1. RUNNING HEAD: EMOTIONAL CLOSENESS AND SOCIAL COMPARISON TARGETS
Investigating the moderating role of emotional closeness to social comparison targets
on response to self-help strategies for body image
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Psychology 499: Honours Thesis
Student Investigator: Sarina Trac
Supervisor: Dr. Allison Kelly
Reviewer: Dr. Uzma Rehman
August 2016
University of Waterloo

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Abstract
Body image research has found upward (unfavorable) appearance comparisons to be
linked to increased body dissatisfaction among women. The primary objective of the
present study was to determine whether women’s emotional closeness toward upward
appearance comparison targets would moderate the effects of different self-help
strategies aimed to reduce body dissatisfaction on women’s affect and body image. A
sample of 63 undergraduate females were asked to recall a recent upward appearance
comparison, completed measures of affect and body image, and were guided through a
self-help strategy: cultivating compassion toward the target, comparing oneself
favorably to the target in other domains, or distraction/control. Afterwards, participants
completed measures of emotional closeness to the comparison target. Linear
regressions indicated there was no effect of Condition x Emotional Closeness on post-
intervention body image or affect. Results suggest that emotional closeness toward
one’s comparison target does not moderate the effectiveness of brief interventions for
body dissatisfaction. Limitations and recommendations for future research are
discussed.
Keywords: body dissatisfaction; social comparison; emotional closeness

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Investigating the moderating role of emotional closeness to social comparison
targets on affect and body image
A majority of females reports being unhappy with their bodies (Myers & Crowther,
2009), normalizing the phenomenon in Western culture. Body dissatisfaction refers to
dysfunctional beliefs and feelings regarding one’s body and weight (Stice & Shaw,
2002; Leahey, Crowther, & Mickelson, 2007; Myers & Crowther, 2009). Body
dissatisfaction is thought to derive from sociocultural pressures of the thin ideal that are
prominent in Western culture (Stice & Shaw, 2002; Myers & Crowther, 2009;
Tiggemann, Slater, Bury, Hawkins, & Firth, 2013). Sociocultural pressures can come
from a variety of sources such as the mass media, peers, and family (Thompson &
Heinberg, 1999; Stice & Shaw, 2002; Tiggemann & McGill, 2004). Such pressures are
manifested in different ways, ranging from the selection of extremely thin runway
models in fashion shows epitomizing the thin ideal, to comments about body shape from
a peer (Lin & Kulik, 2002; Tiggemann & McGill, 2004). The thin ideal is the pursuit of an
ultra-slender body and the belief that achieving thinness will provide social benefits,
academic success, and acceptance (Stice & Whitenton, 2002). Investigations of these
sociocultural pressures and their relation to body dissatisfaction have predominately
focused on the mass media’s role in promoting the thin ideal. Research has generally
found exposure to the media’s portrayal of the thin ideal to be related to body
dissatisfaction among women (Tiggemann & McGill, 2004; López-Guimerà, Levine,
Sánchez-Carracedo, & Fauquet 2010; Ridolfi, Myers, Crowther, & Ciesla, 2011).

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Social Comparison Theory
Research on social comparisons and their role in body dissatisfaction has
recently begun to focus on appearance comparisons to peers. When applying Festinger
(1954)’s social comparison theory to the context of appearance comparisons, everyday
real life depictions of the thin ideal may be more powerful in evoking body
dissatisfaction than comparisons to the media due to increased similarity to the targets.
Unlike personalities in the mass media, peers are arguably more significant in one’s life
when learning societal norms, establishing identity, and evaluating the self (Jones,
2011). The increased similarity in resources (e.g. wealth, possessions) and lifestyle
shared among peers, in contrast to media personnel, is thought to make real life social
comparisons more rational and accurate as a basis for determining one’s standing.
A well-established theory, Social comparison theory (Festinger, 1954) maintains
that people are naturally driven to determine their rank in the world. So, people scan
their social environments and engage in comparisons with available others. There are
two types of social comparisons: upward comparisons where one engages in
comparisons to someone they believe is superior to them on a specific domain, and
downward comparisons where one engages in comparisons to someone inferior to
them on a specific domain. Empirical research has supported Festinger’s assertion that
upward comparisons reduce affect and self-esteem, whereas downward comparisons
increase affect and self-esteem (Ridolfi, 2011).
Social comparisons are considered a core element of the human experience and
social comparison theory has been the focus of much theoretical and empirical research
(Corning, Krumm, & Smitham, 2006). Of particular interest to the current thesis is

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applying Festinger’s framework to understanding body satisfaction in the context of
appearance comparisons. Research finds that women, especially those who are body-
dissatisfied, commonly engage in upward appearance comparisons despite the
detrimental effects on their affect and self-esteem (Myers & Crowther, 2000; Corning et
al., 2006; Leahey et al., 2007). Rancourt, Schaefer, Bosson, & Thompson (2015) found
the frequency of self-reported upward appearance comparisons to be associated with
increased levels of disordered eating behaviors and lower body satisfaction across all
racial groups.
The Larger Investigation
The present study was part of a larger study investigating novel self-help
strategies to help women cope better with the tendency to make upward appearance
comparisons to others. These strategies involve adopting one of three different
mindsets when engaged in a comparison: 1) a compassionate mindset, in which one
seeks to support and connect with the comparison target while understanding her
distress and wishing her well, 2) a competitive mindset, in which one engages in a
downward comparison to the other on a non-appearance domain, or 3) a control
mindset, in which one distracts from the comparison by counting backwards from 50 in
threes focusing on even pace and accuracy. A script of all three intervention strategies
are included in Appendix A. Current clinical practice in eating disorders often involves
evoking or perpetuating a competitive mindset to combat body dissatisfaction. That is,
cognitive behavioral-based treatments incorporate downward comparisons to counter
the harmful effects of engaging in upward appearance comparisons (Fairburn, 2008).
However, White, Langer, Yariv, and Welch (2006) speculates this approach to be

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problematic due to its evaluative focus, which may be especially harmful to those with
poor self-concept and further encourages dependency on social comparisons to
enhance well-being. In contrast, it has been suggested that enabling a compassionate,
care-giving mentality can promote secure feelings of well-being because these feelings
are not based on viewing others as inferior (Gilbert, 2005). Fostering compassionate
feelings toward others may therefore be a helpful approach to incorporate into existing
clinical practices for individuals who make frequent social comparisons.
Compassion
Compassion is the feeling that comes from witnessing someone else suffer,
which motivates a desire to help (Goetz, Keltner, & Simon-Thomas, 2010). Studies have
shown that evoking compassion significantly increases positive affect by enabling
feelings of social connectedness and happiness (Seppala, Rossomando, & Doty, 2013).
The compassion condition in the present study is the focus of interest because it is a
novel strategy that we believed might be effective in combatting body dissatisfaction tied
to appearance comparisons. The participants in this condition were guided through an
audio clip recording that facilitated activation of the compassionate “part of self”. The
compassion condition entailed reminding the self that the target of comparison has her
own struggles and insecurities because she is human. The compassion mindset
encourages the participant to generate caring thoughts and feelings towards the
comparison target, wishing her well instead of seeing her as a competitor.

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Emotional Closeness as a Moderator
An important extension to current social comparison literature is to examine how
the emotional closeness one feels to the targets in one’s upward appearance
comparisons influences how likely one is to properly perform and benefit from particular
self-help strategies. Empirical evidence generally finds peers to significantly influence
body dissatisfaction, which suggests emotional closeness is an important variable to
study. That is, a higher level of emotional closeness toward comparison targets may
strengthen the positive link between upward comparisons and body dissatisfaction.
However, research investigating appearance comparisons toward different target
groups along the emotional closeness continuum (i.e. family, peers, strangers) has
been limited and inconclusive (Krones, Stice, Batres, & Orjada 2005; Levi-Ari,
Baumgarten-Katz & Zohar, 2014; Fardouly & Vartanian, 2015).
According to Flores & Berenbaum (2012), emotional closeness is defined as “the
degree to which individuals perceive others to have caring feelings for them and to be
physically affectionate, verbally affectionate, and emotionally supportive” (p. 952).
However, researchers studying adult friendship note ambiguity and conflict surrounding
a definitive definition of the construct (Parks & Floyd, 1996). In order to capture all
possible domains of emotional closeness, several items currently used in the literature
were included in the present study.
Comparisons and Compassion
I propose that appearance comparisons to individuals to whom one feels
emotionally closer may be more responsive to self-help strategies that involve

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generating feelings of compassion. Although there is currently no research, to my
knowledge, that investigates this specific question, there are a few studies that examine
how the relationship between an observer and victim affect activation of emotional brain
mechanisms. For instance, Cialdini, Brown, Lewis, Luce, & Neuberg (1997) found that a
participant’s degree of self-other overlap with someone who needed help mediated
differences in willingness to help and in empathy. To add, the relationship is stronger for
family and friends than strangers (Cialdini et al., 1997). Similarly, brain-imaging studies
have contributed to knowledge regarding the underlying neural processes of empathy in
response to suffering (Meyers, Masten, Ma, Wang, Shi, Eisenberger, & Han, 2013).
Moreover, greater self-other overlap toward the target increased feelings of empathy for
social suffering through emotional sharing and self-processing mechanisms (Meyers et
al., 2013). When imagining the emotional state of someone with whom we believe we
share some degree of self-other overlap with, brain mechanisms responsible for
empathy become activated (Lerner, 1980; Meyers et al., 2013). So, self-processing and
affective pain regions that are activated for friends should aid in the success of
developing compassion towards a close other.
Although there is currently no empirical research examining compassion as a
mechanism for decreased body image concerns when engaging in appearance
comparisons, the close link between compassion and self-compassion suggests one
possible mechanism through which cultivating compassion may alleviate body
dissatisfaction. Self-compassion is characterized by demonstrating compassion towards
the self during instances of distress and is composed of three components: self-
kindness, common humanity (i.e. seeing one’s struggle as part of being human), and

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mindfulness (Neff, 2003). Self-compassion is related to compassion, in the sense that
both involve active awareness of and benevolent feelings toward suffering, which then
promote a desire to alleviate suffering (Neff, 2003). It is therefore possible that the
cultivation of compassion toward a comparison target will stimulate feelings of self-
compassion thereby decreasing body dissatisfaction. Indeed, empirical research has
consistently found that higher levels of self-compassion are associated with lower body
dissatisfaction (Wasylkiw, Mackinnon, & MacLellan, 2012; Albertson, Neff, & Dill-
Shackleford, 2015; Homan & Tylka, 2015; Kelly & Stephen, 2016).
The Present Study
The current study investigated whether emotional closeness to upward
appearance comparison targets would moderate the effects of different self-help
strategies designed to reduce the negative consequences of making such comparison.
With regards to the larger investigation, it was hypothesized that participants should
report improved positive affect, decreased negative affect, and decreased body image
concerns after generating compassion toward their social comparison target when
compared to participants in the competition and control condition. In the present study, it
was further hypothesized that the effect of the compassion condition on negative affect
and body image concerns should be greater among participants who compare
themselves to someone to whom they feel highly emotionally close.
Method
Participants

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Sixty-three female undergraduate students at the University of Waterloo were
recruited through the Research Experiences Group (REG) to participate in the study.
Although males do struggle with body image and engage in social comparisons as well,
research has shown that males engage in fewer appearance comparisons and
experience body dissatisfaction to a lesser degree (Hargreaves & Tiggemann, 2004;
Corning et al., 2006). Also, in regards to gender prevalence rates in psychology
courses, it was anticipated that available participants would be disproportionally female.
For the reasons mentioned, the sample was chosen to be female only. Participants
were compensated with 1.0 extra credit toward their psychology courses in exchange
for their voluntary participation. There were no exclusion criteria for participation in the
study, although the consent form advises potential participants that they may be
unsuitable for the study if they do not engage in at least three body or appearance
comparisons daily. Body mass index (BMI) was computed for all participants and
ranged from 16.7 to 34, with a mean of 22.2 (SD = 3.7). {For the demographics of the
sample, see Table 1.}
Procedure
A breakdown of the four visual analog scales (VAS) administration time points
and associated tasks are described below:
1. When participants entered the lab, a set of VAS’ measuring affect and
body image was completed.
2. Participants recalled a recent upward appearance comparison and
completed another set of VAS.

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3. After learning a bit about their randomly assigned strategy, but before
practicing it, participants completed another set of VAS.
4. Following the intervention, participants completed a short questionnaire
that consisted of closeness items along with the final set of VAS.
When recalling a comparison, participants were informed that the target should
be a real life female (i.e. not celebrities or figures portrayed in the media) such as
family, friends, or acquaintances. In the intervention, participants were guided through a
series of audio clips on a computer that taught them their randomly assigned self-help
strategy while keeping their recalled comparison vividly in mind. In the compassion
condition, participants were encouraged to “get in touch with a compassion part of
yourself, and remind yourself that the person you’re comparing to is a fellow human
being, has her own share of struggles and insecurities…” and to wish that person to be
“free from suffering and happy”. In the competition condition, participants were told to
“identify various other domains outside of appearance (e.g. intelligence, social
relationships) in which you are better…” and to be proud of “your talents and
successes”. Lastly, in the control condition, participants were informed that “mental
distractions can be used… to interrupt our negative states of mind…help us deal with
stress,” and instructed to “count backwards in threes from 50 and then continuing on
with your day.” All three mindset conditions - compassion, competitive, and control were
presented as strategies to reduce body dissatisfaction when engaging in upward social
comparisons.

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Measures
Emotional closeness. The focus of the current study is on the emotional domain
of closeness, captured by the items: emotional closeness, interconnectedness, self-
disclosure, general liking and perceived support. Empirical evidence has supported
those items as contributors towards closeness (Aron et al., 1992; Parks & Floyd, 1996;
Curry & Dunbar, 2013). All closeness items were rated with a 7-point Likert scale
anchored with the terms “not at all” and “very much” unless otherwise stated.
A single item measuring emotional closeness towards the target of social
comparison was used: “How emotionally close do you feel toward this person?” The
item has strong face validity and has been consistently used by previous researchers
studying adult friendships (Curry & Dunbar, 2013).
The Inclusion of Other in the Self (IOS) Scale is a single item pictorial measure of
one’s sense of interpersonal interconnectedness (Aron et al., 1992). IOS is a set of
seven Venn-like diagrams, each representing a constant varying degree of overlap of
two circles titled “self” and “other”, intended to represent interconnectedness. The notion
of closeness as overlapping selves has been consistent with approaches toward
closeness used in social psychology literature (Aron et al., 1992). Empirical research
has supported the IOS in having strong concurrent validity and discriminate validity.
A single item measuring self-disclosure towards the social comparison target was
used: “How much do you self-disclose to this person when you are going through a hard
time?” Survey data conducted by Parks & Floyd (1996) found college students
considered self-disclosure as the most important contributor when defining closeness.

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Moreover, the item is intended to measure the quality of conversation in relation to
personal issues, which Floyd (1995) found contribute to closeness in female friendships.
A single item measuring perceived support from the social comparison target
was used: “To what extent would this person give you emotional support if you needed
it?” This item was adapted from Parks & Floyd (1996)’s finding that participants
indicated support as the second most important contributor toward defining closeness.
Elaboration on the type of support (i.e. provided support, given support) used by Parks
& Floyd (1996) was not discussed. Thus, the item was modified to measure one’s sense
of perceived emotional support from the comparison target.
A single item measuring general liking towards the social comparison target was
used: “Overall, how much do you generally like this person?”
A single item measuring similarity towards the social comparison target was
used: “The person I compared myself to is a similar kind of person to me” (Papsdorf &
Alden, 1998) Curry & Dunbar (2013) found similarity to be a significant contributor of
emotional closeness, noting that individuals who are similar are more likely to associate
with each other.
Ease of Strategy. A single item measuring ease of strategy was inserted after the
self-help strategy was complete: “How easy did you find this strategy to use?” A 7-point
Likert scale will be used and anchored with the terms “not easy at all” to “extremely
easy”. This item served to investigate whether compassion would be developed more
easily for comparison targets to whom individuals feel emotionally closer.

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State Measures
VAS were used to measure participant’s positive and negative affect and body
image on a scale from 0 to 100. When presented with a VAS, participants were required
to slide the bar between opposing anchors. The anchors composed of the phrase “not
at all” on one end and “extremely” on the other, followed by the item. Research has
generally found visual analogs to yield more precise responses when compared to
categorical scales (Reips & Funke, 2008).
Affect. Five VAS will measure different dimensions of affect before and after the
self-help strategy. The items “threatened” and “distressed” assessed negative affect and
“proud” and “at peace” assessed positive affect and were thought to capture the two
types of positive affect, both high aroused and low (Gilbert, McEwan, Franks, Richter, &
Rockliff, 2007). “Guilt” was included as an additional item as we thought it may be
evoked by participants in the compassion condition feeling that they should already
think of their close comparison target in a kind, compassionate way. In particular,
participants who chose a comparison target that they felt highly close to may have felt
guilty during the compassion intervention for not naturally feeling compassion toward
them. I thought it might be possible that heightened guilt might therefore interfere with
the effectiveness of the compassion manipulation. However, guilt might conversely
enhance its effectiveness. That is, Gilbert (2005) maintains that guilt supports prosocial
behaviors and builds interpersonal relationships: it might therefore facilitate feelings of
compassion, and thereby improve affect and body image in the compassion condition.
Of note, pilot testing on three female researchers and three participants assessed
whether inclusion of the guilt item induced negative affect, created confusion, or

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seemed disruptive when following the other VAS items. The inclusion of “guilt’ did not
appear to harm or impede the flow of VAS items.
Body Image. A VAS measuring body image asked: “Right now, how do you feel
about your body?” The item will be anchored with “extremely dissatisfied” on one end
and “extremely satisfied” on the other.
Results
Confirmatory Factor Analysis
A factor analysis was performed on the six items intended to assess emotional
closeness: emotional closeness, interconnectedness, self-disclosure, perceived
emotional support, general liking, and similarity. All six items loaded coherently onto one
factor (see Table 2). Because similarity had the lowest factor loading and was thought
to be somewhat conceptually different from emotional closeness, it was removed from
our total closeness score. The total emotional closeness measure appeared to have
good internal consistency, α = .90. The mean closeness rating of comparison target was
3.26 out of 7 (SD = 1.82) – reflecting just below average levels of closeness.
Effect of Condition on Changes in Outcomes from Pre- to Post-Intervention
Repeated measures with linear contrasts investigated whether changes in affect
and body image differed by condition, a primary research question of the larger
investigation. Differences were examined between two time points: following the recall
and following the intervention practice. The hypothesis that generating compassion
would improve positive affect, decrease negative affect, and decrease body image
concerns more than the other conditions was partially supported. Condition x Time

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predicted feelings of “at peace” at a trend level F (2, 60 = 2.04, p = 0.09), and contrasts
revealed that the compassion condition yielded greater improvements in peaceful
feelings than the average of the competition and control condition, F (2, 60 = 3.08, p =
0.049). Moreover, Condition x Time predicted distress at close to a trend level, F (2, 60
= 1.92, p = 0.11). When compared to the competition and control condition, generating
compassion led to greater decreases in distress, F (2, 60 = 3.23, p = 0.04). Contrary to
the hypothesis, changes in feelings of pride F (2, 60 = 1.89, p = 0.15), guilt F (2, 60 =
0.91, p = 0.40) and threat F (2, 60 = 1.58, p = 0.21) were not significantly affected by
condition, suggesting that generating compassion did not decrease feelings of threat
and guilt or increase feelings of pride relative to the other conditions. In addition,
condition by time did not significantly predict changes in body image F (2, 60 = 0.39, p =
0.67) so generating compassion did not improve one’s body satisfaction. Thus, findings
offer support for the idea that generating feelings of compassion toward an upward
comparison target in the appearance domain may promote feelings of peacefulness and
decrease feelings of distress when compared to the strategies of making downward
comparisons to the target on other domains or distracting from the comparison.
Moderating Effect of Emotional Closeness on Condition Effects
Of primary interest to my thesis, I examined the Condition x Emotional Closeness
interaction to determine whether emotional closeness to the comparison target
moderated the effect of condition on outcomes. A linear regression analysis was
performed to test my hypothesis. Post-manipulation scores on affect and body image
served as the dependent variables, and pre-manipulation levels of the relevant
dependent variable were covariates. Condition, emotional closeness and Condition x

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Emotional Closeness were predictors, with the latter term being of primary interest as a
significant effect would suggest that closeness moderated the effect of condition on
dependent variables.
Contrary to hypotheses, there was no significant effect of Condition x Emotional
Closeness on distress F (2, 60 = 0.06, p = 0.94), threatened feelings F (2,60 = 0.91, p =
0.40), feelings of at peace F (2, 60 = 1.06, p = 0.35), guilt F (2,60=0.99, p=0.37) or
pride F (2,60=1.25, p=0.29). Similarly, there was no Condition x Emotional Closeness
effect on body satisfaction F (2, 60 = 1.34, p = 0.27). These results suggest that the
emotional closeness participants felt toward their comparison target did not influence
the extent to which their self-help strategy impacted their feelings of body image.
Exploratory Analyses
Because of my interest in emotional closeness, several exploratory analyses
were conducted examining this variable. First, I sought to examine the relationship
between emotional closeness and choice of comparison target. A regression analysis
investigated whether participant race predicted the emotional closeness one feels
toward their comparison target. Due to literature suggesting that racial groups are
affected by social comparisons differently (Rancourt et al., 2015), I reasoned that choice
of comparison target might differ across race as well. However, results suggested that
race (Caucasian versus Asian versus other) did not appear to influence choice of
comparison target F (2,60=0.26, p=0.76).
Moreover, a repeated measures ANOVA was conducted to investigate guilt as a
moderator of the effect on condition on outcomes. There was no Guilt x Condition

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interaction F (2, 60 = 0.99, p = 0.37) suggesting that the degree of closeness felt toward
a comparison target in the compassion condition did not interfere or enhance
intervention effectiveness.
Next, a regression analysis was computed to investigate the Condition x
Emotional Closeness interaction on ease of strategy. There was no significant
interaction F (2,60 = 0.19, p = 0.83) indicating that participant’s ease of performance in
a particular condition did not depend on their emotional closeness to the target. This
finding was contrary to the idea that the compassion strategy may have been easier the
closer one felt to one’s target.
Finally, a regression analysis examined BMI as a predictor of emotional
closeness, but it had no significant effect F (2,60 = 0.29, p= 0.74) suggesting that
participant’s BMI did not influence choice of comparison target.
Discussion
The objective of the present study was to explore the moderating role of
emotional closeness to recent upward social comparison targets on affect and body
image. Although the theorized moderator model was not supported, the hypothesis of
the larger investigation was partially supported. More specifically, participants tended to
report greater improvement in feelings of ‘at peace’ and distress in the compassion
condition when compared to the competition and control conditions. In relation to my
particular hypothesis, emotional closeness to one’s comparison target did not moderate
the effect of condition on outcomes. That is, contrary to expectations, participants who
recalled a comparison target to whom they felt emotionally closer did not show greater

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improvements in affect and body image in the compassion condition. Exploratory
analyses additionally revealed that participant’s racial group or BMI did not predict their
level of emotional closeness to the target they selected. Moreover, emotional closeness
did not predict the ease with which participants preformed their assigned strategy in the
compassion condition, as I hypothesized. Nevertheless, the present study contributes
toward supporting existing social psychology literature on emotional closeness in
relationships. Consistent with previous literature, self-reported emotional closeness,
interrelatedness, self-disclosure, emotional support, and general liking were found to
contribute toward the conceptualization of emotional closeness in adult female
relationships.
There are a few plausible explanations as to why the primary hypothesis was not
supported in the present study. One explanation is that we asked participants to recall
their most recent upward appearance comparison. Given the university environment,
women are constantly bombarded with real life potential comparison targets
everywhere. Thus, it is plausible that participants’ most recent comparison target was a
mere acquaintance, considering the average emotional closeness rating (3.26 out of 7),
and the relatively small standard deviation of 1.82. A restricted range of closeness
scores, particularly at the lower end of the closer range, makes it difficult to study
emotional closeness as a moderator. This speculation is supported by research
indicating that social comparisons are a universal part of life and comparisons occur
automatically and regularly in one’s daily life routine (Corning et al., 2006).
When investigating intervention benefits, aspects such as personality traits of the
comparer and motivations for the comparison may be more relevant than emotional

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closeness as a moderator. Future studies should include measures of the comparer’s
personality and reasons for appearance comparison since individual differences in
social comparison styles exist (White et al., 2006). For instance, those with higher self-
esteem tend to choose targets that serve to enhance their well-being or mitigate threats
to the self (White et al., 2006). Moreover, research has found self-criticism and
perfectionism to contribute to body dissatisfaction (Drunkley, Masheb, and Grilo, 2010;
Wade & Tiggemann, 2013), which may have profound implications on outcomes in the
compassion condition. Personality traits and motivations for the comparison may
emerge as exhibiting a greater moderator effect on intervention outcomes than
emotional closeness.
Participant’s report of improved feelings of ‘at peace’ and decreased distress in
the compassion condition relative to the two other conditions may have significant
implications for body image research and clinical practice. Results of the larger
investigation suggest that existing therapy for women who struggle with body image
may benefit from incorporating elements of compassion, encouraging women to adopt
this mindset when they notice themselves making comparisons to more attractive
others. In regards to the absence of improvement in feelings of pride, decreased
feelings of threat, and body image there are a couple of plausible explanations.
Changes in feelings of pride and threat may be contingent upon personality traits, as
those who score higher in neuroticism tend to focus more on self-esteem and are more
vigilant toward detecting danger (Wasylkiw et al., 2012). Future research should aim to
include personality measures to investigate their possible moderating influence. The
lack of improvement in body satisfaction may be attributed to its disparity from the other

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VAS items – that is, body image is different from state affect and may be less amenable
to change in a brief self-help intervention. Moreover, while taught the self-help strategy,
participants are actively focused on generating specific feelings toward the comparison
target. Since participants are not focused on themselves, this may explain why feelings
of their body satisfaction did not significantly change.
Limitations and Future Research
The present study identifies important suggestions for recruitment efforts in
regards to future studies. To begin, the sample was a homogeneous sample of female
undergraduate students. Future research should investigate the moderating role of
emotional closeness in appearance comparison targets among younger and older
populations, nonacademic settings, and/or males. Examining other population groups
may yield insight into how emotional closeness may moderate the impact of different
self-help interventions. Another important suggestion is to focus on investigating who
struggle with elevated body dissatisfaction only. The present study initially set forth this
criterion, however it was removed to facilitate participation recruitment speed. Inclusion
of a body image measure as a screening tool for potential participants may enhance
validity of the study when generalizing to at risk populations in the context of body
image.
To extend the present study’s results, prospective studies should investigate the
impact of the interventions as the comparisons are occurring rather than after the fact,
relying on recall. The present study’s use of retrospective self-report on emotional

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closeness toward the comparison target is limited by recall bias. An assessment tool
commonly used in clinical psychology, the Ecological momentary assessment (EMA),
aims to reduce recall bias by collecting data as it occurs in the natural environment
(Shiffman, Stone, and Hufford, 2008). Thus, incorporation of EMA in future
investigations may produce a more accurate recording as participants will report
emotional closeness while the comparison is made. Moreover, future studies should
consider extending the intervention over a longer time period, rather than 20 minutes in
lab. Longer interventions may yield greater comprehension among participants, which
increases validity of the strategy and enhances memory to apply the mindset
immediately following real life comparisons.
Future research may also benefit from including more items that further
investigate the nature of the relationship between the participant and comparison target
(i.e. frequency of encounters with the comparison target). For instance, physical
closeness may be worth investigating as the persistent physical proximity of a
comparison target may enhance negative outcomes because opportunities for
comparisons are incessant. Moreover, inquiring about the classification of the
comparison target (i.e. peer, stranger) may help clarify the current disparate literature
surrounding which comparisons are the most frequent and distressing among women.
Inclusion of the suggested additional items mentioned were not included in the present
study due to limits on participation time. Rectifying this would help shed light on other
important aspects of the relationships women have with the people to whom they
compare their appearance; this may be beneficial for clinicians to know about when
tailoring interventions.

23. EMOTIONAL CLOSENESS 23
Furthermore, future studies should focus on recruiting an evenly distributed racial
composite of participants so results can be generalized across race. Although all ethnic
groups engage in appearance comparisons, the propensity to engage or the types of
comparisons made may be different due to unique cultural pressures within groups. For
example, Schaefer, Thibodaux, Krenik, Arnold, and Thompson (2015) found African-
American college aged women engaged in appearance comparisons less frequently
and were less impacted by their comparisons. Yet, it is important to note that the current
study made efforts to accommodate differences in body image pressures across racial
groups by prompting a recall of a comparison target who is more attractive or thinner
than themselves. This was done to accommodate a broader range of body types
beyond the thin ideal that participants may internalized. For instance, heavier body
types are considered attractive in traditional African society (Coetzee & Perrett, 2011).
Although there is clear evidence on women’s body satisfaction decreasing because of
the thin ideal, the present research did not exclusively limit to thin comparison targets in
order to accommodate cultural and ethnic ideals.
Overall, although the hypothesized moderator model was not supported, when
considering previous literature, examining emotional closeness as a moderator in
appearance comparison remains an important topic worth investigating. The present
study identified valuable suggestions for future studies and contributes toward the
burgeoning research on social comparisons in the context of body image. Of greater
importance, the present study is the first, to my knowledge, to explore emotional
closeness as a moderator of interventions for appearance comparisons. Moreover, the
larger investigation reveals that incorporating compassion into current body image

24. EMOTIONAL CLOSENESS 24
interventions may be beneficial. Ultimately, further investigations of emotional closeness
in appearance comparisons may produce significant contributions toward psychological
literature and aid clinicians to tailor interventions.

25. EMOTIONAL CLOSENESS 25
Acknowledgements
I am incredibly thankful for several individuals at the Department of Psychology in
the University of Waterloo who help contribute toward the success of this honours
thesis. I would first like to thank my supervisor, Dr. Allison Kelly for her invaluable
guidance on this project and in other areas of my academic career. I would also like to
thank Kiruthiha Vimalakanthan for her supportive mentorship, Dr. Uzma Rehman for her
insight feedback, and the Self-Attitudes Lab for the planning of the research study.

26. EMOTIONAL CLOSENESS 26
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Table 1.
Demographics of sample
N = 63
---------------------------------------------
Age in years (SD) 20.1 (2.8)
Race frequency (%)
White/Caucasian 27 (43)
East Asian (e.g. Chinese, Japanese, Korean) 16 (25)
South Asian (e.g. Pakistani, Indian) 8 (13)
Black/African 2 (3)
Middle Eastern 2 (3)
Southeast Asian (e.g. Filipino, Vietnamese, Indonesian) 2 (3)
West Indian/Caribbean 2 (3)
Other 4 (6)
Note. Participants listed as “Other” race indicated that none of the options provided
captured their primary race.

35. EMOTIONAL CLOSENESS 35
Table 2.
Confirmatory Factor Analysis
Factor 1
Emotclose 0.94
Venn 0.90
Disclose 0.81
Emotsupport 0.87
Liking 0.87
Similarity 0.76
Note: Each factor has been assigned a shorten label for data analyses purposes. (I.e.
“Emotclose” = emotional closeness, “Venn” = venn diagram assessing
interconnectedness, “disclose” = self-disclosure, “Emotsupport” = emotional support,
“Liking” = general liking, “Simiclose” = similarity.) All items load coherently onto factor 1:
closeness. To strengthen the validity of the factor, similarity was removed from the sum
of closeness. Thus, the closeness factor includes the items: emotional closeness,
interrelatedness, self-disclosure, emotional support, and general liking.

36. EMOTIONAL CLOSENESS 36
Appendix A – Self Help Strategy Audio Clip Scripts
Compassionate Mindset
Research suggests that when we are focused on comparing ourselves to others,
we are in a competitive mindset. We might feel insecure and so assess other women’s
bodies to see how we measure up. When we do this, the women we compare ourselves
to become like competitors – people we are competing against to look attractive. While
this is often a natural mindset given the competitive society we live in, having this
competitive mindset can make us feel threatened and even more insecure, and it can
also prevent us from experiencing genuine positive feelings towards others. As such,
taking on this competitive mindset on a regular basis can make us feel disconnected
and self-focused, rather than connected and compassionate.
A number of studies has shown that cultivating compassion can have enormous
positive effects on our physical and mental well-being, making us feel healthier, happier,
and more socially connected. In fact, if you bring to mind a time when you felt you were
being compassionate, you will probably agree that it felt good, and maybe even
empowering, to be in this mindset. Because of these benefits associated with
compassion, we will be asking you to practice shifting from a competitive to a
compassionate mindset when you find yourself making body-related comparisons to
other females that you encounter in real, every-day life (e.g., friend, co-worker,
stranger). What we mean by this is that we’d like you to get in touch with a
compassionate part of yourself, and remind yourself that the person you’re comparing
yourself to is a fellow human being who, like all people, no doubt has her own share of
struggles and insecurities in life, even if you don’t know about them. In this
compassionate mindset, shift away from seeing this person as a competitor, or
someone who looks better than you, but instead focus on the fact that you are both
human beings, and try to generate caring thoughts and feelings towards them. Really
get in touch with the part of yourself that wants other people to be free from suffering
and happy, and send these well-wishes to this person.
Now, take a few deep breaths, focus on your breathing, and center yourself.
Focus on getting into your compassionate mindset – a mindset of strength, wisdom, and
kindness. To help you get into this mindset, try to recall a time when you felt
compassionate toward another person or if you prefer, an animal. The idea is to focus
on getting in touch with the compassionate desires you had for that person to be free
from suffering and happy. It is your intentions for them to be well that are important, and
the feelings behind these intentions. Now bring to mind this time when you felt
compassionate.
- Imagine yourself expanding as if you are becoming calmer, wiser, stronger, and more
mature… really able to care for or help that person.
- Pay attention to your body as you remember your feelings of kindness. Create a
compassionate facial expression.

37. EMOTIONAL CLOSENESS 37
- Spend a moment with any expansion and warmth in your body. Note a real genuine
desire for this other person to be free of suffering and to flourish.
Now, bring to mind this person you were recently comparing yourself to, while
staying in touch with your compassionate feelings and intentions. Keep these alive and
direct these feelings of compassion toward this person. With this person in mind, and
these compassionate intentions within you, imagine saying: “May you be well,” “May
you be happy,” “May you be free from suffering.”
We understand that it will likely be too difficult to spend this amount of time
getting into a compassionate mindset every time you find yourself comparing yourself to
other women. But, we wanted to give you a sense of the emotional shift we would like
you to practice during these times of comparison; the more you practice, the more
natural it will be. We do hope this will benefit you in the long run and believe that it will
get easier with practice. It’s also natural to start feeling uncomfortable when you realize
that you may not have been viewing the people you compare yourselves to in a very
compassionate light—our intention is not to make you feel guilty, but rather to introduce
an alternative, more positive mindset. We encourage you to really try and get into this
compassionate mindset as best you can when you find yourself comparing yourself to
other women, especially women you think are more attractive.
Competitive Mindset
Research has suggested that one approach we can take to feel better about
ourselves is to think of the various ways in which we might be superior to that person.
Several studies have shown that coming up with qualities, skills, or accomplishments
that we have, and that the other person does not have, or has to a lesser degree than
us, can help us feel better about ourselves. It can also help to minimize the sense of
inadequacy we might feel from the original appearance-based comparison we were
making. In fact, you may have tried this approach before and will probably agree that it
helped you feel a bit better about yourself.
In this study, we will be asking you to focus on things other than appearance
when you find yourself comparing yourself to an attractive female that you encounter in
real, every-day life (e.g., friend, co-worker, stranger). The reason for this is that we want
you to identify various other domains outside of appearance (e.g., intelligence, work
ethic, athletic accomplishments, academic or career accomplishments, quality of life,
social relationships, etc.) in which you are better than this person. That is, we’d like you
to get in touch with a part of yourself that knows that you have certain superior abilities,
qualities, and accomplishments to this other person. Really get in touch with the part of
yourself that knows you are better than other people in certain ways – the part of you
that is proud of your talents and successes.

38. EMOTIONAL CLOSENESS 38
Now, focus on getting in touch with the part of you that is competitive. Think
about aspects of yourself, your life, and your achievements that you feel proud of. To
help you get into this mindset, you might try to recall a time when you were more
successful than others; for example, a time when you got a highly desired co-op job or
got a higher mark on a test than your friends. Or simply think of things about yourself
and your life that you value and pride yourself on, for example your ability to form deep
friendships.
Now, bring to mind this person you were recently comparing yourself to, while
staying in touch with these feelings. Now tell yourself the various ways in which you
might be better than this person. For example, “I think I’m better than her at forming
lasting friendships” or “I have gotten better co-op jobs than her” or “People think I’m
more genuine than her.” Try to think of personally-relevant comparisons you can make
with this person where you believe you are better.
We understand that it will likely be too difficult to spend this amount of time
thinking about all of your superior qualities every time you find yourself comparing
yourself to another woman. It might not feel very genuine at first. But, we wanted to give
you a sense of what we would like you to practice during these times of comparison; the
more you practice, the more natural it will be. We do hope this will benefit you in the
long run and believe that it will get easier with practice. We encourage you to really try
and get into this mindset as best you can when you find yourself comparing yourself to
other women, especially women you think are more attractive.
Control Mindset
Research has suggested that one approach we can take to feel better about
ourselves is to use mental strategies to distract ourselves from continuing to make such
comparisons. A number of studies have shown that mental distractions can be used as
short-term ‘time-outs’ that interrupt our negative states of mind, and they can help us
deal with both physical and psychological stress. In fact, if you bring to mind a time
when you distracted yourself from a situation that was stressing you out, you will
probably agree that it felt helpful to be in this mindset. Because of these benefits
associated with distracting yourself, we will be asking you to practice a distracting
mental task when you find yourself making body-related comparisons to other females
that you encounter in real, every-day life (e.g., friend, co-worker, stranger). In this
distraction task, we would like you to focus on counting backwards in threes from 50
and then continuing on with your day.
Now, begin your counting task, starting with 50 and counting backwards in 3s.
The goal here is to prioritize getting the numbers right and keeping an even pace.
We understand that it will likely be too difficult to spend this amount of time
counting every time you find yourself comparing yourself to other women. Some people

39. EMOTIONAL CLOSENESS 39
might even feel weird leaving behind a potentially emotional situation and switching to
such a mechanical task. It might feel robotic or even forced at first, but, we wanted to
give you a sense of what the task should look like; the more you practice, the more
natural it will be. We do hope this will benefit you in the long run and believe that it will
get easier with practice. We encourage you to really give this specific counting
distraction technique a shot as best you can when you find yourself comparing yourself
to other women, especially women you think are more attractive.

40. EMOTIONAL CLOSENESS 40
Appendix B- Notification of Ethics Clearance
Dear Researcher:
The recommended revisions/additional information requested in the ethics review of
your ORE application:
Title: Self-Help Strategies for Body Dissatisfaction
ORE #: 21004
Faculty Supervisor: Allison Kelly (allison.kelly@uwaterloo.ca)
Student Investigator: Kiruthiha Vimalakanthan (kvimalak@uwaterloo.ca)
Student Investigator: Sarina Trac (strac@uwaterloo.ca)
Have been reviewed and are considered acceptable. As a result, your application now
has received full ethics clearance.
A signed copy of the Notification of Full Ethics Clearance will be sent to the Principal
Investigator or Faculty Supervisor in the case of student research.
*********************************************
Note 1: This ethics clearance through a University of Waterloo Research Ethics
Committee (REC) is valid for one year from the date shown on the certificate and is
renewable annually. Renewal is through completion and ethics clearance of the Annual
Progress Report for Continuing Research (ORE Form 105).
Note 2: This project must be conducted according to the application description and
revised materials for which ethics clearance has been granted. All subsequent
modifications to the project also must receive prior ethics clearance (i.e., Request for
Ethics Clearance of a Modification, ORE Form 104) through the Office of Research
Ethics and must not begin until notification has been received by the investigators.
Note 3: Researchers must submit a Progress Report on Continuing Human Research
Projects (ORE Form 105) annually for all ongoing research projects or on the
completion of the project. The Office of Research Ethics sends the ORE Form 105 for a
project to the Principal Investigator or Faculty Supervisor for completion. If ethics
clearance of an ongoing project is not renewed and consequently expires, the Office of
Research Ethics may be obliged to notify Research Finance for their action in
accordance with university and funding agency regulations.
Note 4: Any unanticipated event involving a participant that adversely affected the
participant(s) must be reported immediately (i.e., within 1 business day of becoming
aware of the event) to the ORE using ORE Form 106. Any unanticipated or
unintentional change which may impact the research protocol, information-consent
document or other study materials must be reported to the ORE within 7 days of the
deviation using ORE Form 107.
Best wishes for success with this study.

41. EMOTIONAL CLOSENESS 41
----------------------------------
Sacha Geer, PhD
Manager
Office of Research Ethics
NH 1045
519.888.4567 ext. 37163
sacha.geer@uwaterloo.ca