left
hemisphere. Patients could read and report the words verbally.
Cognitive process/structure: left hemisphere can identify words and name
them
- Words presented to the left visual field are processed in the right
hemisphere. Patients are unable to report words verbally, could select item
by touch behind screen but unable to say why they selected.
Cognitive process/structure: right hemisphere can identify words but not
name them.

30.  Motion after-effect:
- A visual illusion experiences after viewing visual stimulus for a time with
stationary eyes and then fixating on a stationary stimulus. The stationary
stimulus appears to be moving in the opposite direction.
- - It is said to be the result of neural adaption and involves motion
detector neurons .
- Neural adaption is when the motion detector neurons adapt to the
motion
- Motion detector neurons: when motion is detected motion detector
neurons detect movement in a particular direction and fire. After several
seconds of continuous firing, they reduce their baseline activity in favour
of perception in the opposite direction.
- - The two most common motion after-effects are the waterfall and the
spiral illusion
- Motion after-effect clip

31.  Question:
Although the exact cause of motion after-effect is unknown, many attribute
the motion after-effect to neural adaption.
A. Explain the role of motion detector neurons in perceiving an object to be
stationary.
B. What is neural adaption and when is it likely to occur?
 Answers
A. There are a number of specific neurons designed to perceive motion in
certain directions, known as motion detector neurons. Each of these specific
motion detector neurons produces a stronger signal when there is motion in
its specific direction and a weaker (but not zero) signal when it does not
perceive motion in this direction. Our brain combines the input from these
specific neurons in order to decide the direction of the movement. For
example, to perceive an object as stationary, our motion detector neurons
send signals that are balanced (an even amount from all directions). We do
not perceive motion as long as all the motion detectors are in balance with
each other.
B. Neural adaptation is when the neurons adapt to the motion.

32.  Change Blindness:
a phenomenon that occurs when a person viewing a visual scene apparently
fails to detect changes in the scene.
Theories suggest that there has to be a brief disruption to visual continuity
such as a
 Eye saccade (eye tremor)
 Screen flicker/blank screen/scene change
 Eye blink
 Mud splash
 Very slow change
The results of studies suggest that our internal representation of the world
is much sparser than what we thought. An idea of ‘unintentional amnesia’
has been proposed whereby we see everything but forget most of it almost
immediately. Only information that has been attended to will be transferred
into the memory and available to access in order to detect change.
 Change blindness person swap
 Change Blindness breakdancing bear

33.  Change blindness represents a potential problem for air traffic
controllers. Air traffic controllers must monitor the movements and
locations of multiple aircraft that are represented as intermittently
flashing dots on the radar screen.
A. Define change blindness (1 Mark)
B. State when air traffic controllers would most likely experience
change blindness (1 Mark)
Answers
A. Change blindness is the failure to notice large/significant change that
occurs in full view in a visual scene.
B. Air traffic controllers would be most likely to experience change
blindness when the change occurs simultaneously with a brief disruption
in vision. The air traffic controller may blink continually, causing change
blindness.
(Possible causes of the disruption include eye movements/saccades, eye
blink, flicker or blank scree, mud splash, very slow change.)

34.  Synaesthesia:
It is a neurological condition in which the stimulation of one sensory or
cognitive pathway leads to the automatic, involuntary experience in a
second sensory or cognitive pathway.
The most common form is sound to colour.
Brain scans on synathetes have shown that when they hear a sound both
their primary visual and primary auditory cortex light up. Normal people
only show activity in the auditory cortex.
Synaesthesia Clip Part 1
Synaesthesia Clip Part 2

36.  Direct Brain Stimulation (also know as electrical brain stimulation). A
small electrode is placed on or inserted into the brain in order to
stimulate or inhibit electrical activity in order to determine specific
locations of brain function.
 Advantages: Enables ‘mapping’ of brain function and is quite accurate
and specific to the individual and can be used prior to surgery.
 Limitations: Only relevant for patients about to undergo surgery as it is
invasive. Can’t really generalise to the public.
 Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS). Induces a flow of electrical
current within neurons by the external application of a magnetic field.
 Advantages: Non-invasive, can stimulate or deactivate areas of the brain
 Limitations: Limited knowledge of the side effects, results can be
ambiguous, can cause seizures. Only penetrates to a depth of 2cm.

37.  Computerised Tomography (CT): Patient is injected with a dye to
increase the contrast, patient lies on a bed and x-rays are passed through
the body to produce an image.
 Advantage: Provides a detailed image of the structure of the brain. Can
be constructed into a 3D image. Can be used to locate precise locations
of damage/tumours etc.
 Limitations: No information about function. Images are only in black and
white, expose to x-rays (which emit radiation) so frequent use is not
recommended.
 Positron Emission Tomography (PET): Scan indicate brain function by
assuming that increased blood flow to an area indicates an increase in
activity. A small radioactive isotope is injected into the patient which
emits signals that are detected by gamma rays.
 Advantages: Can be used on normal and brain damaged patients. Can be
used to track disease deterioration such as Alzheimer's.
 Limitations: Scanner is expensive, needs highly trained staff, requires
radioactive material so cannot be used frequently or on pregnant women.

38.  Single Photon Emission Computed Tomography (SPECT): A radioactive
tracer is injected into the bloodstream and is detected by a gamma
camera. Enables doctors to track function.
 Advantages: Cheaper than a PET scan. Provides a 3D image of the brain.
More widely available than PET
 Limitations: Images not as detailed as PET (poorer resolution), takes
longer to complete. Radioactive tracer used.
 Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI): Uses magnetic fields and radio
waves to produce a computer-enhanced image of brain structure.
 Advantages: Produces a 3D computer-enhanced colour picture. Uses
harmless magnetic filed. Provides a clear and detailed image.
 Limitations: Is expensive and not as commonly available as CT. Cannot be
used on people with metal devices such as pins and pacemakers.
Chamber can be too mall for patients and they can find it claustrophobic.
Highly susceptible to ghosting.

39.  Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI):
 Advantages: Produces high resolution 3D images to a 1mm accuracy.
Shows structure and function of the brain and is more detailed than PET
and CT scans. Can show continuous changes in brain activity and does not
require any exposure to radiation.
 Limitations: Very expensive and requires highly trained staff. Cannot be
used on people with metal devices such as pins and pacemakers.
Chamber can be too mall for patients and they can find it claustrophobic.
Highly susceptible to ghosting.

40.  Investigating the relationship between biological and cognitive factors
of human behaviour:
 Today the availability of DBS and imaging techniques enable a range a
medical, psychological and research professionals to investigate the
relationship between biological and cognitive factors of human
behaviours.
 In the past, most knowledge about the brain and its relationship with
cognitive functions was through
- Case studies such as Phineas Gage
- Autopsy such as Broca
- Operations

41.  Dr Aslop was a neuropsychologist who worked at a head injury clinic.
Dr Aslop needed to determine whether one of his patients suffered
from Broca’s aphasia or Wernicke’s aphasia.
A. What is aphasia? (1 Mark)
B. Explain how functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) could
distinguish Broca’s aphasia from Wernicke’s aphasia. (2 Marks)
Answer:
A. Aphasia is an impairment of language as a result to damage to the brain.
(students needed to mention both language impairment and brain damage)
B. Functional Magnetic Resonance (fMRI) would shoe the area of the brain
that is/is not functioning and sites of structural damage to the brain. Broca's
aphasia is the lack of functioning or damage to the left frontal lobe near the
primary motor cortex. Wernicke’s areas would be functioning. Wernicke's
aphasia is the lack of functioning or damage in the left temporal lobe near
the primary auditory cortex. Broca’s area would be functioning.
(Students were required to identify properties of fMRI (showing structure
and brain function) and the specific location of wither Wernicke’s or Broca's
area. Many students described symptoms that would differentiate Broca’s
and Wernicke’s aphasia

42.  People who suffer from spatial neglect do not usually acknowledge the
existence of the left half of their body and environment.
A. According to the results of a CT or MRI scan, in which lobe and
hemisphere would you expect to see significant change and damage?
(1 Mark)
B. B. Compared to a MRI, what is a limitation of a CT scan? (1 Mark)
 Answers:
A. Parietal lobe of the right hemisphere
B. Any of the following:
- The CT image is not as detailed or clear as an MRI image
- The CT scan is in black and white and the MRI scan is in colour, there is
better contrast in the MRI.
- The CT scan uses powerful x-rays and cannot be repeated regularly as
there is a risk of damage
- The CT scan requires an injections of iodine to provide contrast. An
invasive technique.

43.  Explain how electrical stimulation may be used to locate which parts of the
primary somatosensory cortex are responsible for sensation in the hands (3
marks)
Electrodes deliver an electrical current to the precise are of the brain (the
somatosensory cortex). The patients reports where they are feeling a tingling
sensation. When they report a tingling sensation in the hand, the researcher can
conclude that the part of the brain being stimulated is responsible.
(Many students referred to motor functions, however, this was not an appropriate
response to the question)
 Describe on benefit of functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI)
compared to DBS (ESB) for conducting research on intact living brains (1
Mark).
An fMRI can be used on all patients (unless that patient has a pacemaker or
internal metallic device) whereas DBS can only be used on patients already
undergoing brain surgery.
A detailed picture can be taken from an fMRI but not a DBS
fMRI is non-intrusive
fMRI can be used on normally functioning brains, whereas DBS is normally
conducted on abnormal brains, making it difficult to generalise the results.

44.  A patient experiencing speech difficulties was treated for a brain
tumour. A doctor wishes to check that treatment of the patient's
tumour has been successful. He conducts both a positron emission
tomography (PET) scan and a computerised tomography (CT) scan of
the patients brain. Why might the doctor order both scans? (2 marks)
 Answer:
 A CT scan gives a clear image of the structure of the brain but not its
function. A PET scan gives information about the functioning of different
parts of the brain (but not its structure). The doctor would need to
measure both structure and function to ensure that the operation had
been successful.