Research methods in Social sciences, Education and Humanities.

1. Research methods
Dr. Jagannath K. Dange
Dept. of P G Studies and Research in Education
KUVEMPU UNIVERSITY
SHANKARAGHATTA – 577451, INDIA
E-Mail: jkdange@gmail.com

2. WHAT YOU CAN DO WITH RESEARCH
So what can we use research to do in order to gain this new
knowledge? Some of the ways it can be used one to:
1.Categorise. This involves forming a typology of objects, events or
concepts, i.e. a set of names or ‘boxes’ into which these can be
sorted. This can be useful in explaining which ‘things’ belong
together and how.
2.Describe. Descriptive research relies on observation as a means of
collecting data. It attempts to examine situations in order to
establish what is the norm, i.e. what can be predicted to happen
again under the same circumstances.
3.Explain. This is a descriptive type of research specifically designed
to deal with complex issues. It aims to move beyond ‘just getting the
facts’ in order to make sense of the myriad other elements involved,
such as human, political, social, cultural and contextual.

3. 4. Evaluate. This involves making judgements about
the quality of objects or events.
5. Compare. Two or more contrasting cases can be
examined to highlight differences and similarities
between them, leading to a better understanding of
phenomena.
6. Correlate. The relationships between two
phenomena are investigated to see whether and
how they influence each other. These are measured
as levels of association.

4. 7. Predict. This can sometimes be done in research areas
where correlations are already known. Predictions of possible
future behaviour or events are made on the basis that if there
has been a strong relationship between two or more
characteristics or events in the past, then these should exist in
similar circumstances in the future, leading to predictable
outcomes.
8. Control. Once you understand an event or situation, you may
be able to find ways to control it. For this you need to know
what the cause and effect relationships are and that you are
capable of exerting control over the vital ingredients.
You can combine two or more of these objectives in a research
project, with sometimes one objective needing to be
successfully achieved before starting the next.

5. Types of Research methods
D e s c rip tiv e
C o m p a ra tiv e
C o rre la tio n a l
C a u s a l C o m p a ra tiv e
N o n -E x p e rim e n ta l
T ru e
Q u a s i
S in g le S u b je c t
E x p e rim e n ta l
Q u a n tita tiv e
C a s e S tu d y
P h e n o m e n a o lo g y
E th n o g ra p h y
G ro u n d e d T h e o ry
Q u a lita tiv e
C o n c e p t A n a ly s is
H is to ric a l A n a ly s is
A n a ly tic a l S tu d y M ix e d M e th o d
R e s e a rc h D e s ig n s

6. Research design issues: planning research
There is no single blueprint for planning research.
Research design is governed by the notion of ‘fitness for
purpose’.
The purposes of the research determine the methodology
and design of the research.
For example, if the purpose of the research is to map the field, or to
make generalizable comments then a survey approach might be
desirable, using some form of stratified sample;
If the effects of a specific intervention are to be evaluated then
maybe an experimental or action research model is appropriate;
If an in-depth study of a particular situation or group is important
then an ethnographic model might be more appropriate.

7. RESEARCH DESIGNS
•There are numerous types of research design that are appropriate for the
different types of research projects.
•The choice of which design to apply depends on the nature of the
problems posed by the research aims.
•Each type of research design has a range of research methods that are
commonly used to collect and analyse the type of data that is generated
by the investigations.
HISTORICAL
This aims at a systematic and objective evaluation and synthesis of
evidence in order to establish facts and draw conclusions about past
events.
It uses primary historical data, such as archaeological remains as well as
documentary sources of the past. It is usually necessary to carry out tests
in order to check the authenticity of these sources.
Apart from informing us about what happened in previous times and re-
evaluating beliefs about the past.

8. DESCRIPTIVE
This design relies on observation as a means of collecting data. It attempts to
examine situations in order to establish what is the norm, i.e. what can be
predicted to happen again under the same circumstances. ‘Observation’ can take
many forms. Depending on the type of information sought, people can be
interviewed, questionnaires distributed, visual records made, even sounds and
smells recorded. The scale of the research is influenced by two major factors: the
level of complexity of the survey and the scope or extent of the survey.
CORRELATION
This design is used to examine a relationship between two concepts. There are
two broad classifications of relational statements: an association between two
concepts – where there is some kind of influence of one on the other; and a causal
relationship – where one causes changes to occur in the other.
Causal statements describe what is sometimes called a ‘cause and effect’
relationship. The cause is referred to as the ‘independent variable’, the variable
that is affected is referred to as the ‘dependent variable’.
The correlation between two concepts can either be none (no correlation);
positive (where an increase in one results in the increase in the other, or decrease
results in a decrease); or negative (where the increase in one results in the
decrease in the other or vice versa). The degree of association is often measurable.

9. COMPARATIVE This design is used to compare past and present or different
parallel situations, particularly when the researcher has no control over events.
Analogy is used to identify similarities in order to predict results – assuming that if
two events are similar in certain characteristics, they could well be similar in
others too.
EXPERIMENTAL Experimental research attempts to isolate and control every
relevant condition which determines the events investigated and then observes
the effects when the conditions are manipulated. At its simplest, changes are
made to an independent variable and the effects are observed on a dependent
variable – i.e. cause and effect.
SIMULATION Simulation involves devising a representation in a small and
simplified form (model) of a system, which can be manipulated to gauge effects.
It is similar to experimental design in the respect of this manipulation, but it
provides a more artificial environment in that it does work with original materials
at the same scale. Models can be mathematical (number crunching in a computer)
or physical, working with two- or three-dimensional materials. The performance of
the model must be checked and calibrated against the real system to check that
the results are reliable. Simulation enables theoretical situations to be tested –
what if?

10. EVALUATION : This descriptive type of research is specifically designed to deal with
complex social issues. It aims to move beyond ‘just getting the facts’, by trying to
make sense of the numerous human, political, social, cultural and contextual
elements involved.
The results are generally used to prescribe changes to improve and develop the
situation.
ACTION : Essentially, this is an ‘on the spot’ procedure, principally designed to deal
with a specific problem found in a particular situation. There is no attempt made
to separate the problem from its context in order to study it in isolation. The
conclusions from the findings are applied immediately, and further monitored to
gauge their effectiveness. Action research depends mainly on observation and
behavioural data. Because it is so bound up in a particular situation, it is difficult to
generalize the results.
ETHNOLOGICAL : Ethnological research focuses on people. In this approach, the
researcher is interested in how the subjects of the research interpret their own
behavior rather than imposing a theory from outside. It takes place in the
undisturbed natural settings of the subjects’ environment. It regards the context
to be as equally important as the actions it studies, and attempts to represent the
totality of the social, cultural and economic situation.

11. FEMINIST
This is more of a perspective than a research design that involves
theory and analysis that highlight the differences between men’s and
women’s lives. However, everyone is male or female, so value neutrality
is impossible as no researcher practises research outside his or her
system of values. No specific methods are seen to be particularly
feminist, but the methodology used is informed by theories of gender
relations.
CULTURAL
Many of the prevailing theoretical debates (e.g. post-modernism, post-
structuralism etc.) are concerned with the subjects of language and
cultural interpretation. Cultural research provides methodologies that
allow a consistent analysis of cultural texts so that they can be
compared, replicated, disproved and generalized.
Examples of approaches to the interpretation of cultural texts are:
content analysis, semiotics and discourse analysis.
TV news programmes, cocktail parties etc., and informal such as how people dress
or converse.

12. Research Methods are the tools
and techniques for doing research.

13. Types of Research-Broad classification
-Fundamental v/s Applied /Action : development of
theories,discover a solution for practical problem, finding solution for
classroom problems.
-Descriptive v/s Analytical : surveys, fact finding
enquiries,
ex post facto studies, comparative and correlational studies :
analyse
the information available and evaluate the material
- Quantitative v/s Qualitative
- Conceptual v/s Empirical : develop new concepts or
reinterpret existing ones: relies on experience , observation,
experimentation etc.,
- Other Types : Historical, exploratory, laboratory research,

14. Methods of Research
Quantitative: Verify theory(positivist approach-)
Qualitative: Generate Theory(Interpretivist approach)
Mixed: Integrate the findings and draws inferences using
both methods.
Data collected concurrently or sequentially, methods
mixed in such a way that has complementary strengths
and non overlapping weakness.
Verify and generate theory same time.

19. • Historical - What was
• Descriptive (sometimes called Survey) –
What is
• Experimental – What can be

23. Descriptive research is used to obtain
information concerning the current status of
the phenomena to describe "what exists" with
respect to variables or conditions in a
situation.
The methods involved range from the survey
which describes the status quo,
the correlation study which investigates the
relationship between variables,
developmental studies which seek to
determine changes over time.

24. Descriptive Research
• Because of its flexibility and the fact that it
deals with current topics, descriptive
research is probably the most popular form
of research.
• It is also popular because data can be
collected from a wide variety of sources.

25. Descriptive Research
• Basic characteristics of descriptive research
are:
– It provides a descriptive analysis of a given
population or sample.
– Qualitative, quantitative or a combination of
both types of data can be presented.
– Hypotheses or broad research questions are
used .
– Study on current issues
– variables will be compared.

26. Descriptive Research
• Data Sources
–Persons such as teachers, students,
parents, administrators, etc.
–Documents such as policy
statements, curricular guidelines.
–Records such as student
transcripts.

27. Descriptive Research
• Research Tools
–Structured interviews.
–Structured questionnaires
–Standardized tests.

28. Survey method
• Sur/sor –Over
• Veeir/vor- to see
• To look over or to over see
• Critical inspection
• Employed to collect detailed descriptions of
existing phenomena in order to justify current
conditions and practices, or to make more
intelligent plans for improving them.

29. Characteristics of survey method
• Data is gathered from a relatively large
number of sample
• Provides information useful to solution of
local problems
• Suggests course for future actions or
development

30. Types of surveys
• Testing survey
• Institutional survey (School)
• Document survey
• Survey appraisal studies
• Follow up studies
1. Testing survey
Concerned with evaluating the academic
achievement or any psychological traits in students
of schools and relationships of associated variables,
e.g. the baseline survey of achievement of primary
school students at class III, VIII conducted by NCERT

31. 2. Institutional survey (School)
Comprehensive study of existing educational
conditions in order to determine the overall
effectiveness of the school.
• the administrative provisions, infrastructural
facilities,
• teaching aids, teachers’ qualification and
experience,
• school cost, etc.
• the educational achievement of pupils,
• curriculum and instructional strategies,
• financial policies and procedure,
• staffing pattern, etc.

32. 3. Document studies
Document or documentary frequency studies are
undertaken to identify and count certain
characteristics found in the documents with respect
scheduled criteria e.g. the type of errors in
instructional plans, the element of bias or
propaganda in a history textbook
4. Survey appraisal
• Involves jury technique whereby the judgment of a
number of persons with regard to certain individuals,
features or specimens is pooled to secure a final
verdict e.g. should sex education be a part of
secondary school curriculum?
• Check lists and rating scales are usually adopted as
tools of gathering data

33. 5. Follow up studies
Concerns with studies of individuals or institutions after
they have completed or worked over a period of
time.
• Study of the impact of a multi-media package in
enhancing school enrolment in a region.
• Can serve the purpose of proving the efficiency of an
institution or a program of work, and provide future
directions for improvement

34. Tools used in data collection
• Questionnaire
• Interview schedule
• Interview
• Rating scale
• Attitude scale
• Observation
• Check list
• Score card
• Tests
• Document analysis
• Pro-forma

36. CASE STUDY

37. INTRODUCTION
The case study or case history method is
based on intensive study of the comparatively
fewer persons, sometimes confined to a very
small number of cases.
The case study is an intensive investigation
of a social unit. The social unit may be an
individual, a family, a school, a group of
delinquents, dropouts, or any teenage gang.

38. DEFINITION OF CASE STUDY
• P.V. YOUNG: “A fairly exhaustive study of a
person or group is called a life of case
history”.
“Case study is a method of exploring
and analyzing the life of a social unit be that
unit a person, a family, institution, culture
group, or even an entire community.”

39. NATURE OF CASE STUDIES
• The case study method was originally used in medicine
to examine the patient`s precious development, his
health and physical state from the beginning and many
other factors in the past besides making a careful study
of the patient`s present condition and symptoms.
• Sigmund Freud used case study method to assist his
subjects in solving their personality problems. The
published account of Freud`s interviews with patients
provide excellent examples of case studies.
• In Education, exceptional children, mentally defective
delinquent and the truant(absentee) are studied
through a similar approach.

40. Case study might means that;
a) Its method is qualitative, small-N,
b) The research is holistic, thick (a more or less
comprehensive examination of a phenomenon),
c) It utilizes a particular type of evidence (e.g.,
ethnographic, clinical, non-experimental, non-
survey-based, participant-observation, process-
tracing, historical, and field research),
d) Its method of evidence gathering is naturalistic
(a “real-life context”)

41. e) It employs triangulation (“multiple sources of
evidence”),
g) The research investigates the properties of a
single observation, or the properties of a single
phenomenon(Fact, experience, event), instance,
or example.
h) Case studies can establish cause and effect, they
observe effects in real contexts, recognizing that
context is a powerful determinant of both
causes and effects.

42. types of case study
Yin (1984) identifies three such types in terms of
their outcomes:
(a)Exploratory (as a pilot to other studies or
research questions);
(b) Descriptive (providing narrative accounts);
(c)Explanatory (testing theories).

43. Merriam (1988) identifies three types:
(a)Descriptive (narrative accounts);
(b)Interpretative (developing conceptual
categories inductively in order to examine
initial assumptions);
(c) Evaluative (explaining and judging).

44. Stake (1994) identifies three main types of case
study:
(a) Intrinsic case studies (studies that are
undertaken in order to understand the
particular case in question);
(b) Instrumental case studies (examining a
particular case in order to gain insight into an
issue or a theory);
(c) collective case studies (groups of individual
studies that are undertaken to gain a fuller
picture).

45. STEPS OF THE CASE STUDY
• Determine the present status of the case
• Formulation of Hypothesis
• Verification of the Hypothesis
• Validation of the Diagnosis
• Follow-up of the case
• Reporting the case study

46. COLLECTION OF DATA
Marshall and Rossman (1999) point to
three techniques that are the critical
procedures for collecting qualitative data.
• Observation
• Interviews
• Review of Documents

47. Strengths
1 The results are more easily understood by a wide audience (including
non-academics) as they are frequently written in everyday, non-
professional language.
2 They can be undertaken by a single researcher without needing a full
research team.
3 They are strong on reality.
4 They provide insights into other, similar situations and cases, thereby
assisting interpretation of other similar cases.
Weaknesses
1 The results may not be generalizable except where other
readers/researchers see their application.
2 They are not easily open to cross-checking, hence they may be selective,
biased, personal and subjective.
3 They are prone to problems of observer bias.

54. Experimental ResearchExperimental Research

55. If x, then y; if frustration, then aggression…the
researcher uses some method to measure x
and then observes y to see if associated
variation occurs.
(Kerlinger, 1970)

56. • The essential feature of experimental research
is that investigators deliberately control and
manipulate the conditions which determine
the events in which they are interested.
• At its simplest, an experiment involves making
a change in the value of one variable—called
the independent variable—and observing the
effect of that change on another variable—
called the dependent variable.

57. Provides much control, establishes systematic
and logical association between manipulated
factors and observed effects.
Experimental Research

58. Ex: to investigate the properties of a new fertilizer that
farmers could use on their cereal crops, let us say wheat
• The scientist would take the bag of wheat seed and randomly split it into two
equal parts.
• One part would be grown under normal existing conditions— controlled and
measured amounts of soil, warmth, water and light and no other factors. This
would be called the control group.
• The other part would be grown under the same conditions—the same
controlled and measured amounts of soil, warmth, water and light as the
control group, but, additionally, the new fertilizer. Experimental group.
• Then, four months later, the two groups are examined and their growth
measured.
• The control group has grown half a metre and each ear of wheat is in place but
the seeds are small.
• The experimental group, by contrast, has grown half a metre as well but has
significantly more seeds on each ear, the seeds are larger, fuller and more
healthy.
• The scientist concludes that, of the new fertilizer that caused the experimental
group to flourish so well.

59. The key factors in the experiment were:
1. The random allocation of the whole bag of wheat into two
matched groups (the control and the experimental group),
involving the initial measurement of the size of the wheat to
ensure that it was the same for both groups (i.e. the pretest);
2. The identification of key variables (soil, warmth, water, and light);
3. The control of the key variables (the same amounts to each
group);
4. The giving of the special treatment (the intervention) to the
experimental group whilst holding every other variable constant
for the two groups;
5. The final measurement of yield and growth (the post-test);
6. The comparison of one group with another;
7. the stage of generalization—that this new fertilizer improves yield
and growth under a given set of conditions.

60. Important Terms and Symbols in Experimental Designs:
Experimenter: It is the person who conducts the experiment or
manipulates the experiments conditions. It is denoted by E.
Subject: It is living Organism that is studied It is denoted by S and the
plural is Ss.
Independent Variable: It is the Variable which is manipulated by the
experimenter, often called the treatment, experiment, or
antecedent variable, it is represented by the symbol x.
In educational research an independent variable may be a teaching
method, a type of teaching aid or material, a reward or punishment.
Dependent Variable: It is the condition or characteristic that appears,
disappears, or changes as the experimenter introduces, removes, or
changes independent variable. symbolized by the letter Y.
It may be a test score. The number of mistakes or errors, measured
speed in performing a task.

61. Control group: It is the group that does not receive any
experimental treatment is the group that is not exposed to some
independent variable X, or is exposed to another independent
variable X for comparison purpose.
Experimental Group: It is the group that is given the independent
variable treatment or is exposed to some independent variable, X is
called the experimental group.
Pre-test: It is the test that is administered to the subject before the
independent variable X; It is represented by the symbol T,
Post- test: It is the test that is administered to the subject after the
independent variable is applied It is represented by the symbol T2 .

62. Confounding Variables:
Confounding variables are those aspects of a study or sample
that might influence the dependent variable (out-come measure) and
whore effect may be confused with the effects of the independent
variable. Confounding variables are of two types:
Intervening variables:
Certain variables that cannot be controlled or measured
directly may have on important effect on the outcome. These
modifying variables intervene between the cause and the effect.
Examples:
A Higher Education Higher income
(independent variable) (dependent variable)
an Occupation is an intervening variable

63. • Extraneous Variables:
Extraneous variables are those uncontrolled
variables ( i.e., Variables not manipulated by the
experimenter) that may have a significant
influence on the results of a study.
Ex:
Teaching-learning Achievement in Science
(I V) (DV)
Family history, Education of parents, interest in the class topic, or
even time of day, preference for the instructor’s teaching style or
personality. (Extraneous variables)

64. Characteristics of Experimental
Research
Control
Manipulation(treatment)
Observation
Replication
A.Control- Refers to the extent to which different factors
in an experiment are accounted for. In other words, it
is to arrange a situation in which the effect of variables
can be measured.
E.g. In studying effectiveness of Lecture method and
Discussion in teaching of Geography, two identical
groups of subjects required except the ways they are
taught Geography.

65. Controlling Extraneous Variables:
Removing the Variables:
Randomisation:
Matching Cases:
Balancing Cases or Group Matching:

66. Methods for controlling inter- subject differences
Random assignment of subjects to group- A scientific and
systematic procedure based on probability theory. It is
assumed that groups are comparable at the start of the
experiment on the dependent variable as well as on the
extraneous variable.
e.g. assigning teachers, classrooms, assignments, equipments
etc. strictly on random basis.
Matching subjects with random assignments- Match
individual subjects on as many extraneous variables as
possible which might affect the dependent variable and then
apply random technique to assign one of the matched pair to
each group.
- Subject to subject matching- match individual subjects.
- Matching by Mean and S.D- match the groups.
- Ranking of subjects in matching variables- from each pair of
a rank serially, one is assigned to each group randomly.

67. Random assignment on the basis of
homogeneous selection- Selecting groups that
is homogeneous on the variable likely to affect
the dependent variable. For example, gender
affecting the dependent variable, the
researcher may select the subjects of a
particular gender, and assign subjects
randomly to two groups.

68. Methods for controlling Situational Variables
• Holding situational variables constant-
treating all subjects alike except for their
exposure to independent variables. E.g.
- Equal number of subjects in each group.
- Teaching by same teachers.
- Same instructions, apparatus, test etc.
• Randomization – Random allocation of
variables like time, apparatus, tests etc. e.g. in
a testing situation of ½ hr for several batches,
allot group randomly.

69. B. Manipulation
• Refers to deliberate operation of the
conditions by the researcher. Researcher sets
the stage for the occurrence of the factor
whose performance/ effect is to be studied
under conditions in which the effects of all
other factors are eliminated/ controlled.
• e.g. Study of relative effectiveness of two
methods of teaching- method of teaching is
the independent variable which is to be
manipulated.

70. C. Observation
Seeing the effect on manipulation of the
independent variable on the dependent
variable.
E.g. Observations with respect to some
characteristics of behaviour of the subjects in
the experiment – the test scores reflecting the
performance.

71. D. Replication
researcher attempts to control the
extraneous variable through the rounds of
randomization or other methods still some
discrepancies invariable remain and
influence the results of the experiment .
such discrepancies may be taken care of
through the replication of the study.
E.g. conducting a number of sub experiments within
the frame work of over all experiment.

72. Experimental Study Steps
• Identify and define the problem.
• Formulate hypothesis and deduce its
consequence.
• Construct an experiment that represents all the
elements, conditions, and relations to the
consequence.
• Conduct the experiment.
• Compile raw data and reduce to usable form.
• Apply an appropriate test of significance.

73. Experimental Design
An experimental design
provides a blue print to the
researcher. It was used first by R. A.
Fisher who used such design in
conducting research in agriculture
science.

74. Criteria for Experimental Design
There are 3 important criterias which the researcher must
keep in mind while selecting an experimental design for
conducting his experiment.
• Appropriateness: criteria for testing the hypotheses of
the study, arrange objectively the experimental
conditions to meet the requirements of the study.
• Adequacy of Control: so that the effects of the
independent variable on the dependent variable can be
measured.
• Validity: Internal Validity, and External Validity.

75. Experimental Validity
• Internal ValidityInternal Validity
– Indicates whether the independent variable was
the sole cause of the change in the dependent
variable
• External ValidityExternal Validity
– Indicates the extent to which the results of the
experiment are applicable to the real world

76. Types of experimental designs
• Pre-experimental design
• True experimental design
• Quasi-experimental designs
• Factorial designs
• Time series designs

77. 1. Pre-experimental designs
Provide little or no control of extraneous or
situational variables.
1.1. One Group Pre-test Post-test Design
Measure the dependent variable
Apply treatment to independent variable
Measure the dependent variable again
Find out the difference in the dependent
variable, the change, if any, is due to the
treatment in independent variable

78. Example
Pre-test
T1
Independent
variable
X
Post-test
T2
Mean of
criterion test
Teaching
through
Programmed
Instruction
Mean of the
criterion test

79. 1.2. Two Groups, Static Design
Use two groups, only one is exposed to the
experimental treatment
Other group is not subject to any treatment and
acts as the control group
It is assumed that the two groups are equivalent
in all respects at the beginning of the experiment
The dependent variable measures for the two
groups are compared (post-test), and the effect
of independent/ treatment variable is noted.

80. Example
Group Independent
variable
Post-
test
Experimental Teaching through
new method
T2
Control Teaching through
conventional
method
T2

81. 2. True Experimental Designs
These designs control the main effects of
history, maturation, testing, measuring
instruments, etc.
2. 1. Two Groups, Randomized Subjects, Post-test
only
the subjects are drawn individually and assigned
to each group alternately, or
two different random samples are selected and
the groups are assigned to experimental and
control conditions by flip of a coin.

82. Example: Effectiveness of a new teaching
method in the reading speed of third grade
students
Randomly assigned
group
Independent variable Post-test
Experimental Teaching through new
method
T2
Control Teaching through
conventional method
T2

83. 2.2. Two groups, randomized matched subjects,
post-test only
Uses the technique of matching to assign
subjects to experimental and control groups
rather than simply random assignment.
Example:
Studying the effect of assignment based test
on the achievement of 9th
grade students in
science
Variables on which subjects can be matched:
intelligence / prior achievement in science.

84. Randomly assigned
group after matching
Independent variable Post-test
Experimental Instruction with
assignment based test
T2
Control Instruction with out
assignment based test
T2

85. 2.3. Randomized groups, pre-test and post test
• The subjects are assigned to the control group
and experimental group randomly
• Both groups are administered a pre-test as a
measure of the dependent variable
• The treatment is given only to the
experimental group
• The experimental and control groups are
administered the post-test

86. Example: Effectiveness of Structural Approach in
teaching of English to 6th
grade students
Randomly
assigned
Pre-test Independent
variable
Post-test
Experimental T1 E Teaching through
structural
Approach
T2 E
Control T2 C Teaching through
conventional
method
T2 C

87. 3. Quasi-experimental Design: the
non equivalent control group design
• Used in such cases where
it is not possible to assign subjects randomly to
groups or (EXPl and Control),
Not to exercise full control of experimental
conditions (manipulation of at least one
independent variable)
(Kerlinger (1970) refers to quasi-experimental situations as
‘compromise designs’, an apt description when applied to much
educational research where the random selection or random
assignment of schools and classrooms is quite impracticable.)

88. Treatment 1Treatment 1 Measurement
Study
Group 1
Study
Group 1
Treatment 2Treatment 2 Measurement
Study
Group 2
Study
Group 2

89. Non-randomized groups, pre-test and
post test design
Group Pre-test Independent
variable
Post-test
Experimental T1 Experimental
treatment
T2
Control T2 Controlled
condition
T2

90. 4. Factorial Design
A factorial design enables the experimenter to
evaluate or manipulate two or more variables
simultaneously in order to study the effects of
number of independent factors singly as well as
the effects due to interaction with one another.
Simple factorial design (2x2)
In this design there are two independent
variables and each independent variable has
further two values. The first independent
variable, which is manipulated and has two
values, is called experimental variable. The
second independent variable, which is divided
into levels, is called control variable.

91. Example: Comparing the effectiveness of Program
Instruction (method P) and Lecture method
(method L) on the achievement of 6th
grade
students in social studies.
Steps:
Divide the population into two groups – e.g. high
intelligence and low intelligence
Select subjects randomly (e.g. 40) from high
intelligence group and 40 from the low
intelligence group.

92. Assign 20 subjects from high intelligence group to
method P and 20 subjects to method L, and the same
way for low intelligence group.
There will be four groups of subjects, two each under
the high and low level of intelligence.
After having instruction for a stipulated period, the
groups can be administered an achievement test in
social studies and the mean score can be calculated for
each of the four groups.
The main and interaction effects of the independent
variables can be studied statistically.

93. Intelligence
level
Method L Method
P
Mean
High 76 74 75
Low 61 65 63
Mean 68.5 69.5 --

94. Factorial Design
• Used to examine the effects that the
manipulation of at least 2 independent variables
(simultaneously at different levels) has upon the
dependent variable
• The impact that each independent variable has
on the dependent variable is referred to as the
main effectmain effect
• Dependent variable may also be impacted by
the interaction of the independent variables.
This is called the interaction effectinteraction effect

95. 5. Time-series Design
A series of measurement on the
dependent variable is taken before and after
the group is exposed to experimental
treatment.
The experimenter takes a number of
measurements (T) on the independent
variable (Y), exposes the group to treatment
(X), and then again takes additional
measurements on Y.

96. One-group Time Series Design
Y (Independent
Variable)
X
(Treatment
)
Y
T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6
T1 – T6: Measurements,

97. Time Series Design
• Involves periodic measurements on the
dependent variable for a group of test units
• After multiple measurements, experimental
treatment is administered (or occurs naturally)
• After the treatment, periodic measurements are
continued in order to determine the treatment
effect
• Diagrammed as:
O1O2 O3 O4 X O5 O6 O7 O8

98. • Here the one group is the experimental group,
and it is given more than one pretest and more
than one post-test.
• The time series uses repeated tests or
observations both before and after the
treatment, which, in effect, enables the
participants to become their own controls, which
reduces the effects of reactivity.
• Time series allow for trends to be observed, and
avoid reliance on only one single pretesting and
post-testing data collection point.

101. Books to be referred
• Best, John W. (1977): Research in Education. New Delhi:
Prentice-Hall of India.
• John Gerring (2007) Case Study Research: Principles and
Practice. Cambridge University Press, New York.
• Kerlinger, F. N. (1986) Foundations of Behavioral Research
(third edition). New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
• Louis Cohen, Lawrence Manion and Keith Morrison(2007 )
Research Methods in Education, Routledge Publication, UK
• Van Dalen, D.B. (1973): Understanding Educational Research.
New York McGraw Hill Book Company.

102. ‘To understand is hard.
Once one understands, action is easy.’
(Sun Yat Sen, 1866–1925)

103. Thank You
Dr. Jagannath K. Dange
Department of Education
Kuvempu University
Shankaraghatta
Dist: Shimoga
jkdange@gmail.com
http://jkdange.blogspot.com