This is a literature review on Theories of motivation, and will focus on defining what motivation is, benefits of motivation, factors affect motivation, and motivation and employee performance in the organization.

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Introduction to Motivation
Motivation plays much important role in study and practice of management. It is a vital
concept particularly in study of human behavior. Motivation has been recognized as one of
the powerful determinants of behavior in general and performance in particular. It is
cognitive variable, not open to observe, whatever can be observe is behavior caused by
motivation along with other variables. The behaviorists consider motivation as triggering
force leading to an action. From the viewpoint of management fundamentals, motivation is
one of the techniques to direct efforts of the employees. What is more important is that
manager's main duty consists of motivating employees to make them work. To get work
done, the manager has to motivate regularly and continuously.
Virtually, all people-lay people and scholars- have their definitions of motivation. The similar
words used to indicate motivation are: desire, wants, wishes, aims, needs, drives, motives.
willingness, incentives, etc. Technically, the term "motivation" can be traced to the Latin
word 'movere', which means to 'move'. This meaning is of the evident in the following
comprehensive definition:" A motive is an inner state that energizes, activates or moves
(hence 'motivation') and that directs or channels behavior toward goals". (Bernard B, Gary
A., 1964)
"A motive (aroused need) can be described as restlessness, a lack, a yen, a force, or a tension.
When the organism is in grip of motives, it does something. It, generally, does something to
reduce restlessness, to remedy the lack, to alleviate the yen, to mitigate the force or to release
the tension". (Fillmore H., Sanford and Lawrence S., 1970) To understand motivation,
understanding of needs, drives, and goals and relations among them are necessary.
Understanding the meanings of these variables and the way they are related provide clue to
get insight into exact meaning of motivation. Need is deprivation/deficiency of something
leading to aroused tension. Aroused tension creates physical and mental stress, or imbalance.
Because of aroused tension, one is force to do something to release such tension. He puts
efforts on specific direction to reach the goal; the goal is satisfaction of that needs. The force,
which makes individual to work, is motivation. Drive is somewhat different than motive.
Motivating people to perform better and thus to achieve organizational objectives has been
the greatest challenge to managers. Why do some people perform better than others? Why
does the same person act differently at different times? These and many other questions
related to work performance have been confronting managers continuously.
By: Andualem Tsegaye
Id #: EMBAG 002/18
Phone #: +251- (0) 926.175817
Email: andualem192@gmail.com

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Motivating people to perform, higher than their normal physical and mental capacities, and to
keep them satisfied is a very complex function of management. (Chand, 2005)
1. What is Motivation?
he word Motivation derives from the Latin word “Movere”. means “To move”, “To
drive” or “To drive forward” etc. Motivation can be defined as stimulating, inspiring
and inducing the employees to perform to their best capacity.
Motivation is a psychological term which means it cannot be forced on employees. It
comes automatically from inside the employees as it is the willingness to do the
work. (Tank, June 2018)
However, at the root of all of them is “pleasure” and “pain”. You will always move towards
what you define as being more pleasurable and move away from what you define as being
more painful.
The keyword here is “define” as each person can choose what they believe will bring them
more pleasure than pain.
For example:
o The person who is willing to risk their life or bodily harm and go rock climbing
defines that as pleasurable because they enjoy the adrenaline rush.
o In other words, the idea of possibly getting injured (pain) is less than the desire for the
sense of adventure and rush of adrenaline (pleasure).
Motivation can be defined as a reason (or reasons) which lead an individual to act in a certain
way. It is the force that causes an individual to take action and initiate, guide and maintain
behaviors. There can be variety of different forces at play behind the cause of motivation.
Over the years researchers and psychologists have come up with variety of different theories
to explain the idea of motivation.
 Some standard definitions have been stated below:
 William G. Scott: “Motivation means a process of stimulating people to action to
accomplish desired goals". (William G., 1977)
 McFarland: “Motivation refers to the way in which urges, drives, desires, aspirations,
strivings, and needs direct, control, or explain the behavior of human beings" (Dalton E.,
1974)
 Stephen P. Robbins: "Motivation is defined as the willingness to cxel1 high levels of
effort toward organization goals, conditioned by the effort's ability to satisfy some
individual needs". (Stephen P. Robbins, 1988)
T

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2. Personality and Learning Motivation
Numerous researchers have indicated that personality is one of the most important
determinants of human behavior and work motivation. One of the main views of
organizational research has been that personality (dispositional) factors and situational factors
are determinant of human behavior (Erez, 1997). In other words, situation and disposition are
equally important variables. Dispositional factors (e.g. personalities) have a role of
determining motivation (and performance). Personality traits may be a sense of motivation, as
personality is considered to be a crucial factor in various contexts (Barrick & Mount, 1991).
Historically, attempt to relate personality traits to motivation have been disappointing.
Personality traits are unrelated to specific motivated actions, and when relationship is found,
it is usually not very strong. The fundamental problem in the research on dispositional effects
on motivation and behavior stem from the prevailing lack of unified theoretical perspective
for understanding which dispositional constructs influence the motivational stem and how
they operate (Weiss & Adler, 1984).
Disposition is a variable of interest includes an individual’s personality, which is made up of
traits, affective, mood, structure, and value (Naquin & Holton, 2002). Despite the limited
number of such studies in human resource development, dispositional research has led to the
conclusion that there is a conceptual relationship between disposition and behavior. How
persons behave is a function of consistent individual differences in their personality, but it is
also a function of the situation in which they find themselves. They are influenced by their
own personality characteristics and they are influenced by situations.
When organizational support or situation variable support for learning process are strong,
personality variables may be less important than when situational support are weak (Major,
Turner, & Fletcher, 2006). Numerous researchers have indicated that personality is one of the
most important determinants of human behavior and work motivation. Personality traits may
be a source of motivation. Personality considered being a crucial factor in various contexts
(Barrick & Mount, 1991).
Personality trait is predictor of attitudes, motivation, and leadership, attitudes, motivation,
and leadership. Historically, personality research on organizational behavior has suffered
from inadequate conceptual development and poor methodology, and these factors have
conspired to give personality a bad name (Weiss & Adler, 1984). Much of the personality
research is not systematically derived from theory. Research has demonstrated that attempts
to empirically link personality characteristics to motivational variables have produced
inconsistent result (Furnham, Eracleous, & Premuzie, 2009). No clear guiding framework
exists to show the relations between personality and motivation constructs. This study
investigated how personality traits motivate learning that is how personality traits and
learning motivations are linked. Additionally, to provide a more complete picture of how
personality traits affect learning motivations, this study also attempted to determine which
personality dimension predicts a person’s overall learning and which personality dimension
predicts a person’s learning.

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Motivation to learn encompasses the desire to engage in learning process in campus.
Motivation to learn consists of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. Motivation toward learning
process is an indication of desire and willingness exert effort toward all process of learning in
campus. Personality variables are relatively more enduring, stable, individual characteristics
that indicate general tendencies and predispositions (Major et al., 2006). Colquitt et al. (2000)
found that several personality variables were related to motivation to learn. Several studies
have shown positive correlations between intrinsic motivation and achievement motivation
(Lepper, Corpus, & Iyengar, 2005) suggesting that decline in intrinsic motivation may signify
a decline in achievement motivation. Researchers have often operationalized these two
constructs as mutually exclusive, such that an individual high in intrinsic motivation would
necessarily be low in extrinsic motivation.
Personality has emerged as being influential in various contexts (Barrick & Mount, 1991),
which suggests that personality traits should be a source of motivation (Jeng & Teng, 2008).
By determining the influence of personality traits on individual motivations to learn, one can
examine what influences learning behavior.
3. Motives
Motives are aroused needs. They are advance needs. They are clearly or explicitly expressed.
Need, if not expressed, reveal nothing. Needs, to be meaningful, must be expressed, must be
implied. When needs are recognized, or felt, or experienced with clarity become motive.
Thus, motives are clearly expressed needs. “A motive is an inner state that energizes activates
or, moves, and that directs, or channels behavior toward goals". A motive is felt deficiency.
Fillmore and Wrightman described,” (Bernard B., Gary A., 1964)
A motive is restlessness, a lack, a yen, or a force. Once in a grip of motive, the organism does
something, ready to do something; it must generally do to reduce the restlessness, to remedy
the lack, to alleviate the yen, to litigate the force"
3.1. Classification of Motives
Motives can be classified into three broad categories; Primary Motives, General Motives, and
Secondary Motives. However, this is not a strict classification:
3.1.1. Primary Motives
They are unlearned and physiologically based. They are biological and basic. They are
primary, but don't always enjoy priority over secondary motives. Sometimes, Secondary
motives are stronger than primary.
 Two criteria must be fulfilled in order for a motive to be included in primary
classification;
a) It must be unlearned, and
b) It must be physiologically based.

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The most commonly recognized primary motives include hunger, thirst, and sleep, avoidance
of pain, sex, and maternal concern.
Primary motives can be classified into Positive or Supply Motives, Negative or Avoidance
Motives, and Species or Maintaining Motives.
a) Positive Motives are directly related to homeostatic deficiency of the cells.
 Example: hunger, thirst, and sleep.
b) Negative Motives result from presence of physically harmful or potentially noxious
stimulation. They create pain or uncomforted.
 Example: pain of any kind.
c) Species Motives result from the reproduction system that stimulates mating, produces
children, and cares for the children.
 Example of such motives are sex and maternal.
3.1.2. General Motives
Are general in nature. This class of motives lies in the gray area between primary and
secondary classifications. They are neither included in primary nor in secondary motives.
A motive must be unlearned but not included in physiologically based are included in general
motives like competence, curiosity, manipulation, activity and affection. They are more
important and relevant to the study of organizational behavior. Especially, with reference to
higher level employees, these motives play vital role.
3.1.3. Competence Motive
Is the most inclusive/popular general motive. All organisms, animal or human, have capacity to
interact efficiently with their environment. This common capacity is called competence. (Robert W.,
1959)
The other general motives like curiosity, manipulation and activity are basically more specific
competence motives. People want control or competence over their environment. People may be
motivated by challenge of trying to master job or to become competent in the job.
4. Types of Motivation
There are two primary types of motivation… Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation.
It's important to understand that we are not all the same; thus effectively motivating
employees requires the understanding of the different types of motivation. Such an
understanding will enable to better categorize team members in the organization and apply
the appropriate type of motivation.
Each member will be seen as different as each member's motivational needs will be varied as
well. Some people respond best to intrinsic which means "from within" and will meet any
obligation of an area of their passion. Quite the reverse, others will respond better to extrinsic

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motivation which, in their world, provides that difficult tasks can be dealt with provided there
is a reward upon completion of that task.
4.1. Intrinsic Motivation: means that the individual's motivational stimuli are coming
from within. The individual has the desire to perform a specific task, because its
results are in accordance with his belief system or fulfills a desire and therefore
importance is attached to it.
Example:
 Acceptance: We all need to feel that we, as well as our decisions, are accepted by our
co-workers.
 Curiosity: We all have the desire to be in the know.
 Honor: We all need to respect the rules and to be ethical.
 Independence: We all need to feel we are unique. And more…
4.2. Extrinsic Motivation: Means that the individual's motivational stimuli are coming
from outside. In other words, our desires to perform a task are controlled by an
outside source. Note that even though the stimuli are coming from outside, the result
of performing the task will still be rewarding for the individual performing the task.
Example:
 Employee of the month award
 Benefit package
 Bonuses
 Organized activities
5. Importance of Motivation
Motivation is one of the detainments of human behavior, but is much powerful. Motivation IS
more crucial as it makes a man to work. Motivation is a one of techniques of direction;
direction is a function of Management. However, not direction, but complete management
can be replaced by motivation. This is from the evident of definition given by Harold Koontz:
"Management is the art of getting things done through and with the people in formally
organized groups. (Harold K., 1969) After more than four decades, his definition stands valid
and practical. This definition, basically, highlights role of motivation. Here, duty of manager
is to motivate his subordinates.
Motivation is powerful determinant due to fact that it primarily concerns with human needs.
It oblivious that human being works to meet needs. If they are motivated suitably, adequately
and regularly, majority of problems can be solved automatically as every problem has its root
in human being.
Therefore, it can be said; manage men (motivate them) and men will manage everything.
Motivation has potential to solve any problem in the organization. Poor performance in any
field of human activity can be largely attributed to irrelevant motivation policy and practice.
Communication, supervision, and leadership functions of directing, in particular and

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planning, organizing, staffing, and controlling functions of management in general, are
significantly influenced by motivation policy and practice of the enterprise. As major part of
managerial duty consists of motivation (encouraging, inspiring, and activating employees), it
is worthwhile to say 'manager' as 'motivator'.
Performance suffers, in spite of standard inputs, appropriate technology, and good
organizational settings due to lack of suitable motivation to employees. Human being
requires special treatment and attention in form of motivation. Not employees but the
motivated employees are the real assets of the enterprise. Qualifications, qualities, and
experience of employees arc of no value if they are not ready to make efforts; readiness to
make efforts depends on level of motivation. Motivated employees act as worriers to fulfill
personal as well organizational expectations. They struggle for goals even in tough and
awkward situations, also in absence of facilities. If employees are taken care of by suitable
motivation, they definitely take care of organizational interest.
Every superior in the organization must motivate his subordinates for right types of behavior/
response. All organizational facilities will go waste in lack of motivated people to utilize
these facilities effectively. (L. M. Prasad., 1991)
From organizational behavior viewpoint, motivation is a key consideration to generate a new
behavior; to improve an existing behavior; to maintain/reinforce the right behavior, or to
extinguish undesirable behavior. Employees can be molded as per requirement of
organization by formulating and implementing a suitable motivation policy. Furthermore,
manager's success is also based on his motivating ability.
 The importance of motivation in an organization may be summed as follows:
1. High performance level.
2. Low employees' turnover and reduced absenteeism.
3. Acceptance of organizational changes. 4. High-level morale of employees.
4. Easy coordination and high degree of team spirit.
5. It prevents unexpected events like strike, mass-leave, and work-to- rule, etc. to occur.
6. It promotes the sense of belongingness.
7. It ensures organizational stability, viability, and undisruptive progress.
8. It leads to reduced conflict, and increased cooperation.
9. Optimum utilization of productive resources and prevention of wastage.

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6. Theories of Motivation
Motivation Theories, in its simplest from, are seeking to explain the driving forces (s) that
convert our thoughts into behaviors. There are numerous theories of motivation, where each
are either explaining the same motivational concept with a different verbiage or they are
offering a new motivational theory.
The categorization of the motivation theories is an attestation to the complexity of the
phenomenon. Therefore, for the purpose of deepening our understanding of motivational
concept, we will categorize the Motivational Theories based on "Elsevier's Dictionary of
Psychological Theories", where they are divided into three broad categories:
1. Hedonic or Pleasure Motivational Theories
2. Cognitive or Need-to-Know Motivational Theories
3. Growth or Actualization Motivational Theories
6.1. Categories of Motivational Theories
6.1.1. Hedonic or Pleasure Motivational Theories
This is the largest category of motivational theories. They are based on the role that pleasure
plays with regards to organizing our lives. These theories will generally posit that the best
way to motivate an individual is from exposing him or her to naturally motivating stimuli.
Drive-Arousal or drive-reduction is important concept and both have the potential to lead to
optimal motivation.
 Associated Theories
 Herzberg's Motivation Theory - Two Factor Theory
 Attribution Theory
 Opponent-Process Theory
 Instinct Theory of Motivation
6.1.2. Cognitive or Need-to-Know Motivation Theories
This category emphasizes the cognitive processes involved within an individual. These
theories posit that motivation is the result of active information-processing where an
individual, subconsciously or consciously positively evaluates the acting out of a specific
behavior, thus is motivated.
 Associated Theories
 Cognitive Dissonance Theory
 Victor Vroom's Expectancy Theory of Motivation
 Goal Setting Theory of Motivation
6.1.3. Growth or Actualization Motivation Theories
This category of motivational theories promotes the concept that motivation is the pursuit of
activities that lead to "Growth", "Self-fulfillment", and "Self-Actualization". Among the

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psychologists, it is generally well accepted that the higher an organism, higher is his level of
motivation.
 Associated Theories
1. Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
2. Alderfer's ERG Theory - Existence, Relatedness, and Growth
3. Self-determination theory
7. Motivation & Employee Performance
An employee's performance typically is influenced by motivation, ability, and the work
environment. Some deficiencies can be addressed by providing training or altering the
environment, motivation problems are not as easily addressed.
Motivation is important because of its significance as a determinant of performance and its
intangible nature.
Baron (1983) defined motivation in his own right. He says that “motivation is a set of
processes concerned with a kind of force that energizes behavior and directs it towards
achieving some specific goals. Many writers have expressed motivation as goal directed
behavior. This objective nature of motivation is also suggested by Kreitner and Kinicki
(2002) put forward that motivation represents “those psychological processes that cause the
stimulation, persistence of voluntary actions that are goal directed”.
Motivation and job satisfaction were both significantly associated with turnover intention.
Low motivation has a negative impact on the performance of individual health workers,
facilities and the health system as a whole.
A motivated person have the awareness of specific goals must be achieved in specific ways;
therefore he/she directs its effort to achieve such goals. It means that motivated person is best
fit for the goals that he/she wants to achieve, as he/she is fully aware of its assumptions.
Therefore if the roles of managers are assumed to successfully guide employees towards the
organizational agenda of achieving its objectives, then it is very important for them to
educate and understand those psychological processes and undertakings that root cause the
stimulation, direction of destination, determination and persistence of voluntary actions.
Mo (1992) differentiates between the terms “movement‟ and motivation‟. Movement carries
out the task for compensation, remuneration in humans mind to act, while the term
motivation is stapled with total involvement of a person in its tasks to carry out with
excitements and happiness. In simple words, movement compels a person to carry out tasks,
while motivation is self-realized jubilant and pleasing act of carrying out specific tasks. The
researcher emphasizes on motivation which is basis for the success because the person
involved in it is very happy and voluntarily excited not for compensation. Motivation is
reason for individuals‟ accomplishments to carry out the project. There are many aspects of
motivation in an organization; a person motivated by those aspects may not necessarily

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motivate another person, because there are many different factors that affect motivation for
different level employees.
On reaching the understanding and believing that people (employees) are naturally motivated,
an organization simply provide the environment for their motivation to be enhanced and 30
improved (Baron, 1983). It means that an organization is a better environment and working
atmosphere provider, it only needs to believe that the people have the motivational behavior.
Lawler (2003) noted that different theories questioning why people prefer certain careers,
why they seek particular rewards and why they feel satisfied or dissatisfied with their work
and rewards. These are some of the resonating questions that create so many assumptions and
hypotheses to be researched.
It is widely recognized in management circles, that motivation plays a role in keeping an
employee performing his or her best in any task assigned. Assessing La Motta and Baron,
views on the concept of motivation makes one wonder why incentives provided to workers
did not yield intended purpose. This is as a result of dynamics of individual needs and
humans can never be satisfy in that, when one need is catered for responded, the worker shifts
to another need and this then becomes a challenge hence the call for further research on the
issue of motivation.
8. The Role of Motivation in Organizational Behavior
Motivation and Organizational Theory
As organizational theory states, employees need to be motivated to actualize their potential
and there are several ways of enabling them and empowering them to do so. These include
the role of reward systems in motivating employees according to their needs for extrinsic or
external motivation and by providing them opportunities that appeal to their intrinsic or
internal motivation needs. The other factors that motivate employees are the kind of job that
they are asked to perform, the added benefits like extended vacations and perquisites like
company provided accommodation and funding for kids schooling as well as provision of
medical insurance coverage for the employees and their families.
In recent years, there has been lot of emphasis on motivating employees by organizing offsite
events and fun and recreation events where the employees let their hair down and indulge in
the much-needed stress relieving activities. Further, many employees are motivated because
of the presence of famous business leaders in the top management of the company as is the
case with Apple, Microsoft, Infosys, and the TATA Group.
Some Factors that can Motivate Employees
The organizational structure is another aspect that can motivate employees. For instance, it
has been found that flat organizations as opposed to hierarchical organizations motivate
employees more.

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Next, the organizational culture plays an important role in motivating employees. The
examples of Google, Facebook, and startup companies where the organizational culture is
open and collegiate are relevant in this regard.
Third, the HR managers have an important role to play in motivating employees by
interacting with them, finding their grievances, and proposing solutions to behavioral
problems. There are many multinationals like Fidelity where the HR managers hold one on
one sessions with the employees to foster an open and inclusive culture where employees do
not hold anything back and where they are encouraged to be as forthright as possible.
Fourth, organizations that promote diversity as an organizational imperative are known to
motivate women employees who feel less threatened and less insecure than in organizations
where bias and prejudice are rampant.
Fifth, many organizations have the habit of saying one thing and doing something else
altogether which means that they are hypocritical in their approach. Such organizations
cannot motivate the employees particularly at the lower levels since the fresh recruits and
those with less experience often look to the senior managers and the leadership for integrity
and consistency.
Salary and Benefits are not the only Motivators
Having covered the various aspects of how the organizations can motivate the employees, it
needs to be mentioned that mere reliance on salary and benefits cannot motivate employees
completely. With the advent of the software and services sector, the attraction of being sent
onsite has become an important motivator for the employees who when given the chance to
go onsite ramp up on their performance noticeably.
Apart from this, the fact that the brand image of the organization makes a lot of difference to
the motivation levels of the employees is another factor. For instance, many graduates have
their own preferences for dream companies or companies that they would like to work in
after graduation. This important motivator attracts the best talent to those companies that are
often viewed as the benchmark for industry peers. Of course, if the image does not meet up to
reality or if the hype is without substance, many employees lose motivation to work in such
companies.
Concluding Thoughts
Finally, as discussed above, there is no set formula on what organizations can do or cannot do
to motivate the employees. The best approach would be to let employees find their own niche
within the organization and let them actualize their potential instead of forcing them to do
work that is not to their liking. Apart from this, many industry veterans are also of the view
that employees have to find their company that suits them and hence, clinging on to jobs that
do not motivate them is counterproductive.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. Introduction to Motivation.....................................................................................................1
2. Personality and Learning Motivation .................................................................................3
3. Motives...............................................................................................................................4
3.1. Classification of Motives ............................................................................................4
3.1.1. Primary Motives...................................................................................................4
3.1.2. General Motives...................................................................................................5
3.1.3. Competence Motive.............................................................................................5
4. Types of Motivation ...........................................................................................................5
4.1. Intrinsic Motivation:....................................................................................................6
5. Importance of Motivation...................................................................................................6
6. Theories of Motivation .......................................................................................................8
6.1. Categories of Motivational Theories...........................................................................8
6.1.1. Hedonic or Pleasure Motivational Theories ........................................................8
6.1.2. Cognitive or Need-to-Know Motivation Theories...............................................8
6.1.3. Growth or Actualization Motivation Theories.....................................................8
7. Motivation & Employee Performance................................................................................9
8. The Role of Motivation in Organizational Behavior........................................................10
REFERENCES