Chapter4WHII

Isabella of Castille
• Isabella I (14511504), queen of Castile, called la Catolica ("the Catholic"), and a
sponsor of the voyages of Christopher Columbus. She was the daughter of John II of
Castile and Leon by his second wife, Isabella of Portugal. In 1469 Princess Isabella
married Ferdinand of Aragon, known also as Ferdinand V, the Catholic. On the
death of her brother, Henry IV, Isabella and Ferdinand jointly succeeded (1474) to
the throne of Castile and León. Isabella's succession was contested, however, by
Alfonso V of Portugal, who supported the claim of Henry's daughter Juana la
Beltraneja. Alfonso attacked Castile and León but was defeated by the Castilian
army in 1476. Three years later Ferdinand succeeded to the throne of Aragón. This
union of the two main Spanish kingdoms laid the foundation of Spain's future
greatness. They had five children, including Catherine of Aragon, the first wife of
Henry VIII of England, and Joanna the Mad, who was the mother of Charles V, king
of Spain and Holy Roman Emperor. Isabella and her husband (known together as
"the Catholic kings") are remembered for initiating the Inquisition in 1478, for
completing the Reconquista of Spain from the Moors and for their ruthless
expulsion of the Spanish Jews, both in 1492. That same year they sponsored
Christopher Columbus's voyage, which led to the creation of the overseas Spanish
colonial empire, bringing great wealth and power to Spain.

Chris and Izzy
• Isabella and Ferdinand proceeded with their plans to unify all of Spain by continuing a
long-standing but stalled effort to expel the Moors (Muslims) who held parts of Spain.
In 1492, the Muslim Kingdom of Granada fell to Isabella and Ferdinand, thus
completing the Reconquista.
• That same year, all Jews in Spain who refused to convert to Christianity were expelled
by royal edict.
• Also in 1492, Isabella was convinced by Christopher Columbus to sponsor his voyage
of discovery. The lasting effects of this were many: by the traditions of the time, when
Columbus discovered lands in the New World, they were given to Castile. Isabella took
a special interest in the Native Americans of the new lands; when some were brought
back to Spain as slaves she insisted they be returned and freed, and her will expressed
her wish that the "Indians" be treated with justice and fairness.

Did Columbus Really Discover America?
Christopher Columbus is given credit for discovering the New World, but
was he really the first person to step foot in this new land. What about the
Native Americas? What about Leif Eriksson? Or what about Americus
Vespucius?
Approximately 20,000 years ago the first Native Americans came over a
land bridge between Asia and North America. This bridge was over 1,000
miles wide. In 1492 about one million American Indians lived in the United
States and Canada and about 20 million million Indians lived in South
America.
In 1000 A. D. sailors from Norway called Vikings traveled from Iceland to
Greenland. They were lead by Eric the Red. Eric the Red founded a colony
on Greenland. Later his son, Leif Eriksson, lead a group to Newfoundland in
Canada. Unfortunately no maps were made of these travels. However in
1965 a Viking map dated 1440 was found. The Viking map showed parts of
northeastern Canada.
About the same time Columbus was making his third voyage another
explorer sailed for North America. His name was Americus Vespucius.
Vespucius made maps of his travels. A German school teacher who
was writing a new geography book found these maps. The school teacher
called the New World America in honor of Vespucius.

Christopher
Columbus
Christopher Columbus was born in Genoa, Italy in 1451. Living by the
Mediterranean Sea he longed to be a sailor.
He began sailing on Italian ships at the age of 14. When Columbus was 25 he was
sailing on a ship headed for England. A group of French pirates attacked his ship.
Columbus was hurt, but managed to grab onto some
floating wood and make his way to shore.
Columbus opened a shop that sold maps and books for sailors. There he became a
mapmaker and began reading books. He read a book written by Marco Polo.
Columbus was fascinated by Polo's book. After reading this book Columbus was
sure he could reach the Indies by traveling west. He wanted to go to the Indies to
get jewels and spices.
Columbus asked King John II of Portugal for three ships to try out his idea of
traveling west to reach the East. The king refused to give him the ships. Columbus
tried going to other kings in France and England. They would not give him the
ships. Finally Columbus went to the king and queen of Spain; King Ferdinand and
Queen Isabella. He asked them for money to try out his idea of traveling west to
reach the East. Queen Isabella refused Columbus at first. Later King Ferdinand and
Queen Isabella gave Columbus three ships, a crew of about ninety men, and some
money. The three ships were the Niña, Pinta, and Santa María.

• On August 2, 1492 the voyage began. The trip was not easy.
Columbus's crew was afraid of the unknown seas. They
believed monsters were in the waters. Some thought the
world was flat, and that their ships were sailing too far from
the shore and would fall off the end of the earth. On
September 1, 1492 Columbus's ships passed an active
volcano on the island of Teneriffe. They also reported seeing
a bolt of fire fall from the heavens into the sea. The men
took these as a bad signs.

Chris’s First
Landfall
• There have been many different routes proposed for Columbus starting from Watlings,
beginning with the theories of A.B. Becher in 1856 and J.B. Murdock in 1884. But the most
widely held view has been that championed by Samuel Elliot Morison in 1940. Since then, a
number of people (notably Mauricio Obregon and William Dunwoody) have tinkered with
the route in order to try and resolve some of the problems listed below. The Murdock-
Morison identifications: Island I = Watlings; Island II = Rum Cay; Island III = Long Island;
Island IV = Crooked Island. Dunwoody substitutes Fortune Island as Island IV, a notable
improvement.
• If the problem list below seems longer than some other theories, that may be just because
I've studied this theory in greater detail than some others. Active support for the Watlings
theory collapsed in the spring of 1996, after the Leagues-versus-Miles dispute was resolved
in favor of leagues.
• Watlings Island has been the
favored landfall theory for most
of the 19th and 20th centuries.
In 1926, Fr. Chysostom Schreiner
convinced the Bahamian
parliament to officially renamed
Watlings Island as "San Salvador,
or Watlings Island," and you will
see the island called San
Salvador on most maps today.

Why We Are Not Called Columbia
• A Florentine explorer named Amerigo
Vespucci (1454-1512) claimed to have
made four Atlantic voyages between
1497 and 1504, although only two have
been confirmed. Following the 1501
voyage, Vespucci coined the phrase
Mundus Novus—New World—to
describe the region. The name stuck.
Then, in 1507, the German cartographer
Martin Waldseemuller published an
account of Vespucci’s voyages. It was
Waldseemuller who used a Latinized
form of Vespucci’s first name to label
the region that Amerigo had explored.
• Another theory is that the
Viking/Scandinavian combination of
land + Eric and a feminine ending =
Amt + Eric + a is how we got the name.

Martin Waldseemuller was a cartographer who lived from ~1475 to 1522.
Waldseemuller is particularly famous for the map he created in 1507. This
map was the first to label the American continent "America," a name the
mapmaker used to honor Amerigo Vespucci. As you probably realize, this
name persists even today.
Martin Waldseemuller is also famous for his 1507 map because it shows an
uncannily accurate Pacific coast of South America. At the time of its
publication, no Westerner was known to have visited the Pacific side of this
continent, and much speculation has centered on how Waldseemuller
could have so accurately drawn the coast.

Arawaks/Taino Natives
•
Without having to go into prehistoric time, we can safely say that the first inhabitants of the Antilles
were The Arawaks. Just prior to 1,000 AD they were expelled from the Lesser Antilles by the Caribs, a
people originating, like them, from the lower Orinoco region. Short, copper colored, having black and
straight hair, the Arawaks, due to their early arrival in the region, were by the time of Columbus'
arrival, peaceful and sedentary. Living from agriculture, hunting and fishing, they grew a soft variety
of corn and sweet potatoes. They also knew how to make casava bread using an elaborate process to
leach out the poisonous juice of this root. They hunted little mammals or lizards with sticks, and birds
with stones. They had domesticated a breed of dog, which they used for hunting and occasionally as
food. Since the sea providing them with a great bounty, they had therefore developed much more
efficient ways of fishing and navigating. The proximity of the island favoring sight navigation they did
not embark in long sea faring expeditions as Polynesians will in the Pacific Ocean. If they lived in
round dwellings, there also existed rectangular houses, with porches, reserved for dignitaries.
• Their art of weaving was highly developed and the cotton hammock in which they slept was one of
the few long lasting contributions they made to European culture. They made good baskets and
agricultural tools; and sometimes sculpted wooden seats. Their pottery was extremely refined and of
real artistic value; even though they ignored the potter's wheel, like all pre-Columbian American
Indians. Their clothing was limited to a short skirt for women; it cut, color and way of wrapping
indicating their social class and age. Men and women wore ornaments, usually composed of strips of
cotton tied up above their knees and around their upper arms. At their feasts they danced to the
sound of flutes and drums. They played a game, somewhat similar to soccer, except that the raw
rubber ball had to be tossed with the head, shoulder, elbow or most professionally, by the knee.
• Their minstrels, called Sambas, sang comical or sad stories, of war and/or peace times. The Arawaks
were "animists", which means that they believed in the inner connection of the two worlds (the
visible and the invisible one) and in the existence and survival of the soul in the environment (tree,
rivers, etc.). They adored the sun, the moon, the stars and the springs, and the Butuous, their
respected priests and medicine men are, according to Metraux, the ancestors of present-day Haiti's
"docteurs-papier' or ('Docteur-Feuilles')."

Arawaks
The Arawaks believed in eternal life for the virtuous. In Hispaniola they situated their "heaven" in a
remote part of the island, where the elected would go to rest and eat the delicious Haitian "apricot."
Very little is known abut their political organization. Substantial kingdoms existed and their Kings - the
Caciques- exerted absolute power on their subjects.
The quiet and peaceful Arawaks have totally disappeared from the surface of the Earth. This
was accomplished in a very short time after the arrival of the Europeans. Aside from the
animals imported by the Europeans (in particular the pigs) which left free to roam
devastated the tuberous crop of the Arawaks, many were killed in the defensive wars they
undertook to preserve their freedom. Others, after being ruthlessly enslaved and submitted
to a meager diet of cassava and sweet potatoes, died from malnutrition and overwork in the
mines or plantations. Finally, the rest of them died after contracting European diseases from
which they were not immune. Their disappearance was so swift and the need for cheap and
able labor was so great that 30 years after Columbus' landing the massive deportation of
Africans had started.
The American Indian societies of the West Indies were too ill prepared to
massively support the shock of contact with Europeans. Due to various diseases
and an obstinate repression they swiftly faded away. Today, traces of their
contribution can still by found in a few techniques for refining the cassava, in some
culinary methods and recipes, in a few terms in the various Creoles, and in some of
the syncretic relationships in traditional religion and beliefs.

The Natives Strike Back!
• Picture of Indians
massacring
priests—great
propaganda for
future
opportunities to
subjugate and
slaughter.

1st century AD Chinese invent the first compass.
120 AD Ptolemy creates the first flat map of the world
982 Eric the Red discovers Greenland
1002 Leif Erickson discovers North America.
1271- 1295 Marco Polo goes to China.
1450 Prince Henry the Navigator builds school for sailors.
1487 Bartholomeu Dias discovers the southern tip of Africa.
1492 Columbus sails to the New World.
1497 John Cabot discovers Newfoundland while he searches for the Northwest Passage
1502 Amerigo Vespucci returns from his explorations of the New World. American continents
named after him by German mapmaker.
1513 .Vasco Nunez de Balboa discovers the eastern shore of the Pacific Ocean.
Juan Ponce de Leon searches for the Fountain of Youth in Florida.
1519 – 1522 Ferdinand Magellan and his crew sail around the world.
1521 Hernando Cortez defeats the Aztec Empire.
1533 Francisco Pizarro defeats the Inca Empire
1534 Jacques Cartier discovers the St. Lawrence River and the Great Lakes
1539 – 1542 Hernando De Soto explores the southeastern United States
1540 Francisco Vasquez de Coronado explores the southwestern United States and discovers
the Grand Canyon.
1577 Sir Francis Drake becomes the first Englishman to sail around the world.

Explorers to the New World
1539 – 1542 Hernando De Soto explores the southeastern United States.
1540 Francisco Vasquez de Coronado explores the southwestern United States and
discovers the Grand Canyon.
1577 Sir Francis Drake becomes the first Englishman to sail around the world.
1673 Father Jacques Marquette and Louis Joliet explore the Mississippi River.
1682 Rene-Robert de La Salle explores the Mississippi River from the Great Lakes to the
Gulf of Mexico.

Explorers
Date Explorer Nationality Achievement
Around
1000
Leif Ericson Norse First European to reach North American Mainland
1271-
1295
Marco Polo Italian Traveled to the Far East, to what was known then as Cathay
or China-Made men want to travel there through his book
1394-
1460
Prince Henry Portuguese Created navigation school in Sagres, Portugal Explored the
western African coastline
1487-
1488
Bartholomeu
Dias
Portuguese First European to round the Cape of Good Hope
1492-
1504
Christopher
Columbus
Italian Made 4 voyages to West Indies and Caribbean Islands
1497-
1503
Amerigo
Vespucci
Italian Sailed to West Indies and South America
1497-
1498
John Cabot Italian Explored the shores of Newfoundland, Nova Scotia, and
Labrador
1498 Vasco Da
Gama
Portuguese First to travel to West Indies around Africa
1513 Vasco de
Balboa
Spanish Led expedition across Panama and found the Pacific Ocean
1513 Juan Ponce
de Leon
Spanish Explored Florida looking for the Fountain of Youth

1520-1521 Ferdinand
Magellan
Portuguese Commanded first globe circling voyage
1519-1521 Hernando Cortez Spanish Conquered Aztecs in Mexico
1523 Giovanni da
Verranzano
Italian Searched for a Northwest Passage
1523-1535 Francisco Pizarro Spanish Conquered Peru
1534-1542 Jacques Cartier French Traveled St. Lawrence River
1539-1541 Hernando De Soto Spanish Explored American Southeast-Discovered the
Mississippi River
1540-1542 Francisco
Vazquez de
Coronado
Spanish Explored American Southwest
1577-1580 Sir Frances Drake English First English to sail around the world-Defeated
the Spanish Armada- Claimed California for
England
1603-1616 Samuel de
Champlain
French Explored eastern coast of North America and
the coast of the St. Lawrence River to Lake
Huron-Reached Lake Champlain
1609-1611 Henry Hudson English Explored Hudson Bay, Hudson River, and
Hudson Strait
1672 Marquette and
Louis Joliet
French Explored Northern Mississippi River
1682 Robert LaSalle French Traveled to the mouth of the Mississippi River
and claimed it for France

Treaty of
Tordesillas
Papal Line
of Demarcation
1494
• Upon returning to Spain in 1493 after his first voyage,
Christopher Columbus contacted Pope Alexander VI (a
Spaniard by birth) to report his discoveries. Acting as the great
European arbiter of the day, the pope then issued a bull
(decree) that divided the New World lands between Spain and
Portugal by establishing a north-south line of demarcation 100
leagues west of the Cape Verde Islands. Undiscovered non-
Christian lands to the west of the line were to be Spanish
possessions and those to the east belonged to Portugal.
• News of this decision was not warmly greeted by the
Portuguese, who argued that previous agreements conflicted
with the pope's decision.
• In the spring of 1494, representatives of Spain and Portugal
met in the Spanish town of Tordesillas and negotiated a
mutually satisfactory solution to their dispute.
• The pope granted his official recognition of this agreement in
1506. Spain and Portugal, with a few exceptions, remained
loyal to the terms of the treaty; the Portuguese would expand
deep into Brazil beyond the demarcation line, but Spain did
not object. The natives of these regions, needless to say, were
not consulted about the assignment of their homelands to
others and competing powers in Europe totally ignored the
line.
• For years following 1494, the Spanish lamented their consent
to the treaty, convinced that they had received the short end
of the stick. Their initial discoveries in the New World yielded
little mineral wealth, but much disease and discomfort. Their
evaluation of this bargain with Portugal changed dramatically
in the 1520s as the riches from Aztec Mexico began to be
exploited.

Bermuda Bound
• The Sea Venture was the flagship of a
nine-ship convoy of 500 new settlers. By
July, the ships had reached the West
Indies where they were struck by a
hurricane. The Sea Venture ran aground
on a reef off the Bermudas, but the
entire company of 150 safely reached
shore in the ship's boats.
• The colonists found Bermuda to be a
hospitable place with sufficient food. In
the following months, two smaller ships
were built from cedar trees and salvage.
By May 1610 the two ships, aptly named
the Patience and the Deliverance, were
ready. The ships reached the
Chesapeake Bay after ten days sailing.
• While on Bermuda, John Rolfe's wife
had given birth to a daughter who was
christened Bermuda, but the child died
there. Rolfe's wife also died, probably
soon after they reached Virginia.

Spanish Settlements
• Two men called Viceroys ruled the Spanish empire in the New World for
the king of Spain. Each controlled one area. One Viceroy controlled for
the Kingdom of New Spain. This included Mexico, the islands of the West
Indies, and North America. The other Viceroy controlled the Kingdom of
Peru. This also included Panama and the Spanish land in South America.
The Viceroys made sure the king's laws were followed and taxes were
collected. They had little authority on their own; all important matters
had to be referred to the King/Queen. The concept of local government
did not exist.
• Conquistadors were usually second-born sons of nobility who had the
ambition and education, but no titles, lands, or wealth. They were
seasoned soldiers from the Reconquista and convinced that their way of
life was superior to all others. They believed in “the Cross or the Sword”
and were soldiers and leaders who helped take over the land from the
Indians. They treated the Indians like slaves.
• Missionaries were Catholic priests. They built missions throughout Spanish
territory. The missions were built like forts because the Indians often
attacked them. Many Indians lived on large farms owned by the Spanish.
They were enslaved and converted to Christianity in the encomienda
system. The large farms were called haciendas.
• The first cattle, horses, and cowboys were started by the Spanish, not to
mention excellent CA wines, planted from Spanish grapes.

Spanish Conquest of the New World
• The Spanish brought
the new crops of
sugar cane, coffee,
and cereal grains to
the New World.
• The Indians
introduced the
Spanish to tobacco,
potatoes, corn,
chocolate from cacao
beans, and squash.

Balboa was the first European to sight
the Pacific Ocean from crossing the
Isthmus of Panama.

Montezuma
• Montezuma or Moctezuma [mok–] , 1480?–1520, Aztec emperor (c.1502–
1520). He is sometimes called Montezuma II to distinguish him from
Montezuma I (ruled 1440–69), who carried on conquests around
Tenochtitlán. His reign was marked by incessant warfare, and his despotic
rule caused grave unrest. When Hernán Cortés arrived in Mexico he was
thus able to gain native allies, notably in the province of the Tlaxcala.
Montezuma, believing the Spanish to be descendants of the god
Quetzalcoatl, tried to persuade them to leave by offering rich gifts. That
failing, he received them in his splendid court at Tenochtitlán in Nov.,
1519. Cortés later seized him as a hostage and attempted to govern
through him. In June, 1520, the Aztec rose against the Spanish.
Montezuma was killed, although whether by the Spanish or the Aztec is
not certain. His successor died a few months later and was replaced by
Cuauhtémoc. Montezuma's name is linked by a legend to fabulous
treasures that the Spanish appropriated and presumably lost at sea.

Chocolate
• "The divine drink, which builds up
resistance and fights fatigue.
A cup of this precious drink [cocoa]
permits a man to walk for a whole
day without food."
Montezuma II
(1502-1520)
When the Spaniards, under Hernán
Cortés, arrived in 1519, the Aztec
civilization was at its height. However,
many subject Indian groups, rebellious
against Aztec rule, were only too willing
to join the Spanish. Initially, the
invaders were aided by the fact that the
Aztec believed them to be descendants
of the god Quetzalcoatl. Montezuma,
the last of the independent Aztec rulers,
received Cortés, who made him
prisoner and attempted to rule through
him. The Aztec revolted, Montezuma
was killed, and Tenochtitlán was razed
(1521). Cuauhtémoc, last of the
emperors, was murdered (1525), and
the Spanish proceeded to subjugate
Mexico.

Although Spanish conquistadors only numbered in the hundreds
as compared to millions of Native Americans, they had many
advantages. Their guns and cannons were superior to the Native
Americans’ arrows and spears, and European metal armor
provided them with better protection. They also had horses, which
not only were useful in battle and in carrying supplies, but also
frightened the Native Americans, who had never seen a horse.
Guns,
Horses, and
Disease

Most importantly, an invisible
invader—disease—helped the
conquistadors take control of the
Taínos and other Native
Americans. Europeans
unknowingly carried diseases
such as smallpox, measles, and
influenza to which Native
Americans had no immunity, or
resistance.
These diseases spread rapidly and wiped out
village after village. As a result, the Native
American population of the Caribbean islands
declined by as much as 90 percent in the 1500s.
Millions of Native Americans died from disease
as Europeans made their way inland.

La Malinche (c. 1496 or c. 1505 – c. 1529, some
sources give 1550-1551), known also as
Malintzin, Malinalli or Doña Marina, was
a Nahua woman from the Mexican Gulf Coast,
who played a role in the Spanish conquest
of Mexico, acting as interpreter, advisor, lover
and intermediary for Hernán Cortés. She was
one of twenty slaves given to Cortés by the
natives of Tabasco in 1519. Later she became
a mistress to Cortés and gave birth to his first
son, Martín, who is considered one of the first
Mestizos (people of mixed
European and indigenous American ancestry).
Her relationship to Cortés gave birth to Martin -
arguably a mestizo and criollo, those who
eventually resented Spain for not allowing them
any ruling position just because they were born
in America.

A Layered Society
Spanish colonial society was made up of distinct social classes. At the top were
peninsulares ,people born in Spain. (The term peninsular referred to the Iberian Peninsula,
on which Spain is located.) Peninsulares filled the highest positions in both colonial
governments and the Catholic Church. Next came creoles, American-born descendants of
Spanish settlers. Creoles owned most of the plantations, ranches, and mines.
Lower social groups reflected the mixing of populations. They included mestizos, people of
Native American and European descent, and mulattoes, people of African and European
descent. Native Americans and people of African descent formed the lowest social classes.

Pizarro conquers the
Incas
• Atahualpa sensed that his Spanish
captors were greedy and offered a
room full of gold as ransom, or
payment for his release. Pizarro
agreed, and the Incas brought gold and
silver statues, jewelry, and artwork
from all over the empire. The Spanish
ordered the Incas to melt everything
down into gold bars. Pizarro received
word about the capture and killing of
Huáscar. He put Atahualpa on trial for
treason for his brother's murder and
for plotting against the Spanish.
Treason is working against one's own
country or government. Atahualpa was
found guilty and was executed on
August 29, 1533. With the death of its
leader, the Inca Empire soon fell.

St. Augustine, Europe’s oldest permanent
settlement in North America
• On August 28, the Feast Day of Saint Augustine, Don Pedro
Menendez de Aviles first sighted the coast of Florida. Twelve days
later, on September 8, he stepped ashore, planted the Spanish flag
into the sandy soil and, with soldiers and settlers who had
traveled with him and Timicuans who greeted his arrival watching,
Menendez founded a new city and named it St. Augustine. The
year was 1565.
From that day until today, the City of St. Augustine has continued
to survive and thrive, making it the longest continually inhabited
European founded city in the United States, or more commonly
called the "Nation’s Oldest City."
The Castillo de San Marcos, built 1672-1695,
served primarily as an outpost of the Spanish
Empire, guarding St. Augustine, the first
permanent European settlement in the
continental United States, and also protecting
the sea route for treasure ships returning to
Spain.

St. Augustine
• The mainland of the North American continent was first sighted by the Spanish explorer
and treasure hunter Don Juan Ponce de Leon on Easter, March 27, 1513. He claimed the
land for Spain and named it La Florida, meaning "Land of Flowers". Between 1513 and
1563 the government of Spain launched six expeditions to settle Florida, but all failed.
the French succeeded in establishing a fort and colony on the St. Johns River in 1564
and, in doing so, threatened Spain's treasure fleets which sailed along Florida's
shoreline returning to Spain. As a result of this incursion into Florida, King Phillip II
named Don Pedro Menendez de Aviles, Spain's most experienced admiral, as governor
of Florida, instructing him to explore and to colonize the territory. Menendez was also
instructed to drive out any pirates or settlers from other nations, should they be found
there.
• When Menendez arrived off the coast of Florida, it was August 28, 1565, the Feast Day
of St. Augustine. Eleven days later, he and his 600 soldiers and settlers came ashore at
the site of the Timucuan Indian village of Seloy with banners flying and trumpets
sounding. He hastily fortified the fledgling village and named it St. Augustine.
• Utilizing brilliant military maneuvers, Menendez destroyed the French garrison on the
St. Johns River and, with the help of a hurricane, also defeated the French fleet. With
the coast of Florida firmly in Spanish hands, he then set to work building the town,
establishing missions to the Indians for the Church, and exploring the land.
• Thus, St. Augustine was founded forty-two years before the English colony at
Jamestown, Virginia, and fifty-five years before the Pilgrims landed on Plymouth Rock in
Massachusetts - making it the oldest permanent European settlement on the North
American continent.

A 1584 drawing of slaves laboring at the
Potosí silver mine, Bolivia
The encomienda system was used in the
mines as well as on plantations. By the
1540s, tons of silver from the Potosí
region of Peru and Bolivia filled Spanish
treasure ships.
Year after year, thousands of Native
Americans were forced to extract the rich
ore from dangerous shafts deep inside
the Andes Mountains. As thousands of
Indians died from the terrible conditions,
they were replaced by thousands more.
A few bold priests, like Bartolomé de Las
Casas condemned the evils of the encomienda system.
In vivid reports to Spain, Las Casas detailed the horrors
that Spanish rule had brought to Native Americans and
pleaded with the king to end the abuse.

Bartholomeo de las Casas
• Bartholomew de Las Casas was born in Seville, Spain in 1474. He was a young man of wealth and
social position when Columbus returned in 1492 from the New World, bringing a captive Indian as a
trophy. The young de Las Casas took his law degree at the University of Salamanca, where the
Dominicans were already wrestling with the problems of social injustice brought about by the
conquest. In 1502 he accompanied his father to Hispaniola (now the Dominican Republic and Haiti).
A typical young Spanish grandee, with a large amount of property on the island of Hispaniola,
Bartolomew was atypically kind to the Native People who were slaves on his plantation. However
the thought of slavery never really bothered him. It seemed at the time an eminently sensible
method of colonizing a new land, and for many years while injustice flared on all sides, he paid
little attention to the social injustice of the colonial system.
• In 1510, the Order of Preachers arrived in Hispaniola from Spain. From almost the beginning they
began to preach against the entire system of slavery. The Spanish colonists were amazed, then
angry and finally began to work at ways of having the Dominicans removed. They banned together
and sent petitions to the King requesting that the friars be sent home. Bartholomew de Las Casas
was one of the colonists who heard Father Anthony Montesinos preach against slavery. While at
that time he was not prepared to give up his slaves, he did realize with greater clarity the injustices
he and the other Spaniards were committing against the Native People. After a time of prayerful
reflection he gave the responsibility of running his plantation to a friend and expressed a desire to
become a priest. Consequently he was the first priest to celebrate his first Mass in Hispaniola.
• Soon after his ordination he was assigned as chaplain to the army invading Cuba. Despite the
promises made to him assuring a fair use of force; he witnessed a horrible massacre of the Native
People. Totally disillusioned, he sailed for Spain the next year, and in 1515 he presented the case of
the Native People to the Council of the Indies. For two years de Las Casas pleaded the cause of the
conquered people and asked that the king stop the senseless violence. King Ferdinand, wishing to
avoid the entire situation, sent de Las Casas back to Hispaniola with the title "Protector of the
Indians" and with a great many laws to rectify the matter. It soon became clear to Bartholomew
that laws without backing were futile words. So in less than a year, de Las Casas was sailing back to
Spain to ask for support for the laws he had been given. After consulting with Charles the V, de Las
Casas realized that King Ferdinand had no intention of forcing the colonialist to obey.

• More disheartened, Bartholomew returned to Hispaniola and in 1522, freed his own slaves and
requested entrance into the Dominican Order. He received the habit. He spent the next eight
years of his life praying, reflecting and writing. Of the many works that he accomplished in his
life, his writings have had the greatest impact on subsequent generations.
• Since traffic in slavery was then a common practice through out the world, de Las Casas at first
endorsed the importing of Africans slaves to the colonies, but quickly repented of his decision.
He again confessed this mistake as a sin on his deathbed.
• The intelligentsia of Europe maintained the legitimacy of the inhuman slave traffic and strove to
negate the influence of de Las Casas. Undaunted by almost universal opposition, the intrepid
liberator crossed the Atlantic fourteen times to persuade the Spanish Cortes to enact
humanitarian laws for the peaceful civilization and conversion of the Native People. He was
admired and supported in his efforts by the Emperor Charles V and by the Dominican professors
at the University of Salamanca. Chiefly through his efforts the famous New Laws were enacted in
1542-43.
• In 1544 de Las Casas was appointed bishop of the Mexican province of Chiapas. But he was so
frustrated by the powerful landholders that he retired in Spain in 1547.
• Bartholomew de Las Casas spent the remaining years of his life in retirement at the convent of
Our Lady of Athocha in Madrid. Rarely speaking anymore, he spent his days writing. At the age
of ninety he wrote his last defense of the Native People, explaining the rights of personal
property of non-Christians. He died in 1566, not realizing his hopes of true equality and
humanitarian treatment of the Native People.

Prayer to Bartholomew de Las Casas
Righteous God, You filled Bartholomew with a zeal for
justice for the Native People of the New World.
Help us to be people of justice,
ready to defend the rights of the poor, neglected and
displaced peoples of our world.
Give us Your grace so that we may create a New World
Order of peace and justice for all.
We ask this prayer
through our Lord Jesus Christ Your Son, our Lord,
who lives and reigns with you in the unity of the Holy
Spirit,
God forever and ever.
Amen

• Primogeniture—first born son inherits everything
• Encomienda system—fort/mission/school/slave factory—
converted enslaved natives to work on ranches/haciendas
• Conquistador—Spanish soldier/adventurer/knight, but usually
the younger sons
• Hildago—young Spanish nobleman
• Black robes—Jesuit priests who accompanied the
conquistadors, set up missions, converted the natives
• Peninsulare—Spanish born in Spain (Iberia)
• Mestizo—mixed parents—Sp. and Native or African
• Creole—pure Spanish parents, but born in the Americas
• Vaquero—Spanish man on horseback who tends cattle
Spanish Terms

CABEZA DE VACA
• IN 1528, CABEZA DE VACA AND THE CREW OF THE NARVAEZ EXPEDITION
WERE SHIPWRECKED ALONG THE UPPER TEXAS COAST. THEY FOUND
THEMSELVES AMONG THE KARANKAWAS OR RELATED PEOPLES , AND DE
VACA CHRONICLED HIS EXPERIENCES.
• In 1534, Cabeza de Vaca, Alonzo de Castillo, Andres Dorantes and his black
Moroccan servant, Esteban, fled from the Native Americans. They
wandered across Texas and Mexico for two years until a Spanish patrol
found them and took them to Mexico City in 1536.

CABRILLO, JUAN RODRIGUEZ
Juan Rodriguez Cabrillo (? -1543) was a Spanish or Portuguese explorer (his
nationality is uncertain). Cabrillo was the first European explorer of the
Californian coast. In 1542, he sailed from Acapulco to southern California,
claiming California for King Charles I of Spain. Cabrillo named San Diego Bay and
Santa Barbara. He died on San Miguel Island (in the Santa Barbara Channel)
after a fight with Indians, from complications resulting from a broken leg.
On 23 November 1542, the little
fleet limped back to "San Salvador"
(Santa Catalina Island) to overwinter
and make repairs. There, around
Christmas Eve, Cabrillo stepped out
of his boat and splintered his shin
when he stumbled on a jagged rock.
The injury developed gangrene and
he died on 3 January 1543.
João Rodrigues Cabrilho

He named Santa Barbara and San Diego, but he missed Monterrey Bay, San Francisco Bay,
and Golden Gate Bay.

Father Junipero Serra
(1713-1784)
• Father Junipero Serra (Miguel Jose Serra) was one of the most important
Spanish missionaries in the New World. Born in Majorca on November 24,
1713, he joined the Franciscan Order at the age of 16. He soon gained
prominence as an eloquent preacher and eventually became a professor of
theology. His dream was to become a missionary to America. He arrived in
Mexico City in 1750 to begin this new life.
• In 1769 he established a mission at the present site of San Diego, California,
the first of a number that would include San Antonio, San Buenaventura,
San Carlos, San Francisco de Assisi, San Gabriel, San Juan Capistrano, San
Luis Obispo, and Santa Clara. This was a herculean task considering that
Father Serra was already in his fifties and suffered from a chronic ulcerated
condition in one leg. Serra was ascetic and uncompromising in his zeal to
convert the Indians to Christianity and to make his missions self sufficient.
Inhabitants built their own homes, spun wool for garments, and pursued
careers as masons, carpenters, blacksmiths, and millers; thousands of
barrels of grain were kept in reserve supply, and herds of cattle, sheep,
horses, and swine were maintained.
• The ulcerated condition of Serra's leg eventually spread to his chest. At the
age of 71, aware of his deterioration, he made a final visit to his missions.
The well-known and beloved missionary died in Monterey, California, on
August 28, 1784; his missions continued to flourish for another 50 years.

Serra founded the following missions:
• LOWER CALIFORNIA
Serra was president of the following
missions.
(all founded by the Jesuits)
1. 1697 - Nuestra Señora de Loreto
2. 1699 - San Francisco Xavier
3. 1705 - Santa Rosalía de Mulegé
4. 1708 - San José de Comondú
5. 1720 - La Purísima Concepción de
. . . . . . . .María Cadegomó
6. 1720 - Nuestra Señora de
Guadalupe
7. 1721 - Santiago de las Coras
8. 1721 - Nuestra Señora de los
Dolores
9. 1728 - San Ignacio
10. 1730 - San José del Cabo
11. 1733 - Todos Santos
12. 1737 - San Luís Gonzaga
13. 1752 - Santa Gertrudis
14. 1762 - San Francisco de Borja
15. 1767 - Santa María de Los Angeles
• UPPER CALIFORNIA
Serra was responsible for the
founding of the first nine missions.
1) 1769 - San Diego de Alcalá
2) 1770 - San Carlos Borromeo
3) 1771 - San Antonio de Padua
4) 1771 - San Gabriel Arcángel
5) 1772 - San Luís Obispo de
Tolosa
6) 1776 - San Francisco de Asís
7) 1776 - San Juan Capistrano
8) 1777 - Santa Clara de Asís
9) 1782 - San Buenaventura

Pope’ or Po'pay
Photo courtesy Clear Light
Publishing/Marcia Keegan -- Herman
Agoyo and Joe S. Sando, editors of
''Po'pay: Leader of the First American
Revolution'' (Clear Light Publishing,
2005), stand in front of the statue of
Po'pay that will represent New Mexico in
the National Statuary Hall in Washington,
D.C.
• SANTA FE, N.M. - The year 2005 is quickly
becoming the ''Year of Po'pay.'' The leader of the
Pueblo Revolt of 1680 is the subject of a new
book, ''Po'pay: Leader of the First American
Revolution,'' written by Pueblo members and
leaders, while a marble tribute will soon honor
Po'pay in the National Statuary Hall at the U.S.
Capitol in Washington.

The Real Scoop
• Between 1644 and 1675 the Indians repeatedly rebelled against the better-armed and
better-organized Spaniards, but these uprisings were quickly suppressed. In the1660s and
1670s drought and unusually high temperatures made life increasingly difficult for both the
Indians and Spaniards. Spaniards seized Indian possessions and crops.
• A decade of isolated unrest culminated in the unification of most pueblos and other
communities against the Spaniards.
• In 1680 the charismatic Tewa leader Popé coordinated a successful rebellion against the
Spaniards, known as The Great Pueblo Revolt. Throughout the upper Rio Grande basin north
of El Paso to Taos, Tewa, Tiwa, Hopi, Zuni and other Keresan-speaking pueblos, and even the
non-pueblo Apaches simultaneously rose up against the Spanish.
• The Spaniards who were able to escape fled to Santa Fe where they were besieged by a
combined army of various tribes armed with Spanish weapons. After several days, the
Spaniards broke through the siege and fled south to El Paso.
• The Pueblo rebellion effectively ended Spanish rule in New Mexico for the next 12 years.
However, Popé died and the de facto confederation of the pueblos fell apart. Since there
were no Spanish troops to offer protection, the traditional enemies of the pueblos, the
Apache and Navajo, launched their attacks. The succeeding Spanish governor of the
territory, Diego de Vargas Zapata y Luján Ponce de León (ca. 1643-1704), began a successful
military and political reconquest in 1692. The Spanish will win since disease decimated the
pueblos. Pope will win the battle and lose the war.
• In the 17th century, Spain maintained New Mexico as a
Franciscan enclave dedicated to converting its indigenous
peoples to Christianity. In 1599 a rebellion in Ácoma was
brutally suppressed by Juan de Oñate. The actions of the
Spaniards shocked all of the pueblos and were not
forgotten. Tensions increased among the Spanish soldiers
seeking wealth, the priests needing wealth to build
churches, and the Indians who had to produce the wealth.

Spanish Place Names
Hispanic Heritage from Coast to Coast
• The Spanish were among the first Europeans to explore what is now the United States,
and the first to found a permanent settlement here (St. Augustine, Florida, in 1565).
From Alaska's Madre de Dios Island to Mexico, Maine, the United States is dotted with
Spanish place names. Here are a few.
• Alamo: "poplar." This tall softwood tree gave its name to a number of U.S. places, including the
memorable chapel-fort in Texas and the town of Los Alamos in New Mexico, where atomic bombs
were produced.
• Alcatraz Island (California): from álcatraces, pelican. A sizable pelican population once lived on this
rocky island in the San Francisco Bay.
• Boca Raton (Florida): from boca de ratónes, a Spanish term applied to nearby inlets. It translates as
"mouth of the mouse" (not "rat," which is rata) and may refer to the jagged rocks at these inlets. It
has also been suggested that ratónes was a term used for the pirates who might hide in such a place.
• California: The state was named for a mythical land described in a popular Spanish novel from
around 1500, Las sergas de Esplandián (The exploits of Esplandián) by Garcia Ordóñez de Montalvo.
• Cape Canaveral (Florida): from cañaveral, canebrake. The promontory NASA made famous takes its
name from the thickets of cane that grow in sandy areas.
• Colorado: "reddish." The state is named for the reddish color of mud found in the Colorado River.
• El Paso (Texas): "passage." The border city of El Paso lies at a small gap between the Rockies and the
Juarez Mountains of Mexico. This narrow passage has made the city a hub for both north-south and
east-west travel.
• Florida: "flowery." Some say that Spanish explorer Ponce de Leon named the land for the Spanish
term for Easter, Pascua de Florida (Flowery Feast), because he first saw the land during the Easter
season. Others believe he named it for the area's lush flowers.
• Fresno (California): "ash tree." The central Californian city and county are named for their abundant
ash trees.

• La Brea (California): "tar." The tar pits in this famous part of Los Angeles have yielded
amazing fossils for more than 100 years.
• Las Cruces (New Mexico): "crosses." The city is named for the burial ground of some 40
travelers who were killed by Apaches in 1830.
• Las Vegas (Nevada): "meadows." Before casinos and neon lights defined Las Vegas, the area
was noteworthy as a desert oasis with artesian springs.
• Los Angeles (California): "angels." In 1781 Spanish settlers founded El Pueblo de Nuestra
Señora la Reina de Los Angeles de Porciúncula (The Town of Our Lady the Queen of the
Angels of Porciúncula). It became known as La Ciudad de los Angeles (City of Angels), and
then just as Los Angeles.
• Los Gatos (California): "cats." At the time this western California city was founded, many
wildcats roamed the area.
• Montana: from montaña, mountain. Representative James M. Ashley of Ohio suggested
using the Spanish word in honor of the territory's mountainous western part.
• Nevada: "snow-covered." The mountains in this western state are often capped with snow.
• San Antonio (Texas): "Saint Anthony" (of Padua). On the feast day of St. Anthony in 1691,
Spanish explorers found and named the eponymous river. Later the name was given to the
city, which was founded in 1718.
• San Francisco (California): "Saint Francis" (of Assisi). The city by the bay was once a Mexican
village named Yerba Buena (Good Grass). In 1846, during the Mexican War, Commodore
John Sloat captured and renamed the settlement for its San Francisco de Asís mission (better
known as Mission Dolores), which was founded in 1776.
• Sangre de Cristo Mountains (Colorado and New Mexico): "blood of Christ." This mountain
range was named for the red glow cast on it by the setting sun.
• Santa Fe (New Mexico): "holy faith." Spanish settlers founded this oldest U.S. capital nearly
400 years ago, as La Villa Real de la Santa Fe de San Francisco de Asís (The Royal City of the
Holy Faith of Saint Francis).

Spanish Words in English
• Others,such as tuna, which comes from the Spanish atún,are variations of the original.
Other food words are of American Indian origin, but came into English via Spanish.
Tomato,for instance, is derived from the Spanish tomate,a corruption of the Nahuatl word
tomatl. Chocolate comes from the Nahuatl word xocolatl. Potato comes from papa,
meaning white potato in the Inca language, Quechua; and batata, sweet potato in the
Taino Indian language of the Caribbean. Banana, on the other hand, entered Spanish from
the West African languages of Wolof, Mandingo, and Fulani.
• Animal Names
A number of animal words went directly from Indian languages into Spanish and then
English.Puma originated in Quechua, while jaguar comes from yaguar, a word of the
Guarani who live in what is now Paraguay, and iguana is a modification of iwana, used by
the Arawak and Carib of the West Indies.
• Riding Through the Desert
When Americans began exploring the Southwest in the early 19th century they
encountered an established Mexican culture, which has provided English with many
everyday words. Some involve horseback riding, including rodeo, lasso, and lariat, since the
horse was a key part of frontier life for both Mexicans and Americans.
Ranch , a common English word today, hails from the Mexican Spanish ranch, meaning
ranch, settlement, or meat ration.
• In fact, our whole idea of a cowboy derives from the Spanish—cattle and horses were
introduced to the New World via the conquistadors—mustangs, saddles, stirrups, boots,
lariats, guitars, chaps, and even the ten gallon hat.

• Sailing the Spanish Main
Hurricane, tobacco,and hammock came to English from the Caribbean. In the 17th and
18th centuries American and English traders plied the ports of the West Indies and
South America. Weather often required extended stays in these ports, acquainting the
English speakers with Spanish culture.
In addition, buccaneers in search of treasure sailed "the Spanish Main," the South
American mainland from the Orinoco River in present-day Venezuela to Panama. It is
likely they also acquired many Spanish words now used in English.
• Common Words with Spanish Origins
Alligator - el lagarto , the lizard
Booby - bobo, silly or selfish, from the Latin for stammering, balbus
Bronco - meaning wild or rough
Cafeteria - cafetería , a coffee shop
Cargo - cargar , to load
Cigar, Cigarette - cigarro
Comrade - camarada, old Spanish for barracks company or roommate
Guerrilla - a small raiding party or fighting force
Hoosegow - from juzgado, a tribunal or courtroom, past participle of juzgar, to judge
Mustang - mestengo or mesteño , a stray animal
Patio - courtyard in Spanish
Peccadillo - a form of pecado, to sin
Renegade - renegado, deserter or outlaw
Savvy - saber, to know
Tornado - tornar, to turn, tronada, thunderstorm
Vamoose - vamos, let's go .
Words with the same meaning in both languages include aficionado , armada,
barracuda, mosquito, tobacco, and vanilla .

The Mythical Northwest Passage
At that time the Europeans believed everything in the north was covered by ice and it was not until the 1490s, when
John Cabot proposed that there must exist a direct way to the Orient via the Northwest Passage, that the Europeans'
interest in the far north was peaked. It was during the 16th century that Europe began to investigate the possibility of a
passage in the Northwest that would offer a safer sea route to the Orient than those which lay exposed to possible
Spanish or Portuguese attack, such as the areas of Cape Horn and the Cape of Good Hope. This search was to continue
for over 300 years, during which time explorers would brave the harsh climate and treacherous ice conditions of the
North. Some men would lose their lives due to starvation, scurvy, attack by Inuit or even their fellow crew in an
attempt to find a way through the maze of ice and islands.

http://www.classzone.com/cz/books/wh_modern05/secured/resources/applications/ebook/i
ndex.jsp

Cabot, Drake, and Hudson Explore

English arrive in Virginia
by John White

• 1587 (August)--"War" with Roanoke. Almost
immediately upon landing, an Englishmen
was killed by an Indian. However, the
Croatoan, on a nearby island, made overtures
of peace towards the colonists.
• Manteo specifically dealt with the
English. The rest of the Croatoan, perhaps
hearing of the abuses the Roanoke suffered,
did not want to become too close to the
settlers - they wanted to be on good terms
but not made into servants.
• Manteo told the English that the Roanoke
had killed Grenville's fifteen soldiers. In
August, the colonists, in retaliation, attacked
what they thought was a Roanoke village on
the island. However, the Roanoke had
abandoned the village, and it had been
repopulated by the friendly Croatoan. Many
Indians were killed before the English were
finally stopped.
• Manteo had his work cut out for him
maintaining friendly relations between his
village and the colonists.
Sir Walter Raleigh

'Lost Colony'
• Just after the colonists left, supply ships from Raleigh and then the long-awaited
Grenville arrived, now too late. Grenville left fifteen soldiers to watch over the
abandoned colony. These fifteen soldiers would never be seen again.
• 1587 (July)--Roanoke 2: The Lost Colony. Raleigh once again organized an
expedition to colonize America, two years after his first failure. This time he
recruited 150 people, including women and families, and notably experienced
farmers and less soldiers. However, they came just as ill-equipped and just as
hostile toward the native populations.
• Although the second expedition had planned to settle farther in the bay, they
ended up settling at the original site of the first colony. The fifteen soldiers that
had been left there were not to be found; one body was recovered, but no sign of
the others was ever discovered.

Captain John Smith
• Virginians know that Captain John Smith was one of the first American heroes. But
because he was a proud and boastful man, it is difficult to know which parts of his
life are fact and which are fiction. What many people may not know is that Smith's
adventures started even before Jamestown. Born in 1580 in Willoughby, England,
John Smith left home at age 16 after his father died. He began his travels by joining
volunteers in France who were fighting for Dutch independence from Spain. Two
years later, he set off for the Mediterranean Sea, working on a merchant ship. In
1600 he joined Austrian forces to fight the Turks in the "Long War." A valiant soldier,
he was promoted to Captain while fighting in Hungary. He was fighting in
Transylvania two years later in 1602. There he was wounded in battle, captured, and
sold as a slave to a Turk. This Turk then sent Smith as a gift to his sweetheart in
Istanbul. According to Smith, this girl fell in love with him and sent him to her
brother to get training for Turkish imperial service. Smith reportedly escaped by
murdering the brother and returned to Transylvania by fleeing through Russia and
Poland. After being released from service and receiving a large reward, he traveled
all through Europe and Northern Africa. He returned to England in the winter of
1604-05.

• Here begins Captain John Smith's American adventures. Apparently restless in England, Smith became
actively involved with plans to colonize Virginia for profit by the Virginia Company, which had been granted a
charter from King James I. After setting sail on December 20, 1606, this famous expedition finally reached
Virginia in April 1607 after enduring a lengthy voyage of over four months in three tiny ships. When the
sealed box that listed the names of the seven council members who were to govern the colony was opened,
Smith's name was on the list. On May 13, 1607 the settlers landed at Jamestown ready to begin the task of
surviving in a new environment. The harsh winter, lack of fresh water, and the spread of disease made life in
Jamestown difficult for the settlers. Attacks by the native Algonquian Indians made life almost impossible.
The Indians, hoping that the settlers would give up and leave, raided their camps, stealing pistols, gunpowder,
and other necessary supplies. John Smith became leader of the colonists and did his best to fight off the
Indians.
• In December 1607, he and some companions were ambushed by Indian deer hunters. After killing the other
Englishmen with him, the Indians carried Smith back to their powerful chief, Powhatan, to decide his fate.
Powhatan was apparently greatly impressed by Smith's self-confidence as well as such mystical instruments
as an ivory and glass pocket compass he carried with him. Smith was questioned about his colony and then
made to take part in some sort of ritual or trial, after which, in keeping with an Indian custom, he was made a
subordinate chief in the tribe.
Colin Farrell as Capt. John Smith

Pocahon
tas
• Powhatan's daughter, Pocahontas - a
nickname which means "my favorite
daughter, or mischievous one" and not her
real name (her real name was Matoaka, or
little down feather from the Canada geese
that winter on the Chesapeake) - told the
leader of the colony, John Smith, of her
father's agenda; history would remember her
as "saving" the colonists from a trap.
• The story of Pocahontas saving John Smith
may possibly be legend; however, legend
follows history in the next saga. After
negotiations were broken off, Pocahontas was
taken prisoner by the colonists as a bargaining
chip for the return of white prisoners Chief
Powhatan had. Later, she married John Rolfe,
a white settler and established a peace
between the Powhatan and the Virginia
settlers.

Pocahontas
• Unfortunately, relations with the Powhatans worsened. Necessary trading still continued,
but hostilities became more open. While before she had been allowed to come and go
almost at will, Pocahontas' visits to the fort became much less frequent. In October 1609,
John Smith was badly injured by a gunpowder explosion and was forced to return to
England. When Pocahontas next came to visit the fort, she was told that her friend Smith
was dead.
• Pocahontas apparently married an Indian "pryvate Captayne" named Kocoum in 1610. She
lived in Potomac country among Indians, but her relationship with the Englishmen was not
over. When an energetic and resourceful member of the Jamestown settlement, Captain
Samuel Argall, learned where she was, he devised a plan to kidnap her and hold her for
ransom. With the help of Japazaws, lesser chief of the Patowomeck Indians, Argall lured
Pocahontas onto his ship. When told she would not be allowed to leave, she “began to be
exceeding pensive and discontented," but she eventually became calmer and even
accustomed to her captivity. Argall sent word to Powhatan that he would return his
beloved daughter only when the chief had returned to him the English prisoners he held,
the arms and tolls that the Indians had stolen, and also some corn. After some time
Powhatan sent part of the ransom and asked that they treat his daughter well. Argall
returned to Jamestown in April 1613 with Pocahontas. She eventually moved to a new
settlement, Henrico, which was under the leadership of Sir Thomas Dale. It was here that
she began her education in the Christian Faith, and that she met a successful tobacco
planter named John Rolfe in July 1613. Pocahontas was allowed relative freedom within
the settlement, and she began to enjoy her role in the relations between the colony and
her people. After almost a year of captivity, Dale brought 150 armed men and Pocahontas
into Powhatan’s territory to obtain her entire ransom. Attacked by the Indians, the
Englishmen burned many houses, destroyed villages, and killed several Indian men.
Pocahontas was finally sent ashore where she was reunited with two of her brothers,
whom she told that she was treated well and that she was in love with the Englishman
John Rolfe and wanted to marry him. Powhatan gave his consent to this , and the
Englishmen departed, delighted at the prospect of the “peace-making” marriage, although
they didn’t receive the full ransom.
• John Rolfe was a very religious man who agonized for many weeks over the decision to
marry a "strange wife," a heathen Indian. He finally decided to marry Pocahontas after she
had been converted to Christianity, "for the good of the plantation, the honor of our
country, for the glory of God, for mine own salvation ..." Pocahontas was baptized,
christened Rebecca, and later married John Rolfe on April 5, 1614. A general peace and a
spirit of goodwill between the English and the Indians resulted from this marriage.

Baptism of Pocahontas at Jamestown, Virginia, 1613
John G. Chapman

The Dutch - Counterbalance
• 1608--Henry Hudson. Henry Hudson, a Dutch explorer, came to the New World in 1608 and
explored the interior of the continent, along what would be named the Hudson River.
• 17th century--The Dutch. In the mid-17th century, the Dutch arrived in the New World. They built
Fort Orange (modern-day Albany) and settled along the Hudson river. They were there purely for
profit, not for any settlement or missionary reasons. Meanwhile, around this time, the Mohawks,
part of the Iroquois confederacy, came into conflict with the Mohicans, not a part of the
Confederacy, to their east. The Mohawks forced the smaller tribe even further east towards the
Hudson. It was a small conflict, but it had large repercussions; because of it, the Mohawks
encountered the Dutch. The Dutch then became allies to the Iroquois and provided the
counterbalance to the French in the region.
• 1639--Dutch Government Forbids Gun Sales. By 1639, the government in the Netherlands had
passed a law forbidding the sale of guns to American Indians. The complaints of Indian attacks from
settlers prompted legislation from many European countries banning firearm sale from their
companies. However, many private traders by this time had come to the area and had no qualms
about selling guns to willing buyers. The Iroquois had an estimated 400 guns by the 1640's.
Henry Hudson
Fort Orange

The Spanish Main—the main route the
Spanish treasure galleons back to Spain!

Blackbeard
• Edward Teach, alias Blackbeard, "more than any other, can
be called North Carolina's own pirate, although he was not
a native of the colony... As is the case with all pirates, his
origin is obscure. His name originally, it seems was Edward
Drummond, and he began his career as an honest seaman,
sailing out of his home port of Bristol, England. He is
seldom known by that name, for after he became a pirate
he began calling himself Edward Teach, sometimes spelled
in the records as Thatch, Tache, or even Tatch. Yet it was as
Blackbeard that he was, and still is , known, and it was
under this name that the people of his generation knew
him, 'a swaggering, merciless brute.'" -- Hugh F. Rankin.
Queen Anne's Revenge
• Blackbeard's Queen Anne's Revenge? The Underwater
Archaeology Unit (UAU) of the North Carolina Department
of Cultural Resources in association with the private
research firm Intersal, Inc., has conducted three major
expeditions to a wreck believed to be the remains of the
Queen Anne's Revenge, Blackbeard's flagship, which sank at
Beaufort Inlet, North Carolina in 1718. Following five years
of intense study, archaeologists have made great strides
toward understanding the site's origin and significance. The
site includes A General History of Blackbeard, the Queen
Anne's Revenge and the Adventure; reports of the
excavations, 1997-2003; and a guide to the artifacts
uncovered. Updated!

Captain Jack Sparrow crosses paths with a woman from his past (Penélope Cruz), and
he's not sure if it's love—or if she's a ruthless con artist who's using him to find the
fabled Fountain of Youth. When she forces him aboard the Queen Anne's Revenge, the
ship of the formidable pirate Blackbeard (Ian McShane), Jack finds himself on an
unexpected adventure in which he doesn't know who to fear more: Blackbeard or the
woman from his past.
Orlando and Keira apparently aren’t in this one

AArgh, Matey!Pirates!
• Why did so many pirates operate in the Caribbean Sea and off the
coast of America?
The Welsh Pirate Howell Davis by P. Christian. Davis was a pirate in
the Caribbean© NMM LondonThe explorer Christopher Columbus
established contact between Europe and the lands that were later
named America at the end of the 15th century, while searching for a
quick route to the east. As he was working for the king and queen of
Spain, these 'new lands' were claimed by the Spanish, who soon
discovered them to be a rich source of silver, gold and gems. From the
16th century, large Spanish ships, called galleons, began to sail back to
Europe, loaded with precious cargoes that pirates found impossible to
resist. So many successful pirate attacks were made that galleons
were forced to sail together in fleets with armed vessels for
protection. As Spanish settlers set up new towns on Caribbean islands
and the American mainland, these too came under pirate attack.
• Why were pirate attacks so often successful?
Pirate ships usually carried far more crew than ordinary ships of a similar size. This
meant they could easily outnumber their victims. Pirates altered their ships so that
they could carry far more cannon than merchant ships of the same size. Stories
about pirate brutality meant that many of the most famous pirates had a terrifying
reputation, and they advertised this by flying various gruesome flags including the
'Jolly Roger' with its picture of skull and crossbones. All these things together
meant that victims often surrendered very quickly. Sometimes there was no
fighting at all.

Mayflower
• 1620--Plymouth. The Pilgrim Puritans left the Netherlands for America to set up an ideal society based on their own way of living.
They had no "American" visions of religious freedom; they were there to create their own Puritan society, to build their "citty on a
hill." They had no intentions of making allies with the Indians or becoming involved in their politics. And thus the New England
colony differed from every other expedition to America - they were not there for economic profit but solely to settle.
• Because they were a religious group, the Puritans at Plymouth brought a strict set of tenements with them, a devoutly pious way of
life that they were not about to change or stray from. They were well-educated, hard-working, and thought of themselves as very
moral. Above all, they were homogenous; thus, they became more stable than most European colonies.
• The Puritans notably brought women with them; they came as families ready to set up a village, whereas earlier military and
economic expeditions were mainly composed of men. The Puritans had nearly equal men-to-women, bringing 17 married couples,
plus their children. Again, this made them more stable than other colonies. It is also depictive of the Puritan removal from the
Indians; Spanish conquistadors and French fur traders had children with Indian women, but with the settlers in New England, there
would be no such extensive mingling.
• Not all the settlers at Plymouth were Puritans. However, the Puritans, with their strict way of life, dominated the social structure.
• 1620 (September 16)--Mayflower Departs. The Puritans in the Netherlands, under the leadership of Captain Miles Standish,
bought passage on the Mayflower, an expedition to the New World by a London company. Of the 102 people on the ship, only one-
third were Puritans, 17 families total. The rest were other interested colonists, and the ship's crew.
• 1620 (November 21)--Mayflower Compact. The Mayflower was heading for Virginia, to set up shop near the other English
colonies. However, they were hit by a storm in the middle of the Atlantic Ocean and arrived, in November, after nine and half
weeks at sea, on the shores of Massachusetts.
• Because of the non-Puritans in the group, the Puritans pushed for drawing up a plan of government before they got off the ship, to
ensure the liberty of Puritans once on land. The men met in a ship's cabin and wrote the Mayflower Compact.

Cape Cod
• They
scouted
the area
for some
weeks
before
deciding
on the
right
location.

John Alden & Priscilla Mullen
• John Alden joined the Mayflower in England. At the time, he was
about 21 years old. William Bradford writes that he "was hired for a
cooper, at South-Hampton, where the ship victuled; and being a
hopefull yong man, was much desired, but left to his owne liking to go
or stay when he came here; but he stayed, and maryed here."
John Alden was a cooper, or barrel-maker, by trade.
John Alden married Priscilla Mullins, also of the Mayflower. The date
of their marriage is not known. They were probably married by 1623
since Priscilla is not listed separately in the 1623 Division of Land. By
the 1627 Division of Cattle, they were married and had two children,
Elizabeth and John.
The legend of the rivalry between Miles Standish and John Alden for
the hand of Priscilla Mullins was first published in Rev. Timothy Alden's
1814 Collection of American Epitaphs and Inscriptions. The story was
popularized in the poem, The Courtship of Miles Standish, published by
Henry Wadsworth Longfellow in 1858.
• "Why don't you speak for yourself, John?"
• John and Priscilla Mullins Alden had 10 children : Elizabeth, John,
Joseph, Sarah, Jonathan, Ruth, Rebecca, Mary, Priscilla, and David.
John Alden met Priscilla
Mullins when they
were passengers on the
Mayflower. Their
marriage, believed to
be the second to take
place in Plymouth
Colony, was the
inspiration for Henry
Wadsworth
Longfellow's poem,
"The Courtship of
Myles Standish."

The Widowed
Land
• Colonists DO NOT Encounter "Wilderness." Because of the decimation of Indians,
the earliest colonists had "widowed land" on which to settle - clearings in forests,
previously tilled land - ready and waiting for them. They did not appear on a harsh
and wild coast and dig into virgin wilderness; they found abandoned Indian camps
and empty villages, cleared out mainly because of disease. This fact in the early
colonies is often overlooked, but it is immensely important that the early colonists
found the area like this. It would have been so much harder to cut back thick
forests or clear hard, woodsy land for farming; perhaps the early colonies would
not have made it in the face of such challenges.
•

The Mayflower Compact
• "In the name of God, Amen. We, whose names are underwritten, the Loyal
Subjects of our dread Sovereign Lord, King James, by the Grace of God, of
England, France and Ireland, King, Defender of the Faith, e&. Having
undertaken for the Glory of God, and Advancement of the Christian Faith,
and the Honour of our King and Country, a voyage to plant the first colony
in the northern parts of Virginia; do by these presents, solemnly and
mutually in the Presence of God and one of another, covenant and
combine ourselves together into a civil Body Politick, for our better
Ordering and Preservation, and Furtherance of the Ends aforesaid; And by
Virtue hereof to enact, constitute, and frame, such just and equal Laws,
Ordinances, Acts, Constitutions and Offices, from time to time, as shall be
thought most meet and convenient for the General good of the Colony;
unto which we promise all due submission and obedience. In Witness
whereof we have hereunto subscribed our names at Cape Cod the eleventh
of November, in the Reign of our Sovereign Lord, King James of England,
France and Ireland, the eighteenth, and of Scotland the fifty-fourth. Anno
Domini, 1620."Forty-one men signed the document.

BEER AND THE MAYFLOWER
Did a thirst for beer… play a role in the colonizing of America?
The Mayflower is headed for Virginia… but ends up putting ashore at Plymouth
rock.
One Pilgrim's diary explains why: "We could not take time for further search or
consideration, our victuals being much spent, especially our beer.
"Yes- the Pilgrims made port because they ran out of beer (then considered an
essential and a healthy part of everyone's daily diet)!
Once ashore, they promptly erected a brew-house… and got to work brewing up a
new batch to slake their thirsts.
So Plymouth, Massachusetts ended up becoming the historic home of the pilgrims…
because they needed to make a beer run!

A 19th century painting by William Halsall of the ship Mayflower at anchor in
Plymouth harbor.

Plimoth
• The region they landed on was on Cape Cod, modern-day Provincetown, Massachusetts. A
party went onshore to explore. They found a field where Indians had buried corn for the
winter, and immediately took it for themselves. However, there was no drinkable water
near by and the ground was very rocky.
• The ship's captain knew of another bay nearby that had been settled by the Patuxet but now
was depopulated. It had been scouted by English explorers from Virginia and was already
called "Plymouth" on the maps. (It had gotten the name Plymouth almost 30 years earlier,
from the 16-year old Prince Charles of England; Charles had been presented with a map of
the New World made by the explorer John Smith and he took it upon himself to rename
capes and rivers and landmarks with English names.) The captain took the Mayflower there.
• 1620 (December 11)--Landing on Plymouth. The Mayflower landed at Plymouth on
December 11 1620. Again, a scouting ship went ashore and this time deemed the deserted
Patuxet village as suitable.

The Pilgrims Get
Help
• 1620-1621 (winter)--Puritans Dying. The Puritan Pilgrims and the non-Puritans created Plymouth Plantation on the cleared
site where Squanto's village had been. They landed in the middle of winter and only managed to build rough dirt shelters
before the weather turned. The Pilgrims themselves were fairly unprepared for the rigors of starting a colony. There were
not many farmers or skilled workers among them; on the ship's manifest appear two tailors, a printer, a hatter, and several
merchants, among other trades. The ones who had owned land in England most likely had not worked it themselves, and
even hunting was a skill they lacked, as in England it was considered a sport for the rich. Their European-wheat failed to
take hold in the American soil. Even the corn they had stolen from the Indians at Cape Cod was not doing well; they did not
know how to cultivate it. Forty-eight colonists died that season. The settlers, scared that the Indians might see the high
death toll as a sign of weakness in the colony, buried their dead at night.
• 1621 (spring)--Squanto & Samoset Help Plymouth. The Indians, though, did see the weakness of the colony. Squanto and
Samoset came across the people living on the very land where Squanto's village had been in spring of 1621. They took
interest and observed how poorly Plymouth was doing. Finally, they decided to enter the village to help the settlers;
Samoset went in first and, to the amazement of the settlers, greeted them with an English, "Welcome."
• Squanto eventually moved into Plymouth Plantation, spending several months
teaching the settlers how to build wigwams out of wood branches, how to plant
corn properly with fish for fertilization, how to dig for clams, and how to tap
maple trees, among other skills.
The Wampanoag also gave food - it was part of their religious beliefs to give
charity to those in need and the English settlers were definitely in need.
• 1621 (March 21)--Treaty with Plymouth. Massasoit, chief to the Wampanoag
came to Plymouth to negotiate in the spring of 1621, and the two sides signed a
treaty to keep the peace between the two communities. Squanto was
instrumental in facilitating the peace, translating the proceedings.
The treaty was never broken.
•Samoset greeting
colonists at Plymouth
Squanto teaching skills

The First Thanksgiving
• 1621 (fall)--First Thanksgiving.
• By harvest time of 1621, the English settlers had a lot to be thankful for. Because
of Squanto, they had warm homes, a newly built church, and a plentiful corn
harvest that would last through the winter.
• The English settlers celebrated with a feast, as was common practice at harvest
time in both European and Indian cultures. They used the feast as an opportunity
to negotiate with the Wampanoag, hoping to obtain signed rights to the
land. They invited the Wampanoag to the three-day feast with the intention of
winning them over.
• They had invited just Squanto, Samoset, and Massasoit plus their families, not
realizing the size of Indian families; 91 Indians arrived for the celebration. The
English women did not eat at the feast; it was their custom to wait on the men and
then eat later, so the English women stood behind the eaters during the meal. The
Indians had no such custom, and the Indian women sat at the table.
• This "first thanksgiving" was nothing remarkable; it was based on long-standing
traditions of feasting after the harvest and the friendliness between the two
groups was not as pure or wholesome as popular images make it seem but for
political wheedling.

Thanksgiving
Famous depictions of the "first
Thanksgiving" show the
Wampanoag in the background
or sitting lower than the
colonists, connoting them as
uncivilized and also, inaccurately,
as the receivers of white
bounty. Also, note the headdress
in the black and white picture -
Wampanoag did not wear these.
As was their custom, the Indians brought
food, and it was a good thing they did
because the settlers were not prepared to
feed so many. The English settlers
provided wild ducks and fried corn bread;
the Wampanoag brought venison, boiled
pumpkin, fish, lobster, berries, and
plums.

King Philip’s War
1675-1676
Conflict over land were not isolated to just Virginia. Two years after Bacon's Rebellion, in 1675, tension over
territory erupted in New England. The Wampanoag had a last show of strength in response to the white
invaders. Under the leadership of Metacom, also known as Philip during proceedings with whites, the
Wampanoag began to attack the settlements in Massachusetts, south of Plymouth.
• Metacom had become chief in 1662 when his brother, the current chief, had been killed while a prisoner at
Plymouth. In the intervening years, Metacom had built no good relationship with the settlers. Then, in 1675, the
mediator between Metacom and Plymouth, Sassamon was killed by whites. It was the spark leading to conflict.
Many representations of
Metacom (King Philip)

King Philip's War
• What's in a Name. The conflict has been recorded by
white historians as "King Philip's War" even though
Metacom was not a king and it was not a war. Metacom
was chief of a particular clan, not over all the Indians in
the area. It was not a war, but a series of skirmishes, of
attacks from both sides, as the Indians fought to control
the continuing influx of English in their territory and the
English fought for subordination of the Indians.
• The conflict was called his war, in a way, to pass the
blame, or at least remove the English from it. The name
itself portrays the struggle as a fight of the English for
their land, assuming the settlers' right to the territory, all
in accordance with the mythology surrounding the
creation of the United States.
• 1675 (June 24)--Swansea Attacked. After
several outlying settlements were raided and
burned by Wampanoag in June 1675, the village
of Swansea was attacked on June 24. The
Wampanoag burned all the houses and
slaughtered all of the men from the
garrison. They decapitated the slain, placed
their heads and hands on poles, and then
planted the poles along the river. The
Wampanoag continued to strike across New
England throughout the next fifteen months,
attacking settlements and convoys and garrisons
in Massachusetts, New Hampshire, and
Connecticut. The Narragansett, once allies of
the white settlers, joined the Wampanoag - they
also had enough of white encroachment. Some
New England Indians like the Mohegan sided
and fought with the settlers. The fighting tactics
of the Indians - guerilla warfare - was so
effective, it would be adopted by the settlers in
100 years, in the American Revolution. The
white settlers responded with an increase in
garrisons and military fortification. Soldiers
were installed to protect settlements,
and armies were sent out to route the
Indians. The armies in turn attacked Indian
settlements.
• In white villages, the Christianized Indians who
lived among the whites were sent to internment
camps or to outlying islands on the coast, to
keep them from joining the war.
• It was a large and bloody conflict on both sides.
Over 1,000 settlers were killed (or 5% of the
total settler population) and thousands of
Indians died, some who were not even involved
in the conflict.

Mary Rowlandson
• 1676 (February 10)--Mary Rowlandson Captured. It was during King
Philip's war that Mary Rowlandson was captured by a band of
Nipmunk. After she was returned home, she wrote a famous account
of her ordeal called The Captivity and Restoration of Mrs. Mary
Rowlandson, which became the forerunner of a popular genre of
English literature in the 17th century, captivity narratives.
Indian captive narratives serve a directly political purpose,
and can be seen as a kind of political propaganda.
The captivity narratives also usually refer to the religious contrast between the Christian captive
and the pagan Indians. Mary Rowlandson's captivity story, for instance, was published in 1682 with
a subtitle that included her name as "Mrs. Mary Rowlandson, a Minister's Wife in New England."
That edition also included "A Sermon on the Possibility of God's Forsaking a People that have been
near and dear to him, Preached by Mr. Joseph Rowlandson, Husband to the said Mrs. Rowlandson,
It being his Last Sermon." The captivity narratives served to define piety and women's proper
devotion to their religion, and to give a religious message about the value of faith in times of
adversity. (After all, if these women could maintain their faith in such extreme circumstances,
shouldn't the reader maintain her or his faith in less challenging times?)

The End of Metacom
• 1676 (May 13)--Turners Falls Massacre. Around 150 soldiers set out after a raid on their
cattle and came across a village of Narragansett camped at Turners Falls in Massachusetts. It
was not a war party but a village with women and children who had been displaced by the
war. The soldiers attacked at night and slaughtered the village. On their retreat, the soldiers
were in turn massacred by Narragansett reinforcements.
• 1676--Narragansett Decimated. The settlers almost completely wiped out the Narragansett
by 1676. The Wampanoag, seeing the devastation, withdrew from their attacks, taking refuge
in forests.
• 1676 (August 12)--Metacom Dies. Metacom’s wife, Wootoonanushka and his son were taken
captive and sold into slavery in the West Indies. He declares that he is already dead. A white
commander Benjamin Church formed a search party specifically to hunt out Metacom (King
Philip). In late summer 1676, on August 12, the party caught the elusive chief deep in a
Massachusetts forest. A Peoria native claimed to have killed the king. Metacom was
beheaded and quartered; his head was placed on a pole at Plymouth, where it was kept for
over 20 years. Metacom's death marked what the white settlers perceived as the end of the
war.
• Because of the conflict, 50 English villages were abandoned. The Indians that sided with
Metacom were sold into slavery. King Philip's War had major and lasting repercussions in
New England; autonomy for Indians was officially over. The settlers now set out to control
the entire area and not co-exist in any way with the native people.

Salem Witch Trials
Increase Mather (1639-1723)
Mather, an influential Boston minister and
father of Cotton Mather, is credited with
being a force for moderation throughout
the Salem witchcraft trials and helping bring
them to an end with the circulation of his
Cases of Conscience on October 3, 1692.
Increase Mather has drawn fire from some
historians of the period for his hesitancy to
take a firm stand against the trials and
executions early in the summer of 1692.
However, Mather's unique role as leading
minister, President of Harvard College, and
confidant of Governor William Phips placed
him in the precarious position of contesting
the witchcraft trials while supporting the
judges. While his actions in 1692 were often
self-contradictory, he was, according to
Kenneth Murdock regarded as "an ally and
leader of those whom we see as the most
liberal of his time."

French Settlements
The French settled along the St. Lawrence and the
Mississippi Rivers. Most of the people living in
these outposts were men. They spent their time
going up and down the river in canoes trapping or
trading their furs. The beaver was the main trade
fur.
A few people got rich on the beaver fur trades.
Unfortunately they were not the trappers. The
one who made money were the men who bought
the furs from the trappers.
In the summer the trappers lived alone or in pairs
in the woods. In the winter these trappers with
the Indians. They usually lived with the
Algonquians or the Huron. Because the French
helped the Algonquians and Huron, they became
enemies with the Iroquois who were enemies
with the Algonquians and Huron. Many French
settlers were killed by the Iroquois.
The French king controlled his empire in America.
The king ruled the area through the Royal
Governor. Men under the Royal Governor were
called seigniors. The seigniors controlled large
pieces of land. In this hierarchy the lowest group
of people were called habitants. They were the
workers.
The law stated that all furs, lumber, and fish from
the French colonies could be traded only with
France or other French colonies. This kept the
money between the French colonies and France.

Champlain in battle
by Samuel de Champlain, 1630
• The introduction of European
weapons had a huge impact on
the warfare and the lifestyles of
the Indians. Within just 20 years,
guns would become an
irreplaceable part of Indian
warfare in the northeast, and an
integral part to
hunting. However, also with
guns, the beaver would be
increasingly wiped out along the
St. Lawrence Seaway.
• France had the policy of only
supplying guns to converted
Christian Indians and in fact used
firearms as persuasion for
conversion. The Huron continued
to use the French to their
advantage, to try to press the
Iroquois from the fur trade.
Map of Quebec

Iroquois & Huron
Europeans Choose Sides 1609-1640
• 1603-1616--Champlain. While the English began colonies in Virginia, the
French, meanwhile, to the north, began reshaping their policy in the New
World. In 1603, Samuel de Champlain came to America, and, unlike his
predecessors who were steered by the Iroquois, he became more involved
in Indian politics. Champlain wanted to break the dominance of the
Iroquois and thus sided with their enemy, the Algonquin-speaking tribes
specifically the Huron. Champlain would make over 20 voyages to the
New World.1606--Champlain Visits Plymouth. Champlain, on one of his
voyages, visited and mapped the Indian village of Patuxet, which would
become, in 1620, the site of Plymouth colony.
• 1608--Quebec Made Into Settlement. Champlain helped to create the
first permanent French settlement at Quebec (a Huron village which
Cartier had usurped into a French trade post in 1541).
• Samuel de Champlain
• 1609 (June 29)--New Warfare; European Guns. In 1609 the
• first war in America took place where Europeans took part.
It changed the scope of warfare forever. The Huron, equipped
with French guns and aided by French soldiers, marched into
Iroquois territory to engage them. Reportedly, Champlain fired
his gun once and the Iroquois fled, thus marking a victory
for the Huron.

• 1620--Increased Warfare. The Iroquois were progressively left
out of the trade and the military might the French had
brought in. They began to increasingly go to war with the
neighboring tribes, particularly the Huron. Both the
Europeans and the Indians used each other for their own gain
- the French or the Dutch would try to get treaties signed by
the Indians stating they would not trade with the other
Europeans, or would try to keep the Indians at war with each
other so they would be forced to trade with the Europeans for
supplies; similarly the Iroquois and the Huron would try to
edge each other out of the trade. None of the sides, however,
had much of an intention of keeping promises they made;
trade was trade.
• 1645--Iroquois Refused to Trade. By 1645, however, the
Huron had thoroughly taken over the French market and
refused to allow the Iroquois to even come into their main
trading post at Montreal. Open warfare followed.

Peg-Leg Pete
• Among the projects built by
Stuyvesant's administration
were the protective wall on
Wall Street, the canal which
became Broad Street, and
Broadway.
• He lost his leg in a battle with
the Spanish over the island of
Saint Maarten and wore a peg
leg for most of his adult life,
leading the Native Americans
to dub him "Father Wooden
Leg".

“Old Silver Nails”
• Stuyvesant became
known as "Peg Leg
Pete" and "Old Silver
Nails" from the stick
of wood studded
with silver nails that
was his artificial
limb.
• The ill-fitting
prosthesis may have
been the reason for
his reputed ill-
tempered manner
and autocratic style.

Lasting Impact of the Dutch
• Sinter Klaus--The original Santa Claus was the Dutch Sinter Klaus, or "Klaus of the
cinders," which was the Dutch name for the Good God Thor! The god Thor was the god
of the sun, of fire and of lightning (his name, of course, means "thunder"). His altar
was in every home throughout the pre-patriarchal Scandinavian world, and in most
people's homes for long after the Bronze-age invaders arrived . It was the fireplace, of
course.
• Every year on his birthday (Yuletide, December 25), Thor would visit every little child
and bring presents, coming down the chimney to his own personal altar. (He was
known as "Klaus of the cinders" or Sinter Klaus, because children assumed he would
have to be singed just a bit in order to come through the flaming fire in mid-winter.)
• Easter Eggs
• Waffles
• Toboggans and Sledding and Sleighs
• Skiing and ice skating
• Bowling—Ten Pins
• Sauerkraut
Kolf--golf
Beer
Names like: Van or Vander or Roosevelt
Wall Street, Haarlem, Bowery, Canal street,
Broadway=all of Dutch origin
Manhattan Indians sold it for $24 of trinkets
Dutch trade with the Iroquois Indians, NOT the
Hurons

The Swedes in Delaware
• They settled around Fort
Christiaana—Christiana Mall
and gave us two long-lasting
legacies before the Dutch
took them over—the log
cabin and the covered wagon.
Later, IKEA!

• About half of
each ship died
through the
Middle
Passage, that
the sharks
altered their
migration
patterns to
follow the
slave ships.
Triangular Trade

Slavery in the English Colonies
• 1619--First Africans.
• Prior to 1619, Indians and indentured servants were used to fill the need of labor in the New
World colonies. However, as the Indians died rapidly from disease, and indentured servants
could run off, or serve their time and receive their headright, the English colonists turned to
slave trade in Africa for a work force. The first African slaves were brought to the Virginian
colony in 1619. The Africans were taken unwillingly, captured as slaves from their villages,
but once in America were originally were treated like indentured servants; after their term of
service was over, they were granted their freedom and rights to own land. Freed blacks even
themselves owned African and Indian slaves. This would change in just a few short years;
hereditary slavery would become law in 1640.
Indians were the first slaves in America. They were taken as prisoners
of war and forced to work on the lucrative tobacco plantations. Even
after the advent of the African slave trade to America and with the
subsequent hereditary slavery laws in the 1640's, Indians and Africans
worked side by side on white plantations until the 18th century.
Virginia and the South thrived on farming; soon "tobacco was
king." Lucrative farming became intertwined with slave labor as early
as Jamestown.

Slave ship packed with human cargo

African Slaves
• The English colonies continued to grow in power not only in New England, but down the
coast in Virginia as well.
• 1640--Hereditary Slavery Instituted in Virginia. By 1640, Africans had been brought to
Virginia for over twenty years. They came as indentured servants, working for five to
seven years and then becoming free land owners. By 1640, the policy of indentured
servants led not only to a labor shortage but rising tensions in the increase of free men
wanting land. The "solution" to these problems was hereditary slavery - making a
person a slave for life and also granting the status of slave to their children and their
children's children and so on.
• Indians had been taken for slaves in Jamestown, but the policy of hereditary slavery
most directly applied to Africans, mainly West Africans who had been captured by other
Africans and then sold to European slave traders. In just one hundred years, a quarter of
a million African slaves would be in America, most of them concentrated in the
Chesapeake region.
• Hereditary slavery was first instituted in Virginia in 1640, and then in Maryland in 1660.
Each colony treated slavery differently. South Carolina imported harsh hereditary
slavery practices from the Caribbean, and slavery thrived there because of rice
profits. By 1675, 40% of all slaves coming to the Americas came through Charleston.
• During the entire 17th century, the majority of African slaves were still going to the West
Indies and not the American colonies yet.

• 1649--Spain Takes African Slaves Too. By the mid-17th century, the native
population in southern America had been decimated by over 100 years of
European-brought disease. This included the slaves the Spanish had taken in the
southeast United States, particularly in Florida.
• To replenish their labor force in America, the Spanish begin to bring slaves from
Africa. In 1649, the native population in Florida and the Caribbean were further
wiped out by yellow fever, and slaves from Africa increased especially in those
regions.
• The horrors and devastations of the institution of slavery as we commonly think
of it today was not an instantaneous process; it took fifty years of white hubris
and accumulation of governmental laws to create the violent and coercive slavery
practices that would then last for over 250 years.
• Slave laws were formally published in 1700 in Virginia; these laws made it
explicitly not a crime to kill a slave and instituted harsh physical punishment for
slave transgressions - defiance was 30 lashes on a bare back and escape from a
master was dismemberment (chopping off a foot). The violence of the laws were
designed to institute fear in slaves to keep them subservient; the formality of the
laws were to alleviate personal moral responsibility of whites.

Olaudah Equiano, or, Gustavus
Vassa, the African
• According to his famous autobiography, written in 1789,
Olaudah Equiano (c.1745-1797) was born in what is now
Nigeria. Kidnapped and sold into slavery in childhood, he
was taken as a slave to the New World. As a slave to a
captain in the Royal Navy, and later to a Quaker merchant,
he eventually earned the price of his own freedom by
careful trading and saving. As a seaman, he traveled the
world, including the Mediterranean, the Caribbean, the
Atlantic and the Arctic, the latter in an abortive attempt to
reach the North Pole. Coming to London, he became
involved in the movement to abolish the slave trade, an
involvement which led to him writing and publishing The
Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano, or
Gustavus Vassa the African (1789) a strongly abolitionist
autobiography. The book became a bestseller and, as well
as furthering the anti-slavery cause, made Equiano a
wealthy man.

The Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade: Where slaves were captured in
Africa. • The rapid expansion of the Trans-
Atlantic slave trade
• From the 1670s the Slave Coast
(Bight of Benin) underwent a rapid
expansion of trade in slaves which
continued until the end of the
slave trade in the nineteenth
century. Gold Coast slave exports
rose sharply in eighteenth century,
but dropped markedly when
Britain abolished slavery in 1808
and commenced anti-slavery
patrols along the coast.
• The Bight of Biafra, centered on
the Niger Delta and the Cross River,
became a significant exporter of
slaves from the 1740s and, along
with its neighbor the Bight of
Benin, dominated the Trans-
Atlantic slave trade until its
effective end in the mid-
nineteenth century. These two
regions alone account for two-
thirds of the Trans-Atlantic slave
trade in the first half of the 1800s.
Total: 10,005,700 Source: Transformations in Slavery
by Paul E. Lovejoy Cambridge University Press, 2000, ISBN 0-521-78430-1

$Economic$ Term$
Mercantilism
Trade
Barter
Bullion
Inflation
Balance of trade
Import
Export
Revenue
Tariff
Joint-Stock Company
Profits

European monarchs enjoyed the benefits of the commercial revolution. In the fierce
competition for trade and empire, they adopted a new economic policy, known as
mercantilism, aimed at strengthening their national economies. Mercantilists
believed that a nation’s real wealth was measured in its gold and silver treasure. To
build its supply of gold and silver, they said, a nation must export more goods than it
imported.
The Role of Colonies
To mercantilists, overseas colonies existed for the benefit of the parent country.
They provided resources and raw materials not available in Europe. In turn, they
enriched a parent country by serving as a market for its manufactured goods. To
achieve these goals, European powers passed strict laws regulating trade with their
colonies. Colonists could not set up their own industries to manufacture goods. They
were also forbidden to buy goods from a foreign country. In addition, only ships
from the parent country or the colonies themselves could be used to send goods in
or out of the colonies.

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