Railroad Workers Face Higher Risk of Pancreatic Cancer
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Railroad workers face occupational exposures to various chemicals and hazards that may increase their risk of developing pancreatic cancer. These exposures include diesel exhaust, welding fumes, asbestos, silica, heavy metals, and pesticides/herbicides. Epidemiological studies have found elevated risks of pancreatic cancer for workers in metalworking, welding, and other jobs involving exposures to solvents, nickel, and PAHs. However, most individual agents show only weak or no association on their own. The risks are likely due to combined, cumulative exposures over many years during which railroad workers lacked adequate protective equipment and safety standards.
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Railroad Workers Face Higher Risk of Pancreatic Cancer
- 1. Occupational Health Exposures to Railroad Workers and Pancreatic Cancer Presented by: Bernard L. Fontaine, Jr,, CIH, CSP, FAIHA The Windsor Consulting Group, Inc. Johns Hopkins School Education and Resource Center Rockville, MD February 25, 2019
- 2. Location of Pancreas in the Body Two primary functions: (1) Produces enzymes to digest proteins, fats, and carbs in the intestines (2) Produces hormones insulin and glucagon
- 3. Pancreatic Cancer Epidemiology Worldwide
- 4. Pancreatic Cancer Epidemiology Worldwide
- 5. Passenger and Freight Railroad Workers
- 6. Railroad Workers and Pancreatic Cancer ▪ Welder’s helper - replace rail anchors, drive spikes and tamp ballast, clean work pieces to remove impurities, make field welds ▪ Welding fabricator - weld metals to desired shape or object, and test welds and equipment ▪ Welder - spot weld or use hand, electric, or gas welding equipment to tack pieces together ▪ Sheet metal (plumber) - fabricating, assembling and installing sheet metal products ▪ Bridge mechanic - perform general maintenance and repairs on bridges ▪ Carpenter helper - repair rolling stock structural components. Fabricate, cut, and perform rough finish operations on metal/wood replacement parts; fasten and assemble car parts by riveting, bolting, welding, and other methods
- 7. Railroad Worker and Pancreatic Cancer Epidemiology ▪ Some 180,000 pancreatic cancers registered annually in the world ▪ About 32,000 new cases of pancreas adenocarcinoma in US each year ▪ Highly and rapidly fatal ▪ 5th leading cause of death from cancer in industrialized countries (4th in the US) ▪ 50%–100% more common in men than in women ▪ Pancreatic cancer developed from two cell lines in the pancreas: exocrine cells and neuroendocrine cells (islet cells) ▪ 95% of all pancreatic cancers begin in the exocrine (enzyme-producing) cells of the pancreas ▪ Exocrine type found at an advanced stage with little prognosis. Pancreatic neuroendocrine tumors are less common and most often benign
- 8. Railroad Worker and Pancreatic Cancer Epidemiology ▪ Ishihara N, et. al., reported on concentrations of 11 metals (cadmium [Cd], lead [Pb], copper [Cu], iron [Fe], manganese [Mn], cobalt [Co], chromium [Cr], nickel [Ni], zinc [Zn], magnesium [Mg], and calcium [Ca]) and protein in human pancreatic juice ▪ Diagnoses were: normal in five (5) cases; early pancreatic cancer in nine (9) cases; and chronic pancreatitis in five (5) cases ▪ None had symptoms suggestive of disturbances in endocrine and exocrine functions of the pancreas ▪ Concentrations of metals in pancreatic juice did not change significantly between males and females or pathological changes in the pancreas ▪ Daily excretions of metals into duodenum via pancreatic juice were calculated
- 9. Occupational Exposure and Pancreatic Cancer ▪ Based on the study of 20 cohorts, exposure to chlorinated hydrocarbon (CHC) solvents and related organic compounds was associated with a meta-risk ratio (MRR) of 1.4 (95% confidence interval (95% CI) ranged from 1.0-1.8 ▪ Nickel and nickel compounds were considered in four populations (95% CI 1.9; 1.2-3.2) ▪ Excesses were found for chromium and chromium compounds (95% CI 1.4; 0.9-2.3), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) (95% CI 1.5; 0.9- 2.5), organochlorine insecticides (95% CI 1.5; 0.6-3.7), crystalline silica dust (95% CI 1.4; 0.9-2.0), and aliphatic and alicyclic hydrocarbon solvents (95% CI 1.3; 0.8-2.8)
- 10. Occupational Exposure and Pancreatic Cancer ▪ Pancreatic carcinogenicity was weak or non-positive for the following chemical agents alone but not combination as an total aggregate exposure: ▪ Acrylonitrile (95% CI 1.1; 0.0 to 6.2) ▪ Arsenic (95% CI 1.0; 0.6-1.5) ▪ Asbestos (95% CI 1.1; 0.9-1.5) ▪ Diesel engine exhaust (95% CI 1.0; 0.9-1.3) ▪ Formaldehyde (95% CI 0.8; 0.5-1.0) ▪ Cadmium and cadmium compounds (95% CI 0.7; 0.4-1.4) ▪ Gasoline (95% CI1.0; 0.8-1.2) ▪ Herbicides (95% CI 1.0; 0.8-1.3) ▪ Iron and iron compounds (95% CI 1.3; 0.7-2.5) ▪ Lead and lead compounds (95% CI 1.1; 0.8-1.5) ▪ Oil mist (95% CI 0.9; 0.8-1.0); and wood dust (95% CI 1.1; 0.9-2.5)
- 11. Occupation and Pancreatic Cancer Risk ▪ Among men, elevated risks found for metal workers (OR = 2.1, CI = 1.0- 4.8); toolmakers (OR = 3.4, CI = 14-7.1); plumbers and welders (OR = 3.0, CI = 1.2-7.5) [Ref: Ji BT, et. al., Am J Ind Med. 1999 Jan;35(1):76-81] ▪ Studies show asbestos, chromates, cleaning agents, waxes, polishes, and most other occupational exposures alone are not directly associated with pancreatic cancer ▪ Some of previously unsuspected risk factors also include; respirable crystalline silica (OR = 2.0; 95% CI = 1.2-3.5), heat stress (OR = 2.2; 95% CI = 0.8-6.6), and rubber-based chemicals including acrylonitrile (OR = 2.1; 95% CI = 0.9-4.7) ▪ While the incidence of stomach cancer declined dramatically in 20th century, worldwide it is still most common cause of cancer mortality
- 12. Occupation and Pancreatic Cancer Risk ▪ For nearly 30-years workers were not provided: ▪ Mechanical filter respirator ▪ Personal protective clothing ▪ Impervious gloves ▪ Facility to wash face and hands ▪ Showers and locker for street clothes ▪ Biological monitoring ▪ Medical surveillance ▪ Training and education of health hazards ▪ Labels and other forms of warning ▪ Safety Data Sheets (SDS) ▪ Personal and area exposure risk assessment ▪ Information regarding OSHA health standards
- 13. Locomotive Diesel Fume Emissions
- 14. Asbestos Exposure to Railroad Workers Asbestos insulation boilers engine compartments, and firebox, floor tiles, brake pads and linings, valves and gaskets, wallboard and paint, hoses for supply lines, sealing cement, acoustical insulation, and other cement products
- 15. Flash-butt, Gas Pressure, and Arc Welding Emissions Frogs Rail-ends Turn-outs Switch points Glue joints
- 16. Welding Fume Emissions from Thermite
- 17. PCBs in Locomotive Transformer Fluid PCBs also found in both soil and sediment samples shared by commuter and freight rail tracks due to leaking locomotive transformers
- 18. Creosote and Pentachlorophenol in Railroad Ties
- 19. Crystalline Silica Dust in Railroad Operations
- 20. Lead Poisoning in Bridge Demolition Workers Lead-based paint
- 21. Chromated copper arsenate (CCA)
- 22. Insecticides: Amitrol (3-amino-l,2,4- triazol) and phenoxy acids - 2,4-D (2,4-dichlorophenoxy acetic acid) and 2,4,5- T (2,4,5- trichlorophenoxy acetic acid) Herbicides: EPTC and pendimethalin linked to pancreatic cancer
- 23. EPA NPL SUPERFUND SITES NEAR RIGHT-OF-WAY TO RAILROAD TRACKS
- 24. Air Pollution Exposure of Railroad Workers
- 25. Spills/Air Release Exposure to Railroad Workers
- 26. Containment and Control of Railroad Liquid Spills Composite 20-Ft Spill Containment Railcar Track Pans Precast Concrete Railroad Spill Containment
- 27. Soil/Sediment Contamination of Railroad Workers Metals and PAHs from emissions and locomotive leaks Insecticide and pesticides
- 28. Combined Toxic Effects of Chemicals ▪ Additive (combined) effect applies two or more substances that affect the same target organ/system ▪ Consider multiple routes of exposure – inhalation, ingestion, and skin absorption, especially without engineering and work practice controls and/or use of respirators and PPE ▪ Sum of all relevant exposure exceeds unity of one, which is the TLV for the mixture ▪ Additive formula applies to simultaneous exposures for hazardous substances – ambient air, soil, sediment, water ▪ Exceptions when major effects of the chemicals are not additive or possibly when the mixtures contain carcinogens ▪ Synergistic effects should be carefully considered in such cases
- 30. OSHA Health and Safety Standards for Construction ▪ Asbestos (29 CFR 1926.1101) ▪ Petroleum distillates (29 CFR 1910.1000) ▪ Gases, vapors, fumes, dusts, and mists (29 CFR 1926.55) ▪ Ventilation to control toxic chemicals in air -- dusts, fumes, mists, vapors, or gases (29 CFR1926.57) ▪ Fire prevention and permits for welding and hot work (29 CFR 1926.352) ▪ Ventilation for welding, cutting, and heating (29 CFR 1926.353) ▪ Chromium VI (29 CFR 1926.1126 ) ▪ Inorganic lead (29 CFR 1926,1125) ▪ Crystalline silica (29 CFR 1926.1153)
- 31. Federal Employers Liability Act (FELA) FEDERAL LAW THAT PROTECTS AND COMPENSATES RAILROADERS INJURED OR SICK ON THE JOB
- 32. Occupational Health Exposures to Railroad Workers and Pancreatic Cancer
Editor's Notes
- The pancreas is located below and behind the stomach, in the curve of the duodenum, which is a part of the small intestine. The pancreas secretes fluids that help break down food in the small intestine, along with bile and other fluids that aid the metabolism of fats and proteins. The pancreas is also critical to the production of insulin and glucagon, which regulate glucose levels in the blood. If the pancreas stops producing insulin, this leads to diabetes and a number of associated health issues. Other problems that concern the pancreas include pancreatic cancer. This is a particularly hard cancer to spot since the tumor generally is not palpable (it can’t be felt) due to the positioning of the pancreas. People with pancreatic cancer generally only start to display symptoms when the tumor becomes large enough to interfere with its neighboring organs.
- • Pancreatic cancer is estimated to be the 12th most common cancer in men (178 000 cases) and the 11th most common in women (160 000 cases) worldwide in 2012 68% of the new cases occurred in countries at high or very high levels of human development. Estimated 330 000 deaths from pancreatic cancer worldwide in 2012 Highest age standardized incidence rates are found in central and eastern Europe, North America, Argentina, and Uruguay, and among women in Australia. Relatively low incidence rates are observed in most countries in Africa and East Asia.
- Pancreatic cancer comes in various forms: Serous cystadenoma is a usually cystic neoplasm composed of uniform cuboidal glycogen-rich neoplastic cells. There is a slight female predominance. Most cases are sporadic, but there is an association with von Hippel–Lindau syndrome. Most of these cysts are almost always benign and related to a genetic mutation. A solid-pseudopapillary neoplasm is a low-grade malignant epithelial neoplasm composed of poorly cohesive cells. Most occur in women (with a female-to-male ratio of 10), usually in their twenties. The etiology is unknown. Pancreatic neuroendocrine tumors are epithelial neoplasms with significant neuroendocrine differentiation, as can be demonstrated by the expression of synaptophysin or chromogranin. Most occur in individuals aged 30– 60 years. These pancreatic tumors may be sporadic or arise in patients with a genetic syndrome such as multiple endocrine neoplasia type 1 (MEN1) or von Hippel–Lindau syndrome. The etiology is unknown. Acinar carcinoma, interestingly, although the normal pancreas largely consists of acinar cells, cancers with acinar differentiation are rare (only 1–2% of the cancers) Some patients with an acinar cell carcinoma present with the devastating lipase hypersecretion syndrome, in which lipase is released by the neoplasm into the circulation, causing subcutaneous fat necrosis, polyarthralgias, and peripheral blood eosinophilia. Acinar cell carcinomas are fully malignant neoplasms with a 5-year survival rate of only 25–50%
- This is a case study of a 63-year railroad worker who suddenly died from pancreatic cancer. He worked on both passenger and freight trains for various railroad beginning in the early 1970’s. None of the railroad companies evaluated his workplace exposure while performing a variety of work tasks on bridges and rail yards.
- Some 180,000 pancreatic cancers registered annually in the world About 32,000 new cases of pancreas adenocarcinoma in US each year Highly and rapidly fatal 5th leading cause of death from cancer in industrialized countries (4th in the US) 50%–100% more common in men than in women Pancreatic cancer developed from two cell lines in the pancreas: exocrine cells and neuroendocrine cells (islet cells) 95% of all pancreatic cancers begin in the exocrine (enzyme-producing) cells of the pancreas Exocrine type found at an advanced stage with little prognosis. Pancreatic neuroendocrine tumors are less common and most often benign
- Ishihara N, Yoshida A, and Koizumi M. reported on the concentrations of eleven (11) metals (cadmium [Cd], lead [Pb], copper [Cu], iron [Fe], manganese [Mn], cobalt [Co], chromium [Cr], nickel [Ni], zinc [Zn], magnesium [Mg], and calcium [Ca]) and protein in human pancreatic juice were studied. Human pancreatic juice was sampled by endoscopic cannulation after administration of secretin (intravenous [i.v.],1 μg/kg). There cohort of 19 subjects (11 males and 8 females) and the means of their ages were 50.3 years (male, 20-68 years) and 52.5 years (female, 45-64 years). Diagnoses were: normal in five (5) cases; early pancreatic cancer in nine (9) cases; and chronic pancreatitis in five (5) cases. None had symptoms suggestive of disturbances in endocrine and exocrine functions of the pancreas. Concentrations of metals and protein in pancreatic juice did not change significantly between males and females or with pathological changes in the pancreas. Assuming the flow rate of pancreatic juice to be 1500-2000 ml/day, the daily excretions of metals into duodenum via pancreatic juice were calculated as follows (μmoles of metal/day): Cd, 0.012-0.012; Pb, 0.216-0.288; Cu, 6.20-8.26; Fe, 2.34-3.12; Mn, 0.100-0.133; Co, 0.165-0.220; Zn, 7.46-9.94; Cr, 0.084-0.112; Mg, 274.1-365.4; Ni, 1.64-2.18; and Ca, 0.221-0.295. Toxic (Cd and Pb) and essential metals (Cu, Zn, Fe, Mn, Cr, and Ni) are excreted daily into duodenum via pancreatic juice. [Arch Environ Health. 1987 Nov-Dec;42(6):356-60]
- Based on the study of 20 cohorts, exposure to chlorinated hydrocarbon (CHC) solvents and related organic compounds was associated with a meta-risk ratio (MRR) of 1.4 (95% confidence interval (95% CI) ranged from 1.0-1.8. Nickel and nickel compounds were considered in four populations (95% CI 1.9; 1.2-3.2). Excesses were found for chromium and chromium compounds (95% CI 1.4; 0.9-2.3), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) (95% CI 1.5; 0.9-2.5), organochlorine insecticides (95% CI 1.5; 0.6-3.7), crystalline silica dust (95% CI 1.4; 0.9-2.0), and aliphatic and alicyclic hydrocarbon solvents (95% CI 1.3; 0.8-2.8).
- Epidemiological evidence on pancreatic carcinogenicity was weak or non-positive for the following chemical agents alone but not combination as an total aggregate exposure: Acrylonitrile (95% CI 1.1; 0.0 to 6.2); Arsenic (95% CI 1.0; 0.6-1.5); Asbestos (95% CI 1.1; 0.9-1.5); Diesel engine exhaust (95% CI 1.0; 0.9-1.3); Electromagnetic fields (95% CI 1.1; 0.8-1.4); Formaldehyde (95% CI 0.8; 0.5-1.0); Cadmium and cadmium compounds (95% CI 0.7; 0.4-1.4); Gasoline (95% CI1.0; 0.8-1.2); Herbicides (95% CI 1.0; 0.8-1.3); I Iron and iron compounds (95% CI 1.3; 0.7-2.5); Lead and lead compounds (95% CI 1.1; 0.8-1.5); Man-made vitreous fibers (95% CI 1.0; 0.6-1.6); Oil mist (95% CI 0.9; 0.8-1.0); and Wood dust (95% CI 1.1; 0.9-2.5)
- Stomach cancer is the second most frequent cancer, accounting for 9.9% of cancer cases and 12% of cancer deaths annually.
- Stomach cancer is the second most frequent cancer, accounting for 9.9% of cancer cases and 12% of cancer deaths annually.
- Railroad workers regularly weld box cars, locomotives, and other equipment. Some examples of welding include flash-butt welding, gas-pressure welding, thermite, and enclosed-arc welding. All forms of welding, cutting and brazing produce visible smoke that contains a variety of harmful metal fumes and gaseous byproducts. Welding fumes contain a variety of metals, including aluminum (Al), antimony (Sb), arsenic (As), beryllium (Be), cadmium (Cd), chromium (Cr) and hexavalent chromium (CrVI), cobalt (Co), copper (Cu), iron (Fe), lead (Pb), manganese (Mn), molybdenum (Mo), nickel (Ni), silver (Ag), tin (Sn), titanium (Ti), vanadium (V) and zinc (Zn). When engaging in welding, cutting, or brazing activities, various fumes, gases and vapors are generated from the metals, fluxes, and fillers being used in addition to preservative coatings, paints, galvanizing and plating materials. Evidence is suggestive that grinding operations (which can entail either mineral oil-based or ethanolamine-based fluids) are associated with excess risk of cancer of the esophagus, stomach, and pancreas. [Cancer Causes Control. 1997 May;8(3):386-405] In the study conducted by I Anneli Ojajärvi et. al. [Occup Environ Med 2000; 57:316–324], the authors reported meta-risk ratios (MRRs) for occupational exposures to chromium and chromium compounds (1.4; 0.9 to 2.3), inorganic arsenic (1.0; 0.6 to 1.5); iron and iron compounds (1.3; 0.7 to 2.5); lead and lead compounds (1.1; 0.8 to 1.5).
- Train rails are joined together via a seriously awesome process called exothermic welding, which basically involves lighting off a chemical called Thermite and sending molten iron into a sand mold. Thermite is a mixture of fine iron oxide and aluminum powder that causes an exothermic reaction when heated. Carbon and manganese are used to increase hardness of rails. Magnesium particles can react with tissue fluid to produce magnesium dihydroxide, which produces an alkali chemical burn in addition to direct thermal effects. Retained magnesium particles in skin may produce a lesion that mimics gas gangrene, with tissue necrosis and intratissue gas bubbles due to hydrogen gas formed from the same reaction.
- Railroad companies used PCBs in on-board transformers in electric locomotives and self-propelled cars in service in the Northeast Corridor (Washington to Boston). The transformers reduce the high voltage current from overhead lines. Railroad transformers require additional and more frequent maintenance because of their unique installation and operating circumstances. Maintenance frequently takes place in repair pits, which can become severely contaminated with PCBs. Although no longer commercially produced in the United States, PCBs may be present in products and materials produced before the 1979 PCB ban. Products that may contain PCBs include: Transformers and capacitors Electrical equipment including voltage regulators, switches, re-closers, bushings, and electromagnets Oil used in motors and hydraulic systems Old electrical devices or appliances containing PCB capacitors Fluorescent light ballasts Cable insulation Thermal insulation material including fiberglass, felt, foam, and cork Adhesives and tapes Oil-based paint Caulking Plastics Carbonless copy paper Floor finish Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) are anthropogenic, organic compounds. Although banned in the 1970s, PCBs are poorly biodegradable and hence remain ubiquitous in the environment. Once PCBs enter the body, they accumulate in adipose tissue and are implicated various malignancies, including breast and pancreatic cancer. The hepato-biliary system is the main excretory route for such xenobiotic toxins. The primary routes of potential human exposure to PCBs are ingestion, inhalation, and dermal contact (ATSDR 2000). The release of PCBs from prior industrial uses and their persistence in the environment have resulted in widespread contamination of water and soil. PCBs were identified at 500 of 1,598 hazardous-waste sites proposed for inclusion on the EPA’s National Priorities List. In a risk meta-analysis of occupational exposures to various chlorinated hydrocarbon (CHC) solvents and pancreatic cancer, Ojajärvi, A., et. al. [Am J Epidemiol. 2001 May 1;153(9):841-50] suggested a weak association to polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) exposure based on a meta-risk ration (MRR = 1.37, 95% CI: 0.56, 3.31). In the pancreas, there were increases in the incidences of numerous nonneoplastic lesions including arterial chronic active inflammation, acinar cytoplasmic vacuolization, acinar atrophy, chronic active inflammation, and duct dilatation. These findings confirm the liver is morphologically and functionally identical to pancreatic acinar tissue. [J Histochem Cytochem. 1986 Feb;34(2):197-201] And there is the issue of Dioxin-Like Compounds (DLCs) that are structurally related PCBs and mixtures of these compounds. 2,3,7,8-Tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD), 2,3,4,7,8-pentachlorodibenzofuran (PeCDF), In this particular case, there were three (3) industrial sites laden with PCBs, which are located near the right-of-way to the railroad tracks and the maintenance complex.
- Creosote is a tar-like substance used to protect the railroad ties against the elements. It is a name used for several different products. Creosote is a mixture of hundreds of organic chemicals. The major chemical constituents in coal tar creosote are polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), phenol, and creosols. Creosote is a thick and oily liquid. It is easily set on fire. Its color is usually amber to black. It is the most common product utilized to preserve wood in US. Creosote also can be used as a pesticide. Pentachlorophenol is a restricted use pesticide and is used industrially as a wood preservative for utility poles, railroad ties, and wharf pilings. Pentachlorophenol was widely used as wood preservative until 1987 when its use was restricted to certified applicators. Pentachlorophenol is considered a probable human carcinogen and exposure to high levels can also have other health risks. Classification regarding carcinogenicity of creosote was based on the content of benzo[a]pyrene (BaP), because this PAH was chosen as a marker substance for the classification of coal tar-derived mixtures. National Cancer Institute states that occupational exposure to coal tar or coal-tar pitch is associated with an increased risk of skin cancer. Other types of cancer, including lung, bladder, kidney, and digestive tract cancer, have also been linked to occupational exposure to coal tar and coal-tar pitch. Coal tar and coal-tar pitch produces may be a promoter for cancer of internal organs. In May 8, 2000, Dr. Kenneth Brooks, reported on the migration of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) from new and used railway crossties into ballast and adjacent wetland environments at the American Wood-Preservers’ Association 96th Annual Meeting. Susanne Schaefer et al. reported in Toxicology Reports that pentachlorophenol (PCP) inhibits CK2 and induces cell death in human pancreatic cancer cell lines. The authors also reported exposure of this type of cells to PCP induces caspase-mediated apoptosis, inhibition of the lysosome cysteine protease cathepsin B and mitochondrial membrane depolarization. Beside cellular inhibition of CK2, the analysis of signaling pathways deregulated in pancreatic cancer cells revealed that PCP causes decreased phosphorylation. Concentrations of PAH were monitored quarterly in ballast at distances of 5, 20 and 30 cm from the faces of all three types of railway ties and in sediments at distances of 0.0, 0.5 and 0.75 meters from the toe of the ballast for 555 days.
- Silica dust that causes silicosis can come from railroad ballast operations, chipping and in tunnel and track construction, sandblasting, painting, rock drilling and repair. Granite, which is the go-to rock when it comes to track ballast, may contain up to 45% crystalline silica. Silica sand is used in the emergency braking system of the carriages is capable of causing a dispersion of quartz crystalline silica in the air in percentages varying from 5% to 14%. Disc brake pads may contain trace amounts (e.g., 0.1 to 1%) of both crystalline quartz and tripoli silica. Kauppinen T, Partanen T, Degerth R, and Ojajärvi A conducted a nationwide case-control study in Finland to identify occupational risk factors for pancreatic cancer. They constructed occupational exposure histories for 595 incident cases of primary exocrine cancer of the pancreas and of 1,622 cancer controls, using three different methods. Inorganic dust containing crystalline silica showed an elevated odds ratio (OR = 2.0; 95% CI = 1.2-3.5). Publications during 1969-98 were surveyed by Ojajärvi IA (Occup Environ Med. 2000 May;57(5):316-24) Meta-analyses were conducted on data from 92 studies covering 161 populations, with results for 23 agents or groups of agents. Silica dust showed a meta-risk ratio (MRR) of 1.4 based on a 95% Confidence Interval and a range 0.9 to 2.0.
- Railroads spray almost every track mile with a pre-emergent herbicide, then spot spray with post-emergent chemicals on an as-needed basis. Evidence shows that exposure to 2,4 D and 2,4,5 T are related to an increased risk of pancreatic cancer. Pancreatic cancer is a rapidly fatal disease that has been linked with pesticide use. Herbicides (EPTC and pendimethalin) of the 13 pesticides examined for intensity-weighted lifetime use showed a statistically significant exposure-response association with pancreatic cancer. A study identifying risk factors for pancreatic cancer in Egypt finds an elevated risk for those individuals exposed to pesticides (OR 2.6). In a small study in Spain, occupational exposures to pesticides cause a three-fold increased risk for pancreatic cancer. Highest risk was for arsenical pesticides (OR 3.4), and ‘other pesticides’ (OR 3.17). [Alguacil, J., et al. 2000. Ann Occup Hyg 44(5):391-403.] A case-referent study of Italian farmers finds a significantly increased risk of pancreatic cancer, as well as other cancers, among licensed pesticides users with greater than 10 years’ experience. [Forastiere, F, et al. 1993. Scand J Work Environ Health 19(6):382-389.] Finnish study finds a more than six-fold increased risk for male gardeners to pancreatic cancer. [Partanen, T., et al 1994. Am J Ind Med 25(6):851-866.] A study of U.S. flour mill workers finds an two-fold increased risk for pancreatic cancer (OR 2.2.) believed to be related to pesticide exposure. [Alavanja, M.C., et al. 1990. J Natl Cancer Inst 82(10):840-848] Among pesticide applicators, two herbicides (EPTC and pendimethalin) of the 13 pesticides examined for intensity-weighted lifetime use showed a statistically significant exposure-response association with pancreatic cancer. [Andreotti G, Freeman LE, Hou L, Coble J, Rusiecki J, Hoppin JA, Silverman DT, Alavanja MC., Int J Cancer. 2009 May 15;124(10):2495-500]
- Comparing the measurement values from the tunnels and platforms with those found at the entrances to the underground railway stations, it emerges that dust concentration in the tunnels and platforms is three times higher, with a maximum PM10 value of 479 μg/m3. Most airborne microfine particles breathed on rail subway platforms are mostly ferruginous particulate (FePM) and extremely small in size (nanometric to a few microns). Particle generation occurs by mechanical wear at the brake–wheel and wheel–rail interfaces, where magnetic metallic flakes and splinters of iron are released and undergo progressive atmospheric oxidation from metallic iron to magnetite and maghemite. In the Bukowieck et. al. study, dust emissions related to particle abrasion from railcar wheels and tracks were investigated next to a busy railway line in Zürich (Switzerland), Hourly size-segregated aerosol samples (0.1–1, 1–2.5 and 2.5–10 μm) were collected with a rotating drum impactor (RDI) and subsequently analyzed by synchrotron radiation X-ray fluorescence spectrometry (SR-XRF). Hourly elemental mass concentrations also were obtained for Cr, Mn, Fe and Cu, which are the elements most relevant for railway abrasion. Comparison to train type and frequency data showed that 75% and 60% of the iron and manganese mass concentrations related to cargo and passenger trains, respectively, were found in the coarse mode. The railway related iron mass concentration normalized by the train frequency ranges between 10 and 100 ng/m3 Fe in 10 m distance to the tracks, depending on train type. [Atmos. Environ, Vol. 41, Issue 4, Feb 2007, p. 878-889] Exposures to gases and vapors during fire and bleve type explosions can release a variety to toxic chemicals into the environment. The exposure can be detected downwind at great distances depending on atmospheric conditions Picture on the left was a result of a crude oil train derailment in Lac-Mégantic, Canada.
- Train Accident Facts and Figures About every hour and a half a train collides with another object or is derailed. Every two weeks a train that is carrying hazardous materials derails in the United States. Today rail companies rely on technology that was developed more than 70 years ago, and very little research and improvement has been made to update these dated safety measures. Local governments often have no voice over the train traffic in their area, which can result in delays for local emergency responders. According to the DOT’s Federal Railroad Administration, about 80% of railroad crossings do not have adequate warning devices. While vehicle on train collisions have decreased in the past few years, pedestrians involved in train collisions have increased. Some of the most common spills involve tanker trucks and railroad tankers containing gasoline, chlorine, acid, or other industrial chemicals. Many spills occur during the transportation of hazardous materials. For example, in 2012, spills from 665 railroad accidents resulted in 11 deaths, 160 injuries, and damages exceeding more than $73 million. Picture on the right shows the train derailment in NJ – four cars (including 3 in the water) contained vinyl chloride which can induce respiratory problems, dizziness and other health effects after short-term exposure — and liver problems and other complications after high levels of exposure over time.
- Heavy metals (Pb, Cd, Cr, Hg, Mo, Zn, Co, Cu) content was determined in both soil and plant samples collected in the different areas of the railway junction Tarnowskie Góry, as well as, near two main railway routes, i.e. Warsaw-Gdańsk and Katowice-Gdynia. In Tarnowskie Góry soil and plant samples were collected in four functional areas, i.e. the rolling stock cleaning bay, platform area, railway siding and loading ramp. In another study by Zhang H. et. al., soil samples were selected at the embankment and perpendicularly at different distances (2, 5, 10, 20, 30, 50, 60, 70, 80, 100, and 150 m) from the embankment bottom of the Qinghai-Tibet railway. The results indicated that the mean concentrations of Cr, Ni, Cu, Zn, Pb, and Cd were highest at the embankment
- Additive (combined) effect applies two or more substances that affect the same target organ/system. This follows the guidelines of the ACGIH, NIOSH, OSHA, ASTDR and EPA. Consider multiple routes of exposure – inhalation, ingestion, and skin absorption, especially without engineering and work practice controls and/or use of respirators and PPE Sum of all relevant exposure exceeds unity of one, which is the TLV for the mixture Additive formula applies to simultaneous exposures for hazardous substances – ambient air, soil, sediment, water Exceptions when major effects of the chemicals are not additive or possibly when the mixtures contain carcinogens Synergistic effects should be carefully considered in such cases
- The Federal Employers Liability Act (FELA) is a U.S. federal law that was enacted in 1908 to protect and compensate railroad workers injured on the job, if the worker can prove that the railroad was at least partly legally negligent in causing the injury. It is based upon the federal government's power over interstate commerce, granted by the commerce clause in the Constitution. Prior to its inception there was no remedy for injured railroad workers. Although the protection FELA offers for railroad workers is similar to the workers' compensation insurance provided in other industries, unlike workers' compensation, FELA is a fault based system. To receive benefits under FELA, the injured railroad worker must prove that the injury was caused in whole or in part by the negligence of a railroad employee, its agent or contractor, or from a faulty piece of equipment. However, if the worker is not found to be 100% at fault, he has the right to sue for damages in either a state or federal court, which is not an option for workers' compensation claimants. In addition, FELA awards are generally much higher than those of workers' compensation claims. FELA uses the legal doctrine of "comparative negligence". This means that the jury determines the percentage of negligence for which each party is liable and this establishes the percentage of the award to be allocated to the worker.