ATMA RAM MEENA Ph.D HORICULTURE SKRAU, BIKANER

1. Integrated crop management strategies to overcome
abiotic stress in open cultivation of vegetables

2. Vegetable Scenario of India
 India is worlds second largest producer of vegetables (162.9
million tons) next only to China
 Vegetable crops occupy approximately 4 % of total cropped
area (9.4 million ha.)
 Vegetable productivity in India is low (17.34 t/ha).
 Requirement of vegetables is 300 g/ capita / day.
 Per capita availability is 170 g.
 Gap 130 g.

3. Vegetables are important in Human Nutrition as they are the
major source of vitamins, minerals, dietary fibers and
antioxidant substances

4. Antioxidants Vegetables
β-carotene Carrot, kale, mustard green,
pumpkin, coloured bell pepper,
lettuce,
spinach, sweet potato, Swiss chard,
winter squash
Vitamin C Broccoli, Brussels sprout,
watermelon, cauliflower, green
pepper,
red cabbage, red pepper, potato
Lutein/zeaxanthin Kale, broccoli, spinach, winter
squash, Brussels sprout, celery, leek.
mustard green, pea, green onion,
summer squash
Lycopene Tomato and watermelon
Vitamin E Green leafy vegetables and sweet
potato
Lipoic acid Green leafy vegetables, especially
spinach, beet and broccoli
Flavonoids Onions and soybeans
Polyphenols Grape,, strawberry, green tea, black
tea

5. Appropriate technology generation and its adoption
at the growers’ level is the most important aspect of
commercial vegetable production for increasing the
productivity, quality and supply of the vegetables.
Quality Produce for better price
Present
Thrust

6. Productivity scenario in India
• The productivity of vegetables (18t/ha)are much higher than cereal
crops but the productivity has remained stagnant or marginal
increase is seen during the last 8 to 10 years
• There is the wide range of productivity in different agro climatic
zones
• To meet the full dietary need of common man, to eliminate
malnutrition, deficiency, disease and to relieve over stress on
cereal and to ensure rural prosperity there is a greater need
of enhance productivity of vegetables and at the same time
sustaining it by adopting eco-friendly production technologies

7. Concept
 Abiotic Stress constitutes one of the most significant limitations
to agriculture in the world today.
Hostile environmental conditions such as drought, high saline levels,
extreme temperatures, poor soils and others pose serious problems,
especially in the most disadvantaged areas in the world such as
most of the tropical regions.
Furthermore, pests and disease are another cause of continuous
struggle for agricultural production which seem to be more rampant
when associated with Abiotic stress.

8. Abiotic factors.
Physical Factors of the Environment
Weather and climate
Each horticultural crop has certain climatic requirements.
Unfavourable weather and climatic conditions produce a stress.
Based on climatic adaptation
a. Warm season crops (Okra, Eggplant, Melons, Gourds)
b. Cool season crops (Cauliflower, Broccoli, Carrot, Peas)
Components of weather and climate include:
Temperature
Light
Rainfall
Wind
Soil factors
Soil fertility and Soil pH
Water
Quantity and Quality

9. Light intensity and duration are important for crop growth and development
-Low light causes plants to be long and thin (spindly), small leaves, , poor
pollination and poor fruit quality.
- Photosynthesis is stopped at high light intensity depending on species.
- Plants differ in light requirements.
- Certain seeds require light to break dormancy, eg. lettuce.
- Some plants are sensitive to photoperiod or day length eg.cowpeas.
- Short day plants flower rapidly when the days get shorter.
- Long day plants flower when days are longer.
-Short days hasten tuber formation in potato, root enlargement in sweet
potatoes.
- Long days and high temps keep plants in staminate (phase) in cucurbits.
Light

10. Temperature influences all physiological activities by controlling
- Phytosynthesis
- Respiration
- Enzymic activity
- Organic matter decomposition
- Microbial growth and development
- Flowering
- Pollen viability
- Fruit set
- Rate of maturation
- Rate of senescence
- Quality
- Yield
- Shelf life
- Harvest duration
- Vernalization of biennials
- Seed germination
- Root development
Temperature

11. Rainfall
- Rainfall is a natural source of water.
- Water is a major determinant of crop productivity and quality.
- Required in large quantities for plant growth than any other of the growth factor.
- Solvent for nutrients, minerals, etc..
- Water improves the germination of seeds.
- Essential to establish transplanted seedlings.
- Essential to facilitate application and distribution of fertilizers and pesticides.
- Provides protection in cold temp (frost).
- Facilitates harvesting of underground crops in dry soils.
- All crops have moisture range at which crop response is optimum.
- Crop differ in their tolerance of continuous wet conditions.
- Root systems affect the amount of water uptake.
Negative aspects of rainfall
- Waterlogging
- Drought
- Storm

12. Abiotic stress is defined as the negative impact of non-living
factors on the living organisms in a specific environment.
Physical/Chemical environment al conditions that adversely
affect plant growth, development and productivity
Major Abiotic Factors 
High or low temperatures
Drought and Water logging
Excessive soil salinity/Acidity
Inadequate or excess mineral nutrients in the soil
Too much or too little sun light
Excessive wind and
Ozone (oxidative stress)

13. Abiotic stress is the most harmful factor concerning the growth
and productivity of crops worldwide ( up to 50 %).
Stress triggers a wide range of plant responses
Altered gene expression
Cellular metabolism
Changes in growth rates and crop yields

14. Bringing more area under HYV/F1 Hybrids having
Abiotic stress tolerance
Best Option

15. ARKA RAKSHAK ARKA SAMRAT

16. Best Agronomic Option

17. Organic farming
A holistic production management system
* Promotes and enhances agro ecosystem
-health
-biodiversity
-Biological cycles
-Biological activity
* Lead to production of green food
* Maintains long-term soil fertility
* Relies on renewable resources
* Enhances nutrient and water holding capacity

18. Organically grown French beans ( 18-20 t/ha)

19. Pro-tray Seedling or Plug Production
Single-cell-plant production, called "plug production", was
developed in North America and Europe in the 1970s. It was
introduced into some Asian countries including India in the mid
1980s.
Seedlings of vegetables are grown in small cells of pro
trays and transplanted to fields.
This technique has many advantages compared to the
traditional method of growing seedlings.
1. Less seed is used.
2. Higher survival rate of seedlings, because of reduced
damage in transplanting and lower incidence of disease.
3. Higher quality and uniformity of transplants.
4. Earlier establishment and earlier harvest after transplanting.
5. More suitable for mechanical transplanting.

20. 5m x 4.5m x 2m size – accommodates 100
trays (98 cell) sufficient for an acre

22. Temperature is one of the most important environmental factors
affecting yield with reduced plant growth and development.
Low temperature sensitive tropical/ sub-tropical vegetables,
such as bell pepper ,brinjal ,cucumber ,tomato ,gourds and
melons will have drastically reduced plant growth at about 8-
120C
At low temperatures plants suffer from physiological disorders,
and subsequently lead to irreversible dysfunction, cell death
and finally plant death
Temperature stress

23. Temperature factors that figure into plant growth potentials include the following:
Maximum daily temperature
Minimum daily temperature
Difference between day and night temperatures
Average daytime temperature
Average night time temperature
While daytime temperatures can cause major heat related problems in plants, high night
temperatures have great effects on vegetables, especially fruiting vegetables. The warmer the
night temperature, the faster respiration processes. This limits the amount of sugars and other
storage products that can go into fruits and developing seeds.
Heat injury in plants includes scalding and scorching of leaves and stems, sunburn on fruits and
stems, leaf drop, rapid leaf death, and reduction in growth. Wilting is the major sign of water
loss which can lead to heat damage. Plants often will drop leaves or in severe cases will “dry in
place” where death is so rapid, abscission layers have not had time to form.
Temperature Considerations

24. Photosynthesis – Within limits, rates of photosynthesis and respiration both rise with
increasing temperatures. As temperatures reach the upper growing limits for the crop,
the rate of food used by respiration may exceed the rate at which food is manufactured
by photosynthesis. For tomatoes, growth peaks at 35°C.
Temperature affects the growth and productivity of plants, depending on whether
the plant is a warm season or cool season crop. For example
Seeds of Cool season crops germinate at 5°C to 26°C.
Warm season crop seeds germinate at 10°C to 33°C.
Tomatoes
Pollen does not develop if night temperatures are below 12°C.
Blossoms drop if daytime temperatures rise above 35°C before 10 a.m.
Tomatoes grown in cool climates will have softer fruit with bland flavors.

25. Table 1. Temperature differences in warm season and cool season vegetable crops.
Cool Season
broccoli, cabbage, and cauliflower
Warm Season
tomato, pepper, squash and melons
Germination
5°Cto 26°C
23°C optimum
10°C to 38°C
23°C optimum
Growth
Daytime
18°C - 23°C preferred
5° C minimum
Night time
greater than 0°C for tender transplants
down to mid-20°C for established plants
Daytime
28°C optimum
15°C minimum
Week below 12°C will stunt plant, reducing yields.
Night time
0°C -10°C chilling injury
Flowering
Temperature extremes lead to bolting and
buttoning.
Night time: Below 12°C , non- viable pollen (use
blossom set hormones-kinetin).
Daytime: Greater than 35°C by 10 a.m., blossoms
abort.
Soil
Cool
Use organic mulch to cool soil.
Since seeds germinate best in warm soils, use
transplants for spring planting, and direct
seeding for mid-summer plantings .
Warm
Use black plastic mulch to warm soil, increasing
yields and earliness of crop.

26.  The major method to reduce high temperature or heat stress is by
overhead watering(sprinkling or misting) for improved water supply,
reduction of tissue temperature and lessening of water vapour pressure
deficit.
 By increasing reflection and dissipation of radiative heat using
reflective mulches or use of organic mulches to reduce surface
radiation and conserve moisture.
 Use of shade cloth in hot areas to reduce advected heat and total
incoming radiation.
 Use of wind breaks and barrier crops
High temperature stress management

27. For reducing impact of low temperature or frost injury

28. Application of parachlorophenoxy acetic acid (tomatotone) sprayed at
30ppm increased fruit set in tomato under high and low temperature
stress conditions.
Spraying ethrel 200 ppm, 2-3 days before transplanting improves
rooting system in tomato transplants during summer season.

29. Drought and its management
Drought is generally considered to be a meteorological term and is
defined as a period without significant rainfall or moisture. Droughts
may lead to plant water stress and growth may be impacted. Periods of
even short drought stress can reduce crop growth and yields. The plant
may adjust to short-term water stress by closing stomates and thereby
reducing water loss through the leaves. When stomates are closed, the
plant wilts, carbon dioxide from the atmosphere cannot enter the leaf
thereby photosynthesis is reduced or stopped. Growth will be slowed if
such conditions are not corrected.

31. Drought or soil deficit moisture tolerant crops/cultivars
(Even plants that do not require a lot of water, do require water
to germinate and begin growing. Once these plants are well
established, they will not need regular water.)
Short duration varieties
Small canopy cultivars
Use protray grown seedlings
Companion cropping
Grafting
Season and time of planting
Drought or Water deficit Management

32. Crop Rotation
Seed priming
Use of antitranspirants and growth regulators
Land management for soil water conservation
Rain water harvesting
Drip irrigation and Irrigation methods to save water
under limited water resource conditions
Mulching
Wind breaks & Barrier cropping
Organic farming

33. Relationship between soil water tension and
available moisture

34. Soil Texture cmm
Sand 2-6
Fine sand 5-8
Loamy sand 6-10
Loamy fine sand 7-11
Sandy loam 10-14
Fine sandy loam 11-15
Available Soil Water

35. Critical Growth Stages For Moisture Stress
Crop Critical Growth Stage
Snap Bean Flowering and pod setting
Broccoli Head formation and enlargement
Cabbage Head formation and enlargement
Carrot Root enlargement
Cauliflower Planting to harvesting
Sweet Corn Tasselling, silking and ear filling
Cucumber Flowering and fruit enlargement
Muskmelon Flowering and fruit enlargement
Peas Flowering and pod formation
Pepper Transplanting, fruit set and development
Pumpkin, Squash Flowering and fruit development
Tomato Flowering, fruit set and enlargement
Watermelon Blossom to harvesting

36. • The exact amount of water to apply to a crop can be gauged by evapo-
transpiration & is estimated by measuring the amount of evaporation
from a class A weather bureau evaporation pan.
• The amount of water that is applied is related to the amount of
evaporation & Generally for most of the vegetable crops supplying
about 70 to 80 per cent of Epan losses will take care without causing
any soil moisture stress.

37. Crop and variety selection
Crops like dolichos bean, cowpea, cluster bean, lima bean, chilli, onion,
drumstick and tomato were found to be suitable for rain-fed
cultivation. Among these, legume vegetables can be recommended for
contingency crop-planning in an eventuality of late monsoon rains.
Varieties having good root system and capacity to recoup after the
alleviation of stress need to be selected.

39. Scientific water management under water shortage
situations
• Supplementary Irrigation
• Irrigation during Critical Stages of the Crop
• Alternate furrow or Broad-bed furrow or Widely
spaced furrow irrigation
• Micro- irrigation
• Use of plastic mulches
• Raised bed production
• Enhancing water holding capacity for rainfed situations

40. Tied ridge-furrow irrigation
Alternate furrow irrigation
Alternate furrow irrigation (AFI) is based
on the partial root drying technique, which
manages soil moisture around the root
zone to reduce applied water and
increase crop water use efficiency
(yield/water applied; WUE)Broad bed-furrow irrigation

41. Providing three supplementary irrigation to onion crop during
kharif season gave 42.6t/ha bulb yield, where as yield from the
plot receiving no supplementary irrigation gave 22.8 t/ha.
Similar trend was observed in chilli crop also
Supplementary irrigation

42. INLINE DRIPPERS EMITTING 2 LPH

47.  Under water logged conditions, all pores in the soil or soilless mixture
are filled with water; so the oxygen supply is almost completely deprived.
As a result, plant roots cannot obtain oxygen for respiration to maintain
their activities for nutrient and water uptake.
Water logging or Flooding/Submergence
Flooding is an environmental stress that severely limits crop growth and productivity.
In tropical and subtropical regions, excessive rainfall is the major reason and is
common especially in soils with poor drainage. Waterlogging affects 10% of the
global land area and is one of the most important constraints imposed on
agricultural crop production. The yield penalty resulting from water logging may vary
between 15% and 80%, depending on the crop species, soil type and duration of
the stress.

48.  The extent of flooding damage depends upon the susceptibility of species or variety,
level of water constantly present in the soil, soil texture, air temperature and presence
and type of microorganisms. Most plants are sensitive to flooding.
 Water logging due to lack of oxygen in the soil causes death of root hairs,
reduces absorption of nutrients and water, increases formation of compounds toxic
to plant growth, and finally retards growth of the plant.
Plants weakened by lack of oxygen are much more susceptible to diseases
caused by soil-borne pathogens.

49. Give foliar sprays of nutrients for quick recovery of crop
Management
Usually, as long as water drains within 24 hours, the impact on plant health is minimal
So drainage should be improved.
Usually, as long as water drains within 24 hours, the impact on plant health is minimal.
Ridges and furrows
Raised beds
Soils with a high clay content can become compacted and form a surface crust after
heavy rainfall and flooding. Flood waters also deposit a fine clay layer or crust on top of
the soil which prevents oxygen penetration into the soil (aeration)
Cultivate between vegetable rows as soon as possible to
aerate the soil and improve its oxygen content.

50. Nutrient stress management

51. General guidelines for sufficient nutrient levels in sampled plant tissue of
some vegetable crops. (Adapted from Plant Analysis Handbook by Jones,
Wolf and Mills, Micro-Macro Publishing, Inc.)
Vegetable Crop N P K Ca Mg S (%)
Bean, snap 5.0 0.35 2.3 1.50 0.30
Cabbage 3.6 0.33 3.0 1.10 0.40 0.30
Carrot 2.1 0.20 2.8 1.40 0.30
Cauliflower 3.3 0.33 2.6 2.00 0.27 0.30
Cucumber 4.5 0.34 3.9 1.40 0.30 0 .40
Onion 4.5 0.30 3.5 1.50 0.25 0.50
Pea 4.0 0.30 2.0 1.20 0.30
Pepper 4.0 0.35 4.0 1.00 0.30
Sweet Corn 4.0 0.60 3.5 0.5 0.20 0.21
Tomato 4.0 0.25 2.9 1.0 0.40 0.40

52. Blossom end rot

53. B Cu Fe Mn Zn
Snap Beans 20 07 50 50 20
Cabbage 25 05 30 25 20
Carrot 30 05 50 60 25
Cauliflower 30 04 30 25 20
Cucumber 25 04 30 50 25
Musk melon 25 07 50 50 20
Onion 25 15 60 50 25
Pea 25 07 50 30 25
Pepper 25 06 60 50 20
Potato 40 07 40 30 30
Sweet corn 08 05 50 30 20
Tomato 25 05 40 40 20
General guidelines for sufficient Micronutrient
levels (PPM) in Vegetable Crops

55. Complimentary application of
Chemical fertilizers
Organic manures
Green manures
Biofertilizers
Foliar nutrition
Enriched Composts and vermi composts
In conjunction with
In-situ rain water conservation
Mulching
Appropriate irrigation scheduling
Integrated Water and Nutrient Management

56. Integrated Water and Nutrient Management
It helps in over coming problems of
• Low nutrient and water use efficiencies,
• Yield and quality reduction due to secondary and micro
nutrient deficiencies
• Reduces rate of chemical fertilizer application and cost of
production and
• Improves sustainability of soil by minimizing contamination
or pollution of soil and water bodies.

57. Generalized relationship between relative soil test level
and probability of response to applied fertilizer
Relative Probability of Response
Soil Test Level to Applied Fertilizer
low greater than 90%
medium 60 to 90%
medium-high 30 to 60%
high 10 to 30%
very high less than 10%

58. IN-SITU GREEN MANURING

59. Enrichment of FYM with Biopesticides and
Biofertilizers
Trichoderma harzianum
Pseudomonas fluorescens
Paecilomyces lilacinus
Pochonia chlamydosporia,
Azatobacter or Azospirillum and
Phosphate Solubilizing bacteria (PSB) ,
All (@ 1 kg/tonne of FYM), moistened with sprinkling water
and covered wet gunny cloth and kept to incubate for 15 to
20days. This enriched FYM should be mixed with 10 t of FYM
before applying to the soil bed.

60. Demonstration of FYM enrichment with biofertilizers

61. 15 days before transplanting date, mix the bio agents to powdered,
moistened neem cake:
Trichoderma harzianum
Pseudomonas fluorescens
Paecilomyces lilacinus
Pochonia chlamydosporia
Apply 250 kg 10 % oiled neem cake/acre 8 days before transplanting.
Neem cake Enrichment & application

62. DRIP MULCHING & FERTIGATION

64. Foliar nutrition of water soluble fertilizers
 Application of water soluble fertilizer through foliar spray ( 0.5 %
19 All, Multi K,MAP,MKP, CaNO3, Mg SO4, Micro Nutrients) to
the vegetable crops like tomato, capsicum, French bean and
brinjal have shown the promising results with an yield increase
in the range of 10-18 per cent.

65. Plastic mulching
* Conservation of soil moisture
* Reduces excess wetting during heavy rains
* Keeps soil warm during winter
* Keeps soil cool during summer
* Helps in Controlling weeds
* Minimizes Pests and Diseases
* Enhances yield and produce quality

67. MULCHING

69. • In an experiment to study various drought management practices,
significantly higher yield of dry chilli(27.9 q/ha) was recorded when two
supplemental irrigations were provided to chilli crop variety Arka Lohit
grown under rainfed condition. This was followed by black polyethylene
mulch (21.7 q/ha).
• Providing three supplementary irrigation to onion crop during
kharif season gave 42.6t/ha bulb yield, where as yield from the
plot receiving no supplementary irrigation gave 22.8 t/ha.

70. Salinity stress and its mitigation
Soil salinity ,accumulation of salts in the surface zone, can
be natural or due to faulty irrigation or fertilization.
Salinity is often accompanied by other soil properties, such
a sodicity, alkalinity, or boron toxicity, which exert their own
specific effects on plant growth.
Water logging often accompanies salinity.
Salts in soils are primarily chlorides and sulfates of sodium,
calcium, magnesium, and potassium.
Other conditions where soluble salts may limit plant growth are
when fertilizers are over applied or placed too close to the roots.

71. Symptoms of soil salinity include slow and spotty seed
germination, sudden wilting, stunted growth, marginal burn on
leaves (especially lower, older leaves), leaf yellowing, leaf fall,
restricted root development, and sudden or gradual death of
plants.
Soil is inherently saline.
Irrigation water is saline and has been applied in too little quantity to flush the soil.
Drainage is inadequate so that a net downward movement of water through the
soil is not achieved.
Too much irrigation water is used and this accumulates as a water table over a
shallow impermeable subsoil.
There is a high and rising water table lifting salt from depth
Causes of soil salinity

72. Table 3. Soluble salt test values and relative salt tolerance
of fruit and vegetable crops.
0-2 mmhos/cm
Nontolerant
3-4 mmhos/cm
Slightly
Tolerant
5-7 mmhos/cm
Moderately
Tolerant
8-16 mmhos/cm
Tolerant
carrots
French beans
onions
radish
cabbage
lettuce
peppers
potatoes
sweet corn
beets
cucumbers
muskmelons
squash
tomatoes
spinach
asparagus
Swiss chard

74. Low soil pH or acidity and its management:
Plants grown in acid soils can experience a variety of
symptoms including aluminium(Al),hydrogen(H),
and/or manganese(Mn) toxicity, as well as nutrient
deficiencies of calcium(Ca) and magnesium(Mg).
Low pH also makes vegetable crops susceptible to
bacterial wilts. Management includes primarily liming.

75. Grafting Technology for abiotic stress management
This environmentally friendly technique is widely used for reducing crop
losses in solanaceous and cucurbitaceous vegetable due to abiotic stress
A plant’s first line of defense against abiotic stress is in its roots.
If the soil holding the plant is healthy and biologically diverse, the plant will have a
higher chance of surviving stressful conditions.
A special method of adapting plants to counteract environmental stresses is by
grafting elite cultivars onto selected vigorous rootstocks ( Lee and Oda, 2003).
This techniques is used to overcome the vegaries of abiotic stress such as salinity
drought , low temperature, water logging, uptake of water and nutrients etc.

76. Figleaf gourd (Cucurbita ficifolia) Cucumber Grafted on Figleaf Gourd

77. • Cucumber grafted onto figleaf gourd (Cucurbita ficifolia), bur
cucumber (Sicos angulatus L.) are excellent rootstock even at low
temperature because of the rootstock’s ability to absorb water and
nutrient more efficiently at low temperatures (Tachibana 1982).
• Recently it was tested that grafting of a cucumber scion onto a
squash rootstock (Cucurbita moschata Duch) could tolerate low/
sub-optimal temperatures compared with a self-grafted cucumber
(Shibuya et al. 2007).
• Grafting watermelon, melon, cucumber, summer squash onto low
temperature tolerant rootstocks such as interspecific hybrid between
Cucurbita maxima X C. moschata
Low temperature management through grafting

80. THANK YOU

84. Crop rotation and barrier cropping