393Prosocial behavior is broadly defined as positive socia.docx

393
Prosocial behavior is broadly defined as positive social acts
carried out to promote the well-being
and integrity of others (Brief & Motowidlo, 1986).
Brief and Motowidlo suggest that strong prosocial
tendencies stem from high levels of moral develop-
ment that reflect an individual’s standards about
moral justice and social responsibility. According to
Tangney, Stuewig, and Mashek (2007), individual
differences in experiencing emotions play a key role
in determining adherence to moral standards and
behavior. Haidt (2003) described moral emotions as
being linked to the interests or welfare of society as a
whole, or at least to individuals other than the self.
Given the frequent lapses in the socially responsible
behavior of organizational leaders throughout history,
moral emotions may be an important but overlooked
element in understanding leaders’ prosocial behaviors
and how leaders balance self-interests with the inter-
ests of other organizational stakeholders.
Previous research on morally relevant emotions
has focused primarily on empathy and a triad of
negatively valenced “self-conscious” emotions: shame,
guilt, and embarrassment (see Tangney et al., 2007,
for a review). However, several scholars have pro-
posed that positively valenced emotions, such as grati-
tude and pride, can influence an individual’s adherence
to moral standards and prosocial behavior (Hart &
Matsuba, 2007; McCullough, Kilpatrick, Emmons, &
Larson, 2001; Tangney et al., 2007; Tracy & Robins,

2007). Several studies have linked positive emotions
to prosocial behavior in organizations (see Barsade &
Gibson, 2007, for a review). Most of these studies
examined emotions as a dimension of valence and
used an aggregate measure of several emotions to
capture positive versus negative affect. Notwithstanding
the importance of this stream of research, several
scholars have argued that it does not tell the whole
story with respect to the influence of emotions on
behavior. People can experience a wide range of dif-
ferent emotions, each with its own distinctive experi-
ential content and associated goals (Frijda, 2006;
Roseman, Wiest, & Swartz, 1994; Zeelenberg, Nelissen,
Breugelmans, & Pieters, 2008). Pride and gratitude,
for example, differ with respect to perceived control
in that feelings of pride occur when a positive out-
come (for oneself) is attributed to one’s own efforts.
Gratitude, on the other hand, is felt when a positive
outcome is attributed to the contributions of others.
Thus, gratitude is typically classified as an other-
directed emotion, whereas pride is considered to be
more self-directed as in self-pride (Ortony, Clore, &
Collins, 1988). This aspect of the two emotions sug-
gests that they may be particularly relevant to research
on leader behavior and the issue of promoting self-
interests over and above the interests of other organi-
zational stakeholders. Thus, the purpose of this study
was to explore how pride and gratitude influence the
behavior of organizational leaders. By focusing on
prosocial behavior, this research addresses the critical
need for organizational leaders to balance the pursuit
Pride and Gratitude
How Positive Emotions Influence the Prosocial

Behaviors of Organizational Leaders
Susan Michie
University of New Mexico, Albuquerque
This study investigated whether two positive morally relevant
emotions, pride and gratitude, were associated with
the prosocial behaviors exhibited by organizational leaders.
Pride and gratitude were measured as dispositional ten-
dencies in leaders across various types of organizations. The
results revealed that a leader’s propensity to experience
authentic pride was positively related to two types of prosocial
behavior—social justice and altruism. Furthermore,
the results indicated that leader gratitude mediated the effects
of pridefulness on social justice behaviors.
Keywords: positive moral emotions; prosocial behavior; self-
regulation
Journal of Leadership &
Organizational Studies
Volume 15 Number 4
May 2009 393-403
© 2009 Baker College
10.1177/1548051809333338
http://jlos.sagepub.com
hosted at
http://online.sagepub.com
394 Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies

of self-interests with prosocial tendencies that promote
the well-being and integrity of others.
Theory and Hypotheses
The theoretical framework for this study is based
on cognitive appraisal theories of emotion (Frijda,
1986; Lazarus, 1966; Ortony et al., 1988; Scherer,
1984). According to this view, emotions are gener-
ated in response to events that are appraised with
respect to their implications for an individual’s well-
being. Experiences of emotion involve physiological
changes and changes in action tendencies, such as
impulses to establish or disrupt a relationship with an
object or person. Action tendencies motivate overt
behaviors that are generated with regard to the
expected effectiveness of available behavioral options.
In addition, emotions are subject to regulation by
individuals in the form of inhibitory control or volun-
tary enhancement (Mesquita & Frijda, 1992). Frijda
(2006) maintains that emotion generation is primarily
based on stimuli from the outside world, but it is also
heavily intertwined with the disposition of the indi-
vidual: “Emotions arise by the interaction of events
with dispositions of the individual. . . . The disposi-
tions enable motivational, behavioral, physiological,
and consciously felt response components” (p. 47).
People often anticipate their likely emotional reac-
tions (e.g., pride or remorse) as they consider behav-
ioral alternatives. Thus, emotions can exert strong
influences on behavior by providing critical feedback
concerning both anticipated and actual consequences.
Several scholars have proposed that emotional reac-
tions can feed back through the emotion process to

self-monitor and control behaviors (Tangney &
Fischer, 1995). This form of self-regulation involves
an additional loop through the general appraisal
processes—a second pass that appraises the action
tendencies produced by the first pass. Ellsworth
(1991) demonstrated that in some situations, a new
appraisal will bring about a transition between one
emotion and another. For example, when people react
with shame in the first loop, their appraisal of that
reaction sometimes leads to anger at being ashamed
or anger at others for causing them shame. In this way,
the appraisal view allows for the possibility that an
emotion may change as a person’s appraisal of the
situation changes. Transitions between emotions can
occur gradually or suddenly, depending on the speed
of the appraisal change. Thus, the emotion process
appears to be extended in time, such that an experi-
enced emotion may be followed by another emotion
that serves as a “meta-emotion” to regulate the ini-
tially felt emotion (Frijda, Manstead, & Bem, 2000).
Bagozzi (2003) and colleagues found that fear of ret-
ribution and anticipated regret are two negative emo-
tions that function in this manner to regulate pride. In
this study, I propose that two positive morally rele-
vant emotions can also be connected through an emo-
tion loop, as when a person feels pride in an
accomplishment and then feels gratitude toward
those who contributed to the accomplishment. In
addition, I argue that due to unique characteristics of
the leadership role, leaders may be more likely to
regulate their emotion-generated behaviors through
positive rather than negative emotional reactions.
As previously mentioned, research in moral emo-
tions has focused on a triad of negative emotions:

shame, guilt, and embarrassment. Along with pride, these
emotions are members of a family of self-conscious
emotions that occur during periods of self-reflection
and self-evaluation (Tangney & Fischer, 1995). When
we do something wrong or bad, adverse feelings of
shame, guilt, or embarrassment are likely to occur.
When we do something right or good, positive feel-
ings of pride and self-approval are likely to result.
During such appraisals, the self becomes the object of
one’s self-conscious emotions, which provide instant
punishment or reinforcement of one’s feelings and
behaviors. In effect, self-conscious emotions serve as
a “moral barometer” providing immediate and salient
feedback on what is socially and morally acceptable
behavior (McCullough et al., 2001). Due to societal
expectations concerning the role of leadership, how-
ever, positively valenced moral emotions, such as
pride and gratitude, may exert strong influences on
leader behaviors.
First of all, leadership is associated with positive
attributes, including intelligence, dedication, cha-
risma, and strength (Offermann, Kennedy, & Wirtz,
1994). Successful leaders seem to exude an air of
confidence, competency, and optimism as well as enthu-
siasm for work-related activities. Because the leader-
ship role is associated with an optimistic, confident
outlook, it is likely that leaders will have a tendency
to focus on positive outcomes that give rise to experi-
ences of positive emotions. Given this bias toward
positive emotions, leaders may discount the impor-
tance of negatively valenced moral emotions and even
Michie / Pride and Gratitude 395

attempt to suppress feelings of guilt, shame, and
embarrassment when they arise. As a result, posi-
tively valenced moral emotions may play a critical
role in increasing the prosocial behaviors of organiza-
tional leaders.
Social power and status inherent to the leadership
role provide further insights as to why negative self-
conscious emotions may exert less influence on leader
behavior. The primary role of leadership is influenc-
ing others to achieve group or organizational goals.
Therefore, leadership brings with it special normative
expectations about the importance of pursuing collec-
tive goals. Hollander (1964) argued that emergent
leaders achieve status by fulfilling expectancies and
demonstrating task competencies. As they continue to
build credibility, leaders may eventually reach a
threshold that permits deviation from commonly
accepted behavior, if their actions are perceived to be
in the organization’s best interests. Expectations that
leaders pursue goals designed to promote group inter-
ests are part and parcel of the moral psychology of
leadership (Price, 2003). In the pursuit of a “greater
good,” organizational leaders may come to believe
that their actions are somehow excepted from moral
requirements that generally apply to the rest of soci-
ety (Price, 2003). An example would be a CEO who
relies on norms of leader effectiveness and feels
“morally justified by underscoring that downsizing
was necessary for the organization’s survival and for
the benefit of the remaining employees and other
stakeholders” (Bass & Steidlmeier, 1999, p. 204).
Thus, due to normative expectations surrounding the
leadership role, leaders may be less likely to experi-
ence the moral barometer effect of negative self-

conscious emotions and be more likely to act in
response to experiences of positive morally relevant
emotions. As such, leaders may represent a unique
group that can provide a better understanding of how
these emotions influence prosocial behavior.
Pride and Gratitude
Pride and gratitude are the focus of this study
because they are considered to be morally relevant
emotions that are positively valenced (Hart & Matsuba,
2007; McCullough et al., 2001; Tangney et al., 2007).
Valence refers to the primary cognitive appraisal that
individuals make in assessing whether a particular
event is positive or negative. Emotions and feelings
are also influenced by a number of secondary appraisals,
including perceptions of agency or control over
outcomes (e.g., To what extent am I, another person,
or external factors responsible for a particular out-
come?). Pride and gratitude differ with respect to con-
trol in that feelings of pride occur when a positive
outcome is attributed to one’s own efforts, whereas
gratitude is felt when a positive outcome is attributed
to the contributions of others. Thus, gratitude is typi-
cally classified as an other-directed emotion, whereas
pride is considered to be more self-directed.
Pride is the “neglected sibling” of self-conscious
emotions (Tangney et al., 2007, p. 360). Mascolo
and Fischer (1995) define pride as an emotion
“generated by appraisals that one is responsible for
a socially valued outcome or for being a socially
valued person” (p. 66). From this perspective, pride
not only enhances self-worth but also encourages
future behavior that conforms to social standards of

what is valued or has merit. Yet, pride appears to be
somewhat of a black sheep in the family of self-
conscious emotions. Little empirical research has
been conducted on individual differences in prone-
ness to pride, and theorists often portray prideful-
ness as an impediment to moral behavior (Hart &
Matsuba, 2007). It is important to note, however,
that scholars acknowledge two types of pride:
hubris versus authentic pride (Lewis, 2000; Tangney,
1990; Tracy & Robins, 2004, 2007). Hubris refers
to excessive pride that is not tempered by self-
awareness of one’s shortcomings and failures (Hart
& Matsuba, 2007). In failing to recognize that one’s
efforts produce worthwhile accomplishments in
some pursuits but not in others, individuals who
experience hubris tend to perceive themselves as
god-like and above reproach. To distinguish between
hubris and authentic pride, scholars point to the
appraisal process. Self-appraisals associated with
hubris are not differentiated in that all positive
events are attributed to a powerful “global self” that
possesses stable, desirable traits (Hart & Matsuba,
2007; Tangney et al., 2007). In contrast, the apprais-
als associated with experiencing authentic pride are
based on specific accomplishments and accompa-
nied by feelings of genuine self-worth (Tracy &
Robins, 2007). Thus, authentic pride is a power-
fully pleasant emotion or highly prized consequence
that individuals experience when their actions are
valued by other members of their social networks.
Scholars have proposed that pride is a moral affect
because it has the potential to promote self-respect
and respect for others as well (Hart & Matsuba,
2007; Kristjansson, 2002; Tangney, 1999). In other

words, people strive to achieve goals or to treat oth-
ers well because the pride they experience when
they succeed in these endeavors feels good. Thus,
authentic pride can reinforce both achievement-
oriented and prosocial behaviors, because this type
of emotional feedback informs individuals that
their actions have enhanced their status and accep-
tance among social group members (Tracy &
Robins, 2007). In this article, the term pride is used
to refer to authentic, achievement-oriented pride.
I acknowledge, however, that excessive experi-
ences of achievement-oriented pride can lead to
hubristic tendencies.
McCullough, Emmons, and Tsang (2002) describe
the grateful disposition as a “generalized tendency to
recognize and respond with grateful emotion” (p. 112)
to the contributions of others toward the positive out-
comes that one obtains. McCullough and his colleagues
point out, however, that recognizing the benevolence
of others does not necessarily mean that grateful
people discount their own causal efforts. Rather, a dis-
tinguishing feature of the grateful disposition is a
tendency to stretch one’s agency attributions to incor-
porate a wider range of people who contribute to
one’s achievements.
As previously mentioned, a primary goal of lead-
ership is influencing others to achieve group or orga-
nizational goals. Thus, it is often essential for leaders
to motivate group members to devote extra time,
energy, and effort to endeavors that benefit the orga-
nization as a whole. A successful leader would, no

doubt, recognize one’s own efforts in attaining orga-
nizational outcomes. Due to one’s leadership posi-
tion, however, one might also be more likely to
recognize other people’s contributions. For example,
the leader might attribute the organization’s success
to extra effort on the part of employees or to their
willingness to forego self-benefits for the sake of the
organization as a whole. Gratitude is classified as a
moral affect, not because experiencing gratitude is a
moral response in and of itself, but because feelings
of gratitude typically result from and stimulate proso-
cial behaviors (McCullough et al., 2002; Tangney et al.,
2007).
In summary, the leadership role is inherently tied
to achieving organizational or group goals, which
should produce feelings of accomplishment, achieve-
ment, and self-worth. Because an organizational lead-
er’s accomplishments are primarily the result of
motivating group efforts, the leader’s feelings of pride
are likely to be followed by feelings of gratitude
toward those who contributed to the organization’s
accomplishments.
Hypothesis 1: A leader’s tendency to experience authen-
tic pride will be positively related to the leader’s
tendency to experience grateful emotions.
Mediating Influence of Gratitude
Although several theorists have labeled pride as a
morally relevant emotion, empirical research linking
prideful emotions to moral or prosocial behavior is
scarce (Hart & Matsuba, 2007). In a single study
based on the MIDUS survey data set (MacArthur

Foundation Research Network on Successful Midlife
Development), Hart and Matsuba (2007) found that
feelings of pride motivated prosocial actions in the
form of commitment to community volunteer work.
The only significant predictor, however, was feelings
of pride in one’s community. In the same study, feel-
ings of pride in family, home, and work, which could
be viewed as more individual-based achievements,
were not significantly related to community volun-
teering. In a series of studies focused on individuals’
academic achievements, Wentzel (1989, 1991, 1994)
found that prosocial behaviors in the form of “being
cooperative” and “willing to share” were positively
associated with academic success. Pride was not
measured in Wentzel’s research, but his studies indi-
cated an “intimate link” between individual achieve-
ment, which would naturally evoke feelings of pride,
and prosocial behaviors. According to Wentzel, the
reasons for this relationship were not entirely clear.
Emotion scholars suggest that pride motivates proso-
cial behavior in one of two ways. First, experiencing
pride motivates people to act in ways that improve
their image of self in the eyes of others. Second, pride
motivates people to prosocial actions in order to feel
better about themselves (Dovidio & Penner, 2004;
Hart & Matsuba, 2007; Tracy & Robins, 2007). As
Tangney (1999) explained, pride enhances people’s
self-worth, which encourages future behavior that
conforms to social standards of worth or merit, and
prosocial acts are considered to be admirable behav-
ior in most societies. In either case, however, the
pride-induced motivation to act prosocially is egois-
tic in nature.
In this study, I propose an alternative explanation
for the connection between prideful emotions and

prosocial behavior in organizational leaders. Specifically,
I contend that for leaders in particular, the motivating
influence of pride on prosocial behavior is likely to
be indirect and mediated through feelings of gratitude.
Gratitude has been shown to be related to prosocial
behavior. McCullough et al. (2002) found that grate-
ful people were reported to perform more prosocial
behaviors and to possess more prosocial traits than less
grateful people. They also observed that grateful peo-
ple are motivated to respond prosocially—not only
toward their benefactors but also toward others not
involved in the gratitude-soliciting act. These find-
ings are consistent with the popular notion that grati-
tude is a moral affect because grateful emotions result
from the prosocial behavior of a benefactor and
engender subsequent prosocial responses on the part
of the recipients. The hypothesized mediating influ-
ence of gratitude on the relationship between leader
pride and prosocial behavior is predicated on the
notion that gratitude serves as a meta-emotion to
regulate initial feelings of pride.
Several authors have noted that people are cogni-
zant of the need to self-regulate pride. Experiencing
pride evokes feelings of accomplishment, along with
a felt urge to inform others about how well one is
doing. At moderate levels, pride is conducive to main-
taining a healthy sense of self-worth and social status.
If pride becomes immoderate or excessive, however, it
can be a source of conceit, overconfidence, and ego-
istic behaviors. People become sensitive to the dangers

of excessive pride through previous experience, feed-
back from significant others, and representations in
the media. If pride becomes too extreme or too pub-
lic, it can appear boastful and inappropriate to others
(Fischer & Tangney, 1995). Displays of excessive
pride by leaders, for example, could provoke envy or
disdain in followers, which in turn might disrupt
cooperation and teamwork. Verbeke and Bagozzi
(2003) discovered that salespeople regulated feelings
of pride to avoid negative consequences. They
hypothesized and found that feelings of pride were
accompanied by fear of retribution and anticipated
regret when salespeople believed that persons wit-
nessing their pride would be envious, resentful, or
scornful. According to Verbeke and Bagozzi, fear
and anticipated regret functioned as meta-emotional
responses to self-regulate the salespeople’s initially
felt pride and diminish prideful action tendencies and
behaviors. In this study, I explore the possibility that
gratitude, a positive emotion, can serve to regulate
pride and lead to positive leader behaviors.
Because a leader’s accomplishments are inherently
tied to the combined efforts of group or organiza-
tional members, I expect that leader experiences of
pride will be followed by feelings of gratitude toward
those who contributed to the leader’s success. As a
result, pride is transformed into gratitude such that
the latter emotion operates as a meta-emotion to apprais-
als of felt pride and self-regulates the leader’s action
tendencies. As pride transitions into gratitude, the
leader’s experiences of grateful emotion will, in turn,
motivate behaviors that balance the pursuit of self-
promotion with promoting the well-being and integ-
rity of others. Following the preceding discussion, and

to the extent that a leader’s felt pride is followed by
feelings of gratitude, which in turn motivate prosocial
behaviors, I expect the pride–prosocial behavior rela-
tionship to be indirect, operating through the motiva-
tional implications of grateful emotions toward others
who have contributed to the leader’s achievements.
Hypothesis 2: A leader’s tendency to experience grateful
emotions will mediate the relationship between the
leader’s prideful disposition and prosocial behaviors.
Method
Sample and Procedures
The participants for this study were managers and
employees from 71 different organizations in the south-
west region of the United States. The organizations
operated in various industries, including financial
services, consulting, health care, construction, manu-
facturing, and retail sales. The sample included 71
managers and 227 employees and provided an aver-
age of three follower reports per leader. Approximately
59% of the followers were female and 41% male.
Their ages ranged from 18 to 64 years, with a mean
age of 35. The average organizational tenure for this
group was 4 years. The follower sample consisted of
various occupational positions, including clerical,
sales, and professional types, and also production jobs
such as linemen and factory workers. All employees
were directly supervised by the managers they were
asked to evaluate.
In the leader sample, 66% of the participants were
female and 34% male. The mean tenure of leaders in
their current organizations was 10.5 years and their

average age was 44 years. Contact with the organiza-
tion was made via students enrolled in a management
course. Each student provided contact information
for one manager and three to five employees. Managers
were contacted to obtain permission to conduct the
study and to verify that all employees were under
their direct supervision. Data collection was adminis-
tered online and separate surveys were e-mailed to the
managers and employees. The participants were
informed that their participation was completely vol-
untary and not required or expected by the company or
their managers. Seventy-one out of 73 managers and
227 out of 258 employees contacted returned com-
pleted surveys, thus, the response rate was 97% and
87%, respectively. The manager survey collected data
for the independent and control variables, and the fol-
lower survey provided the data for the dependent vari-
ables. The managers were not aware of the content of
the corresponding employee surveys. Using this
method attenuated problems with producing biased or
same source data for the statistical analyses.
Measures
Independent variables. To assess a manager’s pro-
pensity to experience pride and gratitude in a leader-
ship role, we asked the managers how often they felt
these emotions toward others at work. Following
Emmons and McCullough (2003), we aggregated the
leaders’ scores on three adjectives related to gratitude
(grateful, thankful, and appreciation) to derive a sin-

gle measure of mean gratitude. The internal consis-
tency reliability (Cronbach’s alpha) estimate for these
three adjectives was .79; however, previous research
by Emmons and McCullough has produced reliability
estimates for this measure ranging from .86 to .92. In
a similar manner, we assessed pride by aggregating
the leaders’ scores on three adjectives from Tracy and
Robins’s (2007) measure of authentic self-pride
(accomplished, achieving, and self-worth). These
three adjectives were highly correlated with a
Cronbach’s alpha of .87. Previous research has shown
that this method is effective for assessing emotions
both as momentary experiences and as chronic dispo-
sitional tendencies (Emmons & McCullough, 2003;
Tracy & Robins, 2007).
Dependent variables. Based on Brief and Motowidlo’s
(1986) assertion that strong prosocial tendencies
reflect an individual’s standards about justice and
social responsibility, we measured two constructs to
capture the leaders’ prosocial behaviors: social justice
and altruism. Social justice was measured using
five items based on Niehoff and Moorman’s (1993)
research in organizational justice. This measure was
designed to capture observable characteristics of
decision-making procedures, such as following ethi-
cal standards and the degree to which the needs of
employees are taken into consideration. Sample items
were, “My manager shows concern for the rights of oth-
ers,” and “My manager treats people with respect.” The
scale’s reliability estimate (Cronbach’s alpha) was .96.
Two items from Wagner (1995) were used to mea-
sure the leaders’ altruistic behavior. The items were,
“My manager is willing to give up personal benefits

for the sake of the organization as a whole,” and “My
manager is willing to make personal sacrifices for the
sake of employee well-being.” These two items were
highly correlated and with a Cronbach’s alpha of .85.
To assess the appropriateness of aggregating the
followers’ reports of their leaders’ observed behav-
iors, ICC (1) and ICC (2) were calculated for each
dependent variable as recommended by Bliese (2000).
ICC (1) values were .25 for altruism and .33 for
social justice. ICC (2) values were .53 for altruism
and .62 for social justice. Within-group agreement (rwg)
was also computed to assess the appropriateness of
aggregating these outcome variables (James, Demaree,
& Wolf, 1984). The median rwg for both measures
exceeded .70, which indicates that there is consider-
able agreement in how subordinates rated their lead-
ers on these two dependent variables. In addition, the
ICC (1) values show that there are substantial (and
significant) between-leader properties in these vari-
ables. The ICC (2) values for both variables are
somewhat below typical cutoff levels, but overall, the
results indicated that there are substantial leader-level
properties. Hence, all subsequent analyses were con-
ducted with aggregated dependent variables. It should
be noted, however, that borderline ICC (2) values
mean that significant relationships for these outcome
variables will be more difficult to detect (Bliese, 2000)
and may result in more conservative tests.
Control variables. We controlled for two demo-
graphic variables and one individual difference vari-
able that could potentially confound the results.
Previous research has shown that age and sex are
associated with individual differences in prosocial
behavior and emotional response tendencies (Caprara

& Steca, 2005; Grossman & Wood, 1993; Van Lange
et al., 1997). Therefore, the leader’s age and sex were
collected for this study. In addition, a measure of
social desirability was included in the leader survey.
Social desirability is defined as a need to obtain
approval by responding in a culturally appropriate
and acceptable manner. Although other-reports of the
leaders’ behaviors were used in this study, it is plau-
sible that social desirability could motivate the
leaders’ prosocial behaviors due to social or
organizational pressures to do so, rather than feelings
of pride or gratitude. Hence, social desirability on the
part of the leaders was controlled for using a shortened
form of the original Marlowe-Crowne scale (Crowne &
Marlowe, 1960; Reynolds, 1982). Reynolds’s measure
consists of nine items, for example, “I am always cour-
teous, even to people who are disagreeable.” Each item
is scored as true (1) or false (0) and then the items are
totaled to yield a scale score (α = 75).
Data Analysis
The hypothesis that gratitude acts as a mediator
between pride and outcome variables was tested via a
series of regression analyses. According to Baron and
Kenny (1986), four conditions must be met in order to
conclude that mediation has taken place. First, the
independent variable (pride) must affect the mediator
(gratitude); second, the mediator must affect the depen-
dent variables (altruism and social justice) while control-
ling for the independent variable; third, the independent

variable must affect the dependent variables; and
fourth, the relationship between the independent vari-
able and the dependent variable must either become
nonsignificant or be reliably reduced when the media-
tor is controlled. To test the magnitude and significance
of the reduction, we used a method developed by
Preacher and Hayes (2004). This procedure generates
a confidence interval for the indirect effect, and when
the interval does not include zero, one can conclude
that the indirect effect is significantly different from
zero at the given confidence level.
Results
Descriptive statistics and intercorrelations are
reported in Table 1. The bivariate correlations revealed
an exceptionally high correlation (> .70) between the
two dependent variables. Therefore, we conducted a
preliminary factor analysis for these two measures
using principle axis factoring with oblimin rotation.
The results revealed two factors with eigenvalues
greater than 1 that accounted for 85% of the variance.
All five items for social justice loaded on a single
factor with loadings greater than .85. The two altruis-
tic behavior items loaded on a second single factor with
loadings greater than .81. and cross-loadings between
the two factors did not exceed .15 for any item.
Examining correlations for the control variables
revealed that leader age was positively related to both
measures of leader prosocial behavior, but leader sex
and social desirability were not. These results may be
due in part to sourcing the dependent variables from
the aggregated responses of several subordinates of
the leader. As a result, gender influences may have

been attenuated and self-reported social desirability
may have had less influence on observed leader
behavior than it would on self-reported behavior
(Fisher & Katz, 2000). Leader sex and social desir-
ability were significantly correlated with the media-
tor (leader feelings of gratitude). Based on the above
findings, we tested the hypotheses using altruism and
social justice as two distinct outcome variables and
controlled for leader age, sex, and social desirability.
Table 2 presents the results of the regression
analysis. As shown in Model 1 (Hypothesis 1), a
leader’s propensity for authentic pride was posi-
tively related to experiencing gratitude. In addition,
the results showed that a leader’s pridefulness was
related to both measures of prosocial behavior,
social justice (β = .31, p < .05), and altruism (β = .25,
p < .05). As shown in Model 2 (Hypothesis 2), the
tendency to experience grateful emotions (media-
tor) was significantly related to social justice, but
the results for the gratefulness–altruism relationship
Table 1
Means, Standard Deviations, Range, and Correlations of All
Variables
Variable M SD Range 1 2 3 4 5 6
1. Leader age 44.04 9.26 21–62
2. Leader sex –.14
3. Leader social desirability 4.88 2.74 0–11 .05 –.10
4. Pride 2.67 0.66 1.33–4.00 .03 .17 .23
5. Gratitude 3.10 0.63 1.00–4.00 .01 .25* .36** .33**
6. Social justice 5.80 0.94 1.75–7.00 .26* .02 .09 .29* .34**
7. Altruism 5.49 1.04 3.00–7.00 .29* .06 .02 .22 .15 .73*

Note: n = 71 with listwise deletion.
*p < .05. **p < .01.
were not significant. Thus, a required condition, for
the mediating influence of gratefulness on the prideful–
altruism relationship, was not met. The results for
Model 2 did reveal, however, that the previously
significant relationship between leader pridefulness
and social justice behaviors ceased to be significant
in the presence of the gratefulness mediator. In
addition, Preacher and Hayes’s (2004) test of statis-
tical significance for indirect effects indicated that
the mediating effect of gratefulness, .13 (95% CI =
.02, .41), was significantly different from zero
(Preacher & Hayes, in press; Shrout & Bolger,
2002). Taken together, the support for Hypothesis 1
and the significant relationships between leader
feelings of pride and the prosocial outcomes con-
firmed two of the conditions for testing mediation.
Because gratefulness was not significantly related
to altruism in Model 2, the third condition for
mediation was supported for social justice only.
Thus, Hypothesis 2 received partial support, in that
gratefulness mediated the prideful–social justice rela-
tionship but did not mediate the prideful–altruism
relationship.
Discussion
The purpose of this study was to investigate
whether two positive morally relevant emotions,
pride and gratitude, motivate prosocial behaviors in

organizational leaders. Pride and gratitude were cap-
tured as dispositional tendencies in leaders across
various types of organizations. The results revealed
that, after controlling for covariates, a leader’s ten-
dency to experience authentic pride was positively
related to two types of prosocial behavior: social jus-
tice and altruism. Furthermore, the results provided
preliminary evidence that a leader’s propensity for
gratefulness mediated the effects of pridefulness on
social justice behaviors. These findings suggest that
if pridefulness is followed by feelings of gratitude
toward those who contribute to a leader’s success,
then the leader may be more likely to show concern
for the rights of others and treat people with respect.
In contrast, the hypothesized mediating effect of
gratitude on the relationship between leader pride and
altruistic behaviors was not supported. Furthermore,
the proposed relationship between leader feelings of
gratitude and altruistic behavior was not significant.
This discrepancy may be due in part to the measure
used to capture altruism, which consisted of only two
items. Also, given that the predictors in this study
were based on follower observations of the leaders’
behaviors, it may be that followers are more sensitive
to social justice behaviors and more likely to notice
them. The leaders’ altruistic behaviors may be less
visible to followers, because they involve personal
sacrifices that followers may not be aware of.
The finding that authentic pride and gratitude were
positively related to treating others with dignity and
respect has practical implications for understanding
how leaders balance self-interests with the interests
of other organizational stakeholders. First, gratitude
is known to serve as a moral motivator in that grateful

people are motivated to respond prosocially toward
those who act in ways that solicit gratitude and toward
others who are not directly involved in such acts as
well. Furthermore, grateful leaders will have a ten-
dency to recognize the contributions of a wider range
of people when making causal attributions for organi-
zational success, thus, they will be more likely to focus
on the well-being and interests of multiple stakehold-
ers. Second, the findings suggest that a grateful dis-
position can promote self-regulation of pride in
organizational leaders. Research has demonstrated
Table 2
Results of Hierarchical Regression
Analysis for Observed Leader Behaviors
Model 1 Model 2
Leader Social
Variable Gratitude Justice Altruism
Control variables
Leader age .02 .30* .38**
Leader sex .19† .00 .05
Leader social desirability .29* .00 .07
Direct effects
Leader pride .23* .31* .25*
Mediating effects
Leader pride .23† .22†
Leader gratitude .32* .11

.15** .04*
Overall R2 .19 .20 .14
Overall model F 5.00** 4.37** 3.32*
Note: n = 71 with listwise deletion. Standardized regression
coef-
ficients and adjusted R2 are reported. To test for direct effects
(Model 2), we entered the controls and pride in two separate
steps. To test for mediation effects (Model 2), we entered the
controls in the first step and then entered pride and gratitude
(mediator) in the second step.
†p < .10. *p < .05. **p < .01.
that excessive pride can be detrimental in that hubristic
individuals are inclined to distort or invent situations
to enhance the self at the expense of others (Lewis,
1992; Tracy & Robins, 2007). In this study, recogniz-
ing and responding with grateful emotion toward
organizational members appeared to regulate self-
pride and, as a result, increase the leader’s focus on
the well-being of others. Thus, a grateful outlook may
be an important characteristic that enhances a leader’s
ability to balance self-interests with the interests of
multiple organizational stakeholders. Based on the
results of this study, it would be worthwhile to con-
sider interventions that encourage leaders to recognize
and respond with gratitude to the contributions of oth-
ers. Previous research has shown that exposure to
gratitude interventions on a daily basis increased the
likelihood that individuals would engage in helping
behaviors or offer emotional support to another. Thus,

education and training programs that focus on the
ethical and moral aspects of leadership should consider
positive morally relevant emotions as a promising path
to recruiting and developing prosocial leaders.
Although the results of this study suggest that pride
and gratitude play a role in motivating prosocial
behavior in organizational leaders, it is important to
note its limitations. First, the findings are based on
cross-sectional data. Thus, it is not possible to deter-
mine if the leaders’ feelings of pride actually preceded
feelings of gratitude and prosocial behaviors in the
mediation process. The prediction that feeling proud
of one’s achievements will be followed by feelings of
gratitude toward those that contribute to one’s success
is a logical approach to emotion sequences. However,
reverse causality could exist such that leaders experi-
ence grateful emotions toward their followers and
then engage in gratuitous or prosocial behaviors that
encourage followers to put forth extra effort. If this
effort increases organizational performance that, in
turn, increases the frequency of a leader’s prideful
emotions, then leader feelings of gratitude could pre-
cede feelings of pride in some situations. Post hoc
regression analyses did not provide statistical support
for pride as a mediator of the relationship between
gratitude and social justice or altruistic behaviors.
Future studies that link specific accomplishments to
the tendency for leaders to experience pride and
gratitude are needed to provide further support for this
research. Another limitation is that the method used to
collect the data for this study was based on a conve-
nience sample; however, this method also had several
strengths. The predictor and outcome variables were
obtained from different sources, the follower observa-

tions of the leaders’ behaviors were obtained from
multiple direct reports that were not selected by the
leaders, and finally, the study was conducted across
multiple organizations.
In addition to the suggestions for further research
above, moral emotions can provide new opportunities
for leadership research. Given the insignificant statis-
tical relationship between moral emotions and the
measure of altruism used in this study, future studies
should examine whether pride and gratitude motivate
other types of prosocial or altruistic behaviors in
leaders, such as helping, sharing, donating, cooperat-
ing, volunteering, and principled dissent. The self-
regulating function of moral emotions provides another
avenue for leadership research. For example, it would
be interesting to explore the extent to which negative
self-conscious emotions (i.e., shame, guilt, and embar-
rassment) influence leader behavior and to determine
whether positive moral emotions exert stronger influ-
ences on leader behavior than do negative emotions.
Elevation is considered to be another positive moral
emotion (Tangney et al., 2007) that could potentially
influence leader behaviors and should be included in
these studies. Elevation is defined as the emotion
elicited when seeing others behave in a virtuous,
commendable, or superhuman way (Haidt, 2003). An
important aspect of positive moral emotions in
organizations is emotional contagion. Research has
shown that emotion-generated behaviors can pro-
duce similar emotional reactions in others (Hatfield,
Cacioppo, & Rapson, 1993). Barsade (2002) found
that emotional reactions played a significant role in
work-group dynamics, influencing not only group
members’ emotions but their individual cognitions,
attitudes, and behaviors as well. The emotions of

organizational leaders may be more likely to produce
similar reactions in others, because leaders are often
perceived as role models by other organizational
members. Furthermore, positive emotions can spread
through organizations by creating chains of events,
such that people who witness emotion-generated
prosocial behaviors are likely to engage in prosocial
acts themselves (Fredrickson, 2003). Thus, further
research could investigate how experiences of posi-
tive morally relevant emotions in leaders influence
the emotional reactions and behaviors of other orga-
nizational members or even the prosocial culture of
the organization as a whole.
Evidence that moral standards and prosocial behav-
iors are influenced in important ways by morally rele-
vant emotions is well established in the social psychology
literature. These emotions provide instant and salient
feedback on what is socially valuable and acceptable
behavior and, thereby, motivate individuals to act in the
interest of others. Thus, moral emotions may represent
an important but overlooked element in understanding
the prosocial behaviors of organizational leaders.
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organizations.
Problem Set 8 - Coordinates
Learning Objectives:
• If B is a basis of Rn, you should understand what we mean by
the B-coordinates of a vector ~x in
Rn, and you should be able to compute [~x]B for a given vector
~x.
• You should be comfortable interpreting the B-matrix of a
linear transformation.
• You should understand the relationship between the B-matrix
and standard matrix of a linear trans-

formation.
• You should be able to use coordinates to find the matrix of a
linear transformation, and you should
recognize when this is a useful strategy.
The first problem below is a warmup; you need not turn it in.
W1. (a) Verify that the vectors ~v1 =
1
3
6
(b) Express the vector ~x =

3
(c) What is [~x]B?
1. (a) The picture below shows a basis B = (~v1,~v2) of R2, as
well as a third vector ~x in R2. What is
[~x]B?
~v1
~v2
~x
(b) Suppose we have a basis B = (~v1,~v2,~v3,~v4,~v5) of R5.
If ~x = 3~v1 − 2~v4 + ~v5, what is [~x]B?
2. Find a basis B of R2 such that [~e1]B =
[
3
2
]
and [~e2]B =
[
−1
1

]
.
3. Bretscher #3.4.66
4. Define a linear transformation T : R3 → R3 by letting T (~x)
be the reflection of ~x about the plane
x1 − 2x2 + 3x3 = 0.
(a) Find a basis B = (~v1,~v2,~v3) of R3 for which you can
easily find T (~v1), T (~v2), T (~v3).
1
(b) If B is the basis you found in (a), what is the B-matrix B of
T ?
(c) Find the standard matrix of T .
(d) 4 Let A be your answer to (c); that is, A is the standard
matrix of T . Calculate A~v1, A~v2, and
A~v3 to check that you’ve found the matrix A correctly. (Here,
~v1,~v2,~v3 are the basis vectors you
chose in (a).)
5. Let T : R3 → R3 be rotation by 180◦ about the line spanned
by
6

matrix B. Either find a basis B of R3 such that the B-matrix of
T is B, or explain why there is no
such basis.
(a)
0 0 −1
0 0 −1
0 0 1
0 0 0

Hint: In two parts, there is such a basis; in two, there is not.
6. First, read Definition 9 on the “Coordinates” handout to make
sure you understand the definition of
similar matrices.
True or false. If the statement is true, explain why; if the
statement is false, give a counterexample.
(a) Bretscher Chapter 3 Exercises (pg. 151-152), #4
(b) Bretscher Chapter 3 Exercises (pg. 151-152), #30
2
https://baypath.instructure.com/courses/1144032/files/folder/Ha
ndouts?preview=58166508
Problem Set 6 - More on Bases of Rn, Matrix Products
• You should understand that n vectors form a basis of Rn ⇐⇒
rref
[
~v1 · · · ~vn
]
= In ⇐⇒ every

vector ~x in Rn can be expressed as a linear combination of
~v1, . . . , ~vn in exactly one way.
• You should understand how matrix multiplication is related to
composition of linear transformations.
• You should know when the product of two matrices is defined,
be able to compute matrix products,
and be familiar with the basic algebraic properties of matrix
products.
The first problem below (#W1) is a warmup, which you need
not turn in.
W1. Bretscher #2.3.14
1. Let A be the matrix of rotation in R2 counterclockwise by
30◦. Let B be the matrix of reflection in
R2 over the x-axis.
(a) Find A.
(b) Find B.
Let T : R2 → R2 be defined by letting T (~x) be the vector
obtained by first rotating ~x by 30◦ counter-
clockwise and then reflecting the result over the x-axis.
(c) Without calculating anything, make a rough sketch of T
(~e1) and T (~e2).
(d) Compute the appropriate matrix product to find the matrix
of T .
(e) Use your answer to (d) to find T (~e1) and T (~e2).

4 Make sure your answers are consistent with your picture in
(c)!
2. (a) Let Rθ be the matrix of rotation in R2 counterclockwise
by an angle of θ, and let B be the matrix
of reflection in R2 over the x-axis. (In the previous problem you
computed BR30◦ .) Use matrix
multiplication to verify that RθB = BR−θ.
(b) Let ~u be a unit vector, and let S~u be the matrix of
reflection in R2 over the line determined by
~u. Let α be the angle between ~u and the positive x-axis. Give
a geometric explanation of why
S~u = RαBR−α. (You may assume that ~u lies in the first
quadrant, so that 0 < α < 90
◦.)
(c) Let ~v be a second unit vector, and let β be the angle
between ~v and the positive x-axis. Use parts
(a) and (b) to show that S~vS~u = R2(β−α). Thus, the
composition of two reflections in R2 is a
rotation by twice the angle between the two lines.
3. (a) Bretscher #2.3.44
(b) Bretscher #2.3.46
1
4. Neville is looking at 6 vectors ~v1, . . . , ~v6 in R6. He
would like to express ~x =

1
2
3
4
5
6
of these vectors, and he thinks of two ways to do so:
~x = ~v1 + 4~v2 − ~v3 + ~v5 and ~x = −2~v1 − ~v2 + 7~v6.
Decide whether each of the following statements is definitely
true or definitely false, or if there is not
enough information to be sure; justify your answers.
(a) (~v1, . . . , ~v6) is a basis of R6.
(b) The reduced row-echelon form of the matrix
[
~v1 · · · ~v6
]
is I6.
(c) ~v6 is in span(~v1, ~v2, ~v3, ~v4, ~v5).
(d) ~0 can be expressed as a linear combination c1~v1 + · · · +
c6~v6 where the ci are not all 0 (it’s fine
for some of the ci to be 0, just not all of them).
Note: Of course, ~0 can be expressed as the linear combination
0~v1 + 0~v2 + 0~v3 + 0~v4 + 0~v5 + 0~v6,
but this is not so interesting, so it’s called the trivial linear
combination of ~v1, . . . , ~v6. We’re
interested in seeing whether ~0 can be expressed as a nontrivial

linear combination of ~v1, . . . , ~v6,
i.e., as any linear combination of ~v1, . . . , ~v6 other than 0~v1
+ · · ·+ 0~v6.
(e) There are infinitely many ways to express ~x as a linear
combination of ~v1, . . . , ~v6.
2
Problem Set 7 - Matrix Inverses
• You should know the definition of an invertible linear
transformation/matrix and understand what
the inverse linear transformation/matrix represents.
• You should be able to determine whether a given matrix is
invertible and, if so, compute its inverse.
• You should understand the relationship between whether
vectors ~v1, . . . ,~vm form a basis of Rm and
whether the matrix
[
~v1 · · · ~vm
]
is invertible.
Note about the reading: As you already know, reading
mathematics requires a careful eye; in this section
especially, most of the theorems are stated only for square

matrices. It’s worth thinking about this more:
what happens in the analogous situations if the matrices are not
square?
1. (a) Determine whether each of the following matrices is
invertible; if so, find its inverse by hand, and
check that you’ve done so correctly by multiplying your answer
by the original matrix. (Does the
order of multiplication matter?)
Note: For 2 × 2 matrices, we highly recommend that you
memorize Theorem 2.4.9.
i.
[
5 −3
1 7
]
ii.
[
−2 6
3 −9
]
iii.
2 2 −1

(b) Solve the linear system
2 2 −1
7
-Jordan, can you use
your answer to (a)iii?)
2. Bretscher #2.4.104
3. Suppose we have an unknown linear transformation T : R3 →
R2, and we know that T
0

0
]
. The vectors
0
4
3
we know that the given information determines T completely;
that is, we should be able to find the
matrix of T from this information. You’ve done this before in
problems like Problem Set 4, #3, but
now that we know about matrix products and inverses, we can
find the matrix of T more efficiently.

(a) Let S =
0 4 3
that S is
invertible. (You should not need to do any calculations.)
(b) Let A be the matrix of T (which is what we are looking for).
Find AS. (You should be able to
do this with hardly any calculation.)
1
https://baypath.instructure.com/courses/1144032/files/folder/Ho
mework?preview=58016469
(c) Use your answer to (b) to write an expression for A (your
expression may involve matrix products
and inverses(1)). Then simplify A completely.
4. We’ve seen that, if a matrix A is invertible, then we can
express the unique solution of A~x = ~b as
~x = A−1~b. Soon, we’ll introduce ideas that help us understand
A~x = ~b better when A is not invertible.
This problem is preparation for that.
Let A =

1 3 0
−3 −9 2
2 6 0
−2 −6 −5
2
−20
4
31
(a) Solve the system A~x = ~b.
(b) What does the solution set of A~x = ~b look like
graphically? (Is it a line, circle, etc.? Does it pass
through the origin?)
(c) Solve the system A~x = ~0. (Can you re-use your work from
(a)? How does your final answer
compare with your answer to (a)?)
(d) What does the solution of A~x = ~0 look like graphically?
How does it relate (graphically) to the

solution set of A~x = ~b?
(e) If ~c is any vector in R4, what can you say about the number
of solutions of the system A~x = ~c?
(Must there be a solution? Could the system have exactly one
solution? Could it have infinitely
many solutions?)
5. Reflect Back (1 point).
Suppose A is an n×m matrix and ~b is a vector in Rn. Based on
#4 and Problem Set 2, #1, which of
the following best summarizes the relationship between the
linear systems A~x = ~0 and A~x = ~b?
I. A~x = ~b must be consistent, and the solutions of A~x = ~b
are exactly ~b + (the solutions of A~x = ~0).
II. A~x = ~b is not necessarily consistent, but if it is, then the
solutions of A~x = ~b are exactly
~b + (the solutions of A~x = ~0).
III. A~x = ~b is not necessarily consistent, but if it is and ~x1 is
one solution, then the solutions of A~x = ~b
are exactly ~x1 + (the solutions of A~x = ~0).
IV. None of the above.
(1)So, for example, an answer in the form A =
[
1 2
3 4
]−1 [

5 6
7 8
]
would be fine.
2
Problem Set 5 - More Examples of Linear Transformations
• You should be familiar with several geometric examples of
linear transformations (rotations, scalings,
reflections, projections, and shears): you should be able to
visualize these linear transformations
and find their matrices. However, don’t forget that most linear
transformations don’t have a simple
geometric interpretation!
• You should understand the very important principle that a
linear transformation is determined by
what it does to a basis of its domain. In particular, you should
see how we use this principle to find
the matrices of the geometric linear transformations.
1. Bretscher #2.2.8
2. (a) Bretscher #2.2.20

In case it is helpful, here is a picture showing the positive x-, y-
, and z-axes.
x
y
z
3. Let L be the line spanned by
[
2
5
]
. In this problem, you’ll look at the linear transformation projL.
(a) Find a basis (~v1,~v2) of R2 for which you can very easily
find projL(~v1) and projL(~v2).
(b) Use the basis you chose in (a) to help you find the matrix of
projL. (If you’re stuck, take another
look at Problem Set 3, #2.)
4. Eventually, we’ll want to consider orthogonal projections in
Rn for n > 2 (yes, even in spaces like
R100!). This problem is meant to help you think about
orthogonality from an algebraic perspective.
In this problem, you’ll find all vectors in R3 perpendicular to
both

3
−9
you took Math
21a, you’re probably used to using the cross product in
problems like this. However, that approach
works only in R3, so we’ll have no way to generalize it to R4 or
R17. Here’s a different approach that
can be generalized to Rn for any n.
(a) If
z
3
the

1
dot product
z
3
(b) If
z
−9

(c) You now have a system
x + 2y + 3z = ?
x + 5y − 9z = ? which exactly expresses the fact that
z
is perpendicular to both
3
−9
both

3
−9
5. Next time in class, we will be talking about the composition
of linear transformations. Be prepared to
discuss this problem in class.
(a) Bretscher #2.1.45 (Let us know whether the transformation
preserves addition and scalar multi-
plication.)
2
INSTRUCTIONS FOR DISCUSSION
a. Summary: Give a brief summary of the selected article, in
your own words.
b. Discussion:
i. Give a brief discussion of how the article relates to the
selected chapter key term. This gives you the opportunity to add
value to the discussion by sharing your experiences, thoughts,
and opinions. Draw your peers into discussion of topics by
asking questions. This is the most important part of the thread.
ii. Biblical Integration: Use at least 1 appropriate scripture
verse or narrative from the Bible to support your discussion.

Are there any biblical examples of this term, is the term you are
responding to related to a term you researched, if so, how?
iii. Include the complete URL of each article read (use a
persistent link for articles from the Jerry Falwell Library). Each
reference must be in current APA format. These do not count
toward the 400-word requirement.
.
Influencing Others
LO 10-4
Influence, refers to any behavior that attempts to alter
someone's attitudes or behavior.61 Influence is power in
motion. It applies one or more sources of power to get people to
alter their beliefs, feelings, and activities. Consequently, our
interest in the remainder of this chapter is on how people use
power to influence others.
Page 297
global connections 10.1
The Art and Science of Managing Your Boss62
Iain McMath doesn't like to have an avalanche of information
hinder his executive decision process. “I do things based on
intuition, so when I meet with my financial director I only need
a one-page summary,” says the managing director of services
firm Sodexo Motivation
Solution
s Ltd. in Surrey, England. Unfortunately, the financial director
didn't initially figure out McMath's preferences. “She … was
coming to the meetings with a file of 600 pages,” McMath
recalls. “I would then get frustrated because she gave me too

much information, and she would get frustrated because she
thought I didn't understand the importance of the data.”
McMath's financial director eventually adjusted her behavior to
fit her boss's preferences. This alignment not only reduced
conflict and frustration; it helped the financial director manage
her boss by creating a more favorable impression. Managing
your boss is the process of improving the relationship with your
manager, for the benefit of each other and the organization. It
includes developing bases of power that enable you to influence
the manager to achieve organizational objectives. Most
executives say it is a key factor in everyone's career success. “It
is crucial to understand how to manage your manager,” says
Tracey Andrews, manager of learning and development at the
British department store chain John Lewis. “Start by getting to
know how your manager thinks and works and what his/her
priorities are.”
Along with aligning your behavior with the manager's preferred
style, managing your boss involves becoming a valuable
resource by making your manager's job easier. This begins by
performing your own job well. “Managing your manager is all
about going that extra step,” advises Chris Barber, who leads a
team of 12 people as director of a photography studio in
Warwickshire, UK. “It doesn't mean manipulating people … it's
about doing your job well and helping your manager to get the
best results.”

Managing your boss is an important form of influence in
organizations. “It is crucial to understand how to manage your
manager,” says an executive at British department store chain
John Lewis.
Managing your boss also requires some impression
management. For example, you need to “be a ‘problem solver’
rather than a ‘problem pyromaniac,’” says John Shetcliffe,
Managing Director of John Shetcliffe Marketing in
Hertfordshire, England. Problem pyromaniacs turn everything
into problems for the boss to fix, whereas problem solvers offer
the boss solutions when problems arise. Shetcliffe recommends
a related impression management strategy for managing your
boss: “Don't supply just bad news; announce good news too.
Otherwise, little by little you become the bad news!”
Influence tactics are woven throughout the social fabric of all
organizations, because influence is an essential process through
which people coordinate their effort and act in concert to
achieve organizational objectives. Influence is central to the
definition of leadership. Influence operates down, across, and
up the corporate hierarchy. Executives ensure that subordinates
complete required tasks. Employees influence coworkers to help
them with their job assignments. And as Global Connections
10.1 describes, upward influence tactics—better known as
managing your boss—are important for both personal career

success and the achievement of the organization's objectives.
Visit connect.mcgraw-hill.com for activities and test questions
to help you learn about influence tactics.
Page 298
TYPES OF INFLUENCE TACTICS
Organizational behavior researchers have devoted considerable
attention to the various types of influence tactics found in
organizational settings. They do not agree on a definitive list,
but the most commonly discussed influence tactics are
identified in Exhibit 10.4 and described over the next few
pages.63 The first five are known as “hard” influence tactics
because they force behavior change through position power
(legitimate, reward, and coercion). The latter three—persuasion,
impression management, and exchange—are called “soft” tactics
because they rely more on personal sources of power (referent,
expert) and appeal to the target person's attitudes and needs.
EXHIBIT 10.4
Types of Influence Tactics in Organizations
Silent AuthorityThe silent application of authority occurs when
someone complies with a request because of the requester's
legitimate power as well as the target person's role
expectations.64 This deference occurs when you comply with
your boss's request to complete a particular task. If the task is
within your job scope and your boss has the right to make this

request, then this influence strategy operates without
negotiation, threats, persuasion, or other tactics. Silent
authority is the most common form of influence in high power
distance cultures.65
AssertivenessThe supervisor at Otago Sheetmetal in New
Zealand wasn't subtle about trying to improve staff
performance. He often called the office administrator “useless”
and on one occasion threatened to “plant her one.” He also
raised his voice and occasionally swore at other employees. One
employee had his lawyer send a letter to Otago Sheetmetal,
urging the supervisor to be less aggressive.66 This incident of
workplace bullying is an extreme form of assertiveness—
influencing others through explicit reminders of one's
obligations and sometimes explicit threats of punishment.
Assertiveness might be called “vocal authority,” because it
involves actively applying legitimate and coercive power to
influence others. This application includes persistently
reminding the target of his or her obligations, frequently
checking the target's work, confronting the target, and using
threats of sanctions to force compliance.
Information ControlEarlier in this chapter, we explained that
people with centrality in social networks have the power to
control information. This power translates into influence when
the power holder selectively distributes information such that it
reframes the situation and causes others to change their

attitudes and/or behavior. Controlling information might include
withholding information that is more critical or favorable, or
distributing information to some people but not to others.
According to one major survey, almost half of employees
believe coworkers keep others in the dark about work issues if it
helps their own cause. Another study found that CEOs influence
their board of directors by selectively feeding and withholding
information.68

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