Dimension stone Definition: Dimension stones are naturally occurring rocks of igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary origin which are sufficiently consolidated to enable them to be cut or shaped into blocks or slabs for use as wailing, paving and roofing material in the construction of building and other structures. Rock Types: Principally limestone (including marbles), sandstone, slates and granite are used as dimension stone. Texture, Minerology and Colour: Dimension Stone shows a wide variety of texture and minerology depending on their origin. Colour is an important aspect but does not follow agreed and standard colour scheme. Types: Igneous Dimension Stone. Sedimentary Dimension Stone. Metamorphic Dimension Stone. Miscellaneous Dimension Stone. Igneous Dimension Stone: These are hard and crystalline and widely used as dimension stones but commonly termed as granite by trade. Igneous rocks show a range from pale coloured, coarsely crystalline, quartzo feldspathic varieties to dark coloured, fine grained, basaltic rock type. Sedimentary Dimension Stone: Sedimentary rocks include our most common dimension stones. Sandstone and Limestone are most common in them. These are formed by cementing of pre-existing igneous rocks and high quartz content in them makes them hard and durable building stone. Metamorphic Dimension Stone: These are not widely used commercially as dimension stone but are fine grained. Cleaved slates are the principal source of roofing stone worldwide. Included in the metamorphic rocks are the true marbles. Miscellaneous Dimension Stone: Some texturally and minerologically distinctive rocks are used for decorative building purposes include ironstone, flint, tufa, etc. Extraction Method and Processing: Extraction Method and Processing:Stone Processing: Processing of stone is begins at the quarry or following transportation to centralized cutting sheds depending on the requirement of the contract. Softer stones such as limestone can be shaped and dressed using hand or cut using hand saws. Harder stones may need to be sawn using frame saws, gang saws, diamond rotary blades, high pressure water jets, etc. Surface finishing of some stones can involve polishing using abrasive and flamejet texturing. Classification and Uses

1. DIMENSION STONE

3.  Definition:
Dimension stones are naturally occurring rocks of igneous,
metamorphic and sedimentary origin which are sufficiently
consolidated to enable them to be cut or shaped into blocks or slabs for
use as wailing, paving and roofing material in the construction of
building and other structures.
 Rock Types:
Principally limestone (including marbles), sandstone, slates and granite
are used as dimension stone.

4.  Texture, Minerology and Colour:
Dimension Stone shows a wide variety of texture and minerology
depending on their origin. Colour is an important aspect but does not
follow agreed and standard colour scheme.
 Types:
I. Igneous Dimension Stone.
II. Sedimentary Dimension Stone.
III. Metamorphic Dimension Stone.
IV. Miscellaneous Dimension Stone.

5.  Igneous Dimension Stone:
 These are hard and crystalline and widely used as dimension stones
but commonly termed as granite by trade.
 Igneous rocks show a range from pale coloured, coarsely
crystalline, quartzo feldspathic varieties to dark coloured, fine
grained, basaltic rock type.
 Sedimentary Dimension Stone:
 Sedimentary rocks include our most common dimension stones.
Sandstone and Limestone are most common in them.
 These are formed by cementing of pre-existing igneous rocks and
high quartz content in them makes them hard and durable building
stone.

6.  An important feature of sedimentary rocks is their natural porosity
which makes them more durable dimension stone because
intergrannular pore spaces facilitate easier dressing and shaping of
stone.
 Metamorphic Dimension Stone:
 These are not widely used commercially as dimension stone but are
fine grained.
 Cleaved slates are the principal source of roofing stone worldwide.
 Included in the metamorphic rocks are the true marbles.
 Miscellaneous Dimension Stone:
 Some texturally and minerologically distinctive rocks are used for
decorative building purposes include ironstone, flint, tufa, etc.

7. Extraction Method and Processing:
 Quarrying and Mining:
 The open part of the natural rock from which useful stone is
obtained is known as quarry.
 Dimension stone quarried or mined without use of blasting
techniques, which could have serious detrimental effects on the
structure of the softer stone varieties.
 The quarry face initially opened up by exploiting naturally occurring
lines of weakness in rocks like joints, bedding planes, etc.
 Underground working take place at relatively shallow depths by
adits or augers.
 Stone production depends on room and pillar method of extraction.

8.  Stone Processing:
 Processing of stone is begins at the quarry or following
transportation to centralized cutting sheds depending on the
requirement of the contract.
 Softer stones such as limestone can be shaped and dressed using
hand or cut using hand saws.
 Harder stones may need to be sawn using frame saws, gang saws,
diamond rotary blades, high pressure water jets, etc.
 Surface finishing of some stones can involve polishing using
abrasive and flamejet texturing.

9. Methods of stone exploitation from the past to present

10. Classification and Uses
 Building stone trade applies following broad specifications:
 Building Stone: Natural rock material quarried or extracted for
obtaining blocks and slabs that can shaped and sawn for general
building.

11.  Stone Cladding: Natural rock material quarried, sawn and polished for non load
bearing walling material.
 Non-load-bearing walls: are those that carry only their own weight.
 Walling Stone: Natural rock material quarried for non dressed (rubble) blocks.
 Rubble: Waste or rough fragments of stone, brick, concrete, etc.

12.  Flagstone: Natural rock material quarried, sawn and split specially for flooring
and paving.
 Stone slates: Natural rock material (other than slates) that is thinly bedded and
fissile (easily split into slabs).

13.  Rockery Stone: Natural Stone cobbles and boulders of varied lithological
composition used in landscaping and gardening.
 Monumental Stone: Natural rock material quarried, cut, split, dressed or polished
specially for use in monuments, gravestones, or memorial tables.

14.  Decorative Stone: Natural rock material quarried, sawn, worked and polished for
(architectural) ornamentation.
 Marble: Geologist use this term to limestone that is alter by metamorphism,
however the building trade uses this term to cover any limestone that is hard
enough to produce a polished surface.

15. Different uses of stones and their proportion (modified after Hoffmann 2007)

16.  RECOMMENDED TEST METHODS:
 Test for Water Penetration using dynamic pressure.
 Air Infiltration Test by static pressure.
 Structural Load Test by uniform static pressure (positive and
negative).
 Water Infiltration Test by static pressure

17. FINISHES
 Sedimentary stones:
 Smooth (machine finished by saw, grinder, or planer).
 Machine tooled (uniform grooves).
 Chat Sawn (non-uniform, shallow saw marks).
 Shot sawn (irregular and uneven markings).
 Split face (concave - convex).
 Rock face (convex).
 Natural cleft.

18.  Metamorphic stones:
 Sanded
 Honed (medium to high honed)
 Polished
 Wheel abraded
 Bush-hammered
 Split Face
 Rock Face
 Natural cleft

19.  Igneous Stones:
 Sawn
 Honed
 Polished
 Machine tooled (4-cut, 6-cut, chiseled, axed, pointed, etc.)
 Flamed
 Sandblasted
 Split Face
 Rock face

20. Uses
 Foundation and Wall Items:
 Quarry, split and sawn stones from rocks are used to erect the
substructure of buildings.
 Piece stones sawn and split from limestone, sandstone, dolomite and
volcanic tuff are used for walls, piers, abutments, etc.
 Facing and Architectural Items:
 Facing slabs and stones, stairs and landings, parapets, etc. are made
of slabs sawn or split.
 Facing slabs of granite, gabbro, basalt, marble, breccia, limestone,
sandstone and volcanic tuff are generally used

21. Architectural and historical uses of stones:
(a) Megalithic temples of Malta (app. 2500–3200 years BP)
(b) Pyramids of Giza
(c) The Acropolis (Athens)
(d) Forum Romanum
(Rome)

22.  Building Items:
 Elements of stairs, landings, parapets and guard rails are
manufactured from granite, marble, limestone, tuff, etc.
 Road Construction Items:
 Curb stones—intended to separate roadways from sidewalks
 Paving blocks—used for pavements.
 Cobble stone—used to reinforce slopes of earth works and banks of
water basins

23.  Underground Structures and Bridges:
 These are built of slabs and stones from igneous and sedimentary
rocks.
 Tunnels and above-water elements of bridges are built of granite,
diorite, gabbro and basalt.
 Heat and Chemically resistant items:
 These are manufactured from non-weathered rocks.
 For high temperature working conditions, they are made from
chromite, basalt, andesite and tuffs.

24. Various uses of stones

25. Characteristics of Good Building Stone
 Appearance:
 For face work it should have fine, compact texture; light-coloured
stone is preferred as dark colours are likely to fade out in due course
of time.
 Structure:
 A broken stone should not be dull in appearance and should have
uniform texture.
 Free from cavities, cracks, and patches of loose or soft material.
Stratifications should not be visible to naked eye.

26.  Strength:
 A stone should be strong and durable to withstand the disintegrating
action of weather.
 Compressive strength of building stones in practice range between
60 to 200 N/mm2.
 Weight:
 It is an indication of the porosity and density.
 For stability of structures such as dams, retaining walls, etc. heavier
stones are required.
 For arches, vaults, domes, etc. light stones may be the choice.

27.  Hardness:
 This property is important for floors, pavements, aprons of bridges,
etc.
 The hardness is determined by various tests in lab. specially Loss
Angeles Test.
 Toughness:
 The measure of impact that a stone can withstand is defined as
toughness.
 The stone used should be tough when vibratory or moving loads are
anticipated.

28.  Porosity and Absorption:
 Porosity depends on the mineral constituents, cooling time and
structural formation.
 A porous stone disintegrates as the absorbed rain water freezes,
expands, and causes cracking.
 Seasoning:
 The stone should be well seasoned.
 Weathering:
 The resistance of stone against the wear and tear due to natural
agencies should be high.

29. Why We Build With Stones
 Natural Stone Fascinates:
 Natural stone is a natural product whose individual properties are
determined by the type and bonding of the minerals comprising the
natural stone.
 Natural Stone Is Ecological:
 Natural stone as a building material is found in nature in a virtually
finished form. No energy is needed for its actual manufacture.
Energy is only consumed for quarrying and processing

30.  Natural Stone Is Environmentally Compatible:
 As natural building material, natural stone contains no pollutants that
are damaging to health. Natural stone can be safely used in food
areas.
 Natural Stone Is Varied:
 No other building material has as many different colors and
structures as natural stone. Various surface finishing processes make
variety just about unlimited.
 Natural Stone Ages Well:
 The lifetime of natural stone is extremely long. With the right
planning and construction, buildings of natural stone have been
known to survive for many thousands of years.

31.  Natural Stone Is Attractively Priced:
 If the total cost of a building material is considered over a useful life
of 30 years or more, independent investigators show that natural
stone is no more expensive than comparable synthetic building
materials.
 Natural Stone Is Durable:
 The high-pressure resistance values of many natural stones have
given the material a reputation of being an everlasting material.
Natural stone is also the most durable material with the lowest
abrasion values for floor coverings

32. Production Of Building Stones
The percentage of stone production with respect to
continents in a more general overview (after Montani 2005)

33. Leading nations in the production of dimension stones and the
amount of stone produced in millions of tons (after Montani 2008)

34. Occurrence of stones in the field.

35. References
 Building Materials (Third Revised Edition) By S.K. Duggal.
 Building and Roofing Stone By British Geological Survey.
 Building Stone Institute (American Architectural Manufacturers
Association (AAMA).
 Building Stones By Siegfried Siegesmund and Ákos Török