Prostate Cancer Study

Prostate Cancer Study
Prostate cancer is the fifth deadliest cancer around the world and the second–leading cause of cancer
related death in men. The prostate is a small gland that produces the seminal fluid that nourishes and
transports sperm. After researching prostate cancer many studies have discovered that the
mitochondria ( double membrane–bound organelle) plays an important role in initiating and
promoting cancer. The mitochondria provides cellular energy by creating adenosine triphosphate,
which is used as energy for cells; also the mitochondria is involved in other duties such as cellular
signaling , cellular differentiation, cell death and cell progression. The mitochondria is still
functional in the mass of tumor cells; however in these cells the mitochondria ... Show more content
on Helpwriting.net ...
I really wanted to grasp the concept that organelles within the cells play a huge role in many
processes within our body. Cellular biology has always interested me because it is a astonishing that
such small things can lead to death but are vital for our lives. Biology is a huge field based off of
small scale things and I love the fact that the little things are the most important. I have always been
mesmerized by the way organisms function and what keeps us alive. Biology is a concept that we
can only understand through science, but I do not believe the human mind can ever really
comprehend how vast life is. This study interested me because it showed how important cell cycles
and processes are and it truly shows that cell processes determine our status as a living being. The
progression of cancer is moving rapidly within and outside our bodies every day. It is interesting to
me that because of gene mutation, cancer cells lose the ability to detect DNA damage and the ability
to self–destruct, this study showed just that. I've always known a wide range about cancer but for
this I really saw it as an opportunity to dig in and see what cancer is from a molecular perspective.
Being a male I see that prostate cancer affects 16 out of 100 men in the U.S. and this statistics makes
me want to understand what is consuming so many males lives. I
... Get more on HelpWriting.net ...

Eukaryotic Organelles
Introduction:
There are many questions frequently asked in the field of microbiology, one being which eukaryotic
organelle is the most crucial to the function of living organisms. Whilst all organelles are essential to
eukaryotes, undoubtedly the nucleus is the most important. Yet, many argue that the mitochondrion
or endoplasmic reticulum (ER) are equally if not more important to cellular function. Although both
organelles have similarities with the nucleus and work with it to complete various functions it is
evidential that the nucleus is more crucial.
The Nucleus:
The nucleus' presence is used to classify cell as a eukaryote rather than prokaryote. The nucleus is
the most prominent organelle within the cell and is a large spherical shape, ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
These processes occur when ribosomes and RNA leave the nucleus and attach to the RER and begin
to synthesise proteins. Before moving on any required modifications to newly formed proteins are
made. These proteins can then pass through the translocon and into the lumen where they undergo
quality control (British Society for Cell Biology, 2017a). From there can be transported to different
parts of the RER and eventually to other organelles that require them such as mitochondria (Kaiser,
2007). This creates all the proteins that the cell and living organism need to function. These vary in
type and function from enzymes, used in all chemical reactions within the organism, to somewhat
simpler proteins such as hormones that organisms used to regulate their functions (Wilson, 2015).
The transportation network the ERs create is also vital in ensuring that all other organelles function

Chemiosmosis And Electron Transport System
Chemiosmosis defines as the process where Adenine Triphosphate is produced in the inner
membrane of the mitochondria. It is a common pathway used by the mitochondria and chloroplasts
to harness energy. In addition, an Electron Transport System is a key stage during cellular
respiration which creates an electron gradient in the inner membrane of the mitochondria so protons
potential energy can eventually be converted into Adenine Triphosphate (ATP). When comparing
both electron transport processes within the mitochondria and in the chloroplasts, we will notice that
though seemingly similar, the do have some major differences. One similarity is that both use an
electron transport chain (ETC), proton pumps, and ATP Synthase as major key parts

Dna Biology : Forensic Science Essay
1.1.1.1 Forensic DNA Biology:
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) has revolutionized forensic science. Of all the disciplines in forensic
science, forensic biology has seen the most technological advances in the past thirty years. Forensic
biology is a field of study that uses DNA to identify victims and to associate suspects and victims to
crime scenes. The large forensic advantage of high copy number and the stability of the mtGenome
is a direct consequence of the mitochondrion's function and evolutionary history. Understanding the
necessary functions encoded in its genome enhances our appreciation of molecular genetics of
mitochondrial gene variation.
Mammalian mitochondrial DNAs (mtDNA) have two separate origins of replication. The origin of
the heavy strand (guanine rich) is located within a region termed the Displacement loop (D–loop)
and the light strand (cytosine rich) synthesis originates within a cluster of five tRNA genes nearly
opposite of the D–loop.
The single focus of current forensic typing is the D–loop. The D–loop consists of approximately
1100 base pairs of "noncoding" DNA and is commonly referred to as the hypervariable region due to
an increased frequency of mutation as compared to the remaining portion of the mtgenome. The
hypervariable region is further divided into three segments. Hypervariable region I (HV1) spans
nucleotide positions 16024–16365; hypervariable region II (HV2) span nucleotide positions 73–340;
and hypervariable region III (HV3) spans

The Base of Mitochondrial Diseases Essay
In a single cell there are large numbers of organelles known as mitochondria. These organelles are
spherical with a double–membrane, the outer mitochondrial membrane and the inner mitochondrial
membrane (Chial). The majority of energy and power for the body's cells, more than 90% of what is
required to preserve life and encourage growth, originates from these organelles in the form of the
molecule adenosine triphosphate (Kurt 11; "What"). This energy production process is termed
oxidative phosphorylation because it occurs in the presence of oxygen (Sirrs). If there is a fault in
this assembling of energy within the mitochondria, it is known as a mitochondrial disease. Usually
the organs affected by these diseases are those that require ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net
...
Within each mitochondrion there are many replicas of the mitochondrial genome. There is a
"heterogeneous population of mitochondrial DNA within the same cell, and even within the same
mitochondrion; as a result, mitochondria are considered to be heteroplasmic." When a cell divides,
its mitochondria are divided among the two daughter cells, but the mitochondria are distributed
arbitrarily. Compared to nuclear chromosome division, this mitochondria separation is far less
methodized and much more haphazard causing the daughter cells to only receive copies of their
mitochondrial DNA that are closely related but not indistinguishable between one another. All of
this is also affected by the fact that the mitochondrial genome has a much higher "mutation rate"
than that of the nuclear genome. There is a gene within the nuclear genome dubbed DNA
polymerase gamma, and this gene's function is to cipher the DNA polymerase that causes
reproduction of the original mitochondrial genome. There is an exonuclease domain on the
polymerase gamma protein that is engaged in "the recognition and removal of DNA base–pair
mismatches that occur during DNA replication." In an article by Dr. Heidi Chial and Dr. Joanna
Craig, they mention a study in which mitochondria were found to have a nucleotide imbalance that
correlates with diminished polymerase gamma reliability and the aforementioned increased

Cellular Respiration Research Papers
The human body moves all the time, constantly burning fuel and using energy that our cells
produce. The creation and use of energy is a complicated procedure in which our bodies naturally
undertake without a second thought. Matter is consumed and broken down into different composites
and sent to every cell in our body. This process can go wrong, however, and fatal diseases will
ensue. Vitamins and other medicinal drugs can help, but they cannot change the inevitable. This
essential and precise process is how we continually function; it is called cellular respiration.
Cellular respiration is difficult to comprehend and there are many complex parts to this process.
Basically, it is the oxidation of organic compounds that occurs within the cells ... Show more content
They may experience seizures, vomiting, diarrhea, and respiratory impairment (Tarney). This is
directly related to cellular respiration because on the most basic cellular level, Leigh syndrome
happens when there is an inability to produce ATP in the mitochondria (Wilburn). The tissues within
the organism require energy replacement, which they don't receive, leading to lack of muscle, heart,
and brain tissue and resulting in death. As of now there are no treatments for Leigh syndrome
(Tarney). There are pharmaceuticals that can assist in the prolonging of the life of the victim, but
recovery is nearly impossible. This disease is just one of many examples of what can happen when
the failure of cellular respiration

Research Paper On Mitochondria
Mitochondria
Mitochondria are rod–shaped organelles that can be considered the powerhouse of the cell.
Mitochondria generate chemical energy in the form of adenosine triphosphate by metabolizing
sugars, fats, and other chemical fuels with the assistance of molecular oxygen in a process called
aerobic respiration and mitochondria enable cells to produce 15 times more ATP than they could
otherwise. The number of mitochondria present in a cell depends upon the metabolic requirements
of that cell, and may range from a single large mitochondrion to thousands of them. mitochondria
are different from most organelles because they have their own DNA and reproduce independently.
In most animal species, mitochondria appear to be inherited through the ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
Inside the fertilization clinic, a doctor will oversee the extraction of eggs and sperm and prescribe
medication to the patient, while the technicians will fertilize the egg and transfer the nucleus of the
defective blastocyst into the donor egg. The doctor will then insert the eggs into the uterus and
monitor the patient. The doctor would ideally be an expert in the field of reproductive science while
the technicians would ideally be experts on operating the extraction and implantation equipment.
This is not the case, however, as some clinics have better fertilization programs than

Research on Yeast Fermentation
Methods:
Spectrophotometer was turned on and allowed to warm up while samples were being produced. The
mitochondrial solution was kept cold on ice to prevent spontaneous enzymatic reactions.
Six cuvettes were labeled accordingly: B1,B2, 1,2,3,4. The cuvettes labeled with a 'B' were used as
blanks, one including and one omitting mitochondrial solution. The blanks also did not contain
DPIP. The remaining cuvettes were filled accordingly as seen in Table 1 below.
Table 1: System for cellular respiration reaction. Tubes were filled according to values in this chart.
Label Buffer (ml) DPIP (μl) Mitochondria Solution (μl) Succinate (μl)
B1 2.15 0 150 200
B2 2.3 0 0 200
1 2.2 150 150 0
2 2.1 150 150 100
3 2.0 150 150 200
4 2.15 150 0 200
Each tube was filled using this chart, following one column at a time, the last input being the
succinate added to the cuvettes.
Each cuvette was shaken to mix the contents, taking care to add a piece of parafilm to each one prior
to shaking to avoid any potential contamination.
The spectrophotometer was warmed up and set to read the percent transmittance over the
wavelength of 600 nm. The B1 cuvette was used to blank the spectrophotometer for tubes 1, 2, and
3. The B2 cuvette was used to blank for tube 4.
Before each reading a kimwipe was used to clean each tube to ensure the most accurate results. The
transmittance percentages were recorded and repeated every five minutes over a span of 30 minutes.
Results
Results of Yeast Fermentation

Treatment For Designer Babies : A Slippery Slope
From Disease Treatment to Designer Babies: A Slippery Slope
The story of Neil and Sharon Bernardi is undeniably heart wrenching. The English couple watched
their first three children pass away just hours after their births. Their fourth child, Edward, lived –
despite frequent, day long seizures and other central nervous system abnormalities – until the age of
twenty one. In the meantime, Neil and Sharon attempted to have three more children, all of whom
died from due complications before reaching age two. Years passed before the couple learned that
their suffering originated from mitochondrial defects present in Sharon's cells.
Mitochondria, dubbed the 'powerhouse of the cell', are a type of organelle present in most human
cells. Their primary function is to generate Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP), the cell's principal
source of chemical energy. Unlike most other organelles, mitochondria store their own set of genetic
material, distinct from the DNA situated in a cell's nucleus. Although this 'mitochondrial genome'
represents only 0.1% of a cell's genetic information, it often plays a significant role in development.
In the United Kingdom alone, 150 new born children per year suffer from life threatening,
mitochondrial diseases. These diseases vary in severity from person to person, making them difficult
to diagnose, and they inflict an array of ailments such as neurological problems, muscle weakness,
visual or auditory impairments, heart, liver, and kidney disease,

Essay about Describe the structural compartmentation of...
DESCRIBE THE STRUCTURAL COMPARTMENTATION OF MAMMALIAN CELLS
AND THE DIFFERING FUNCTIONS OF THESE COMPARTMENTS
All mammalian cells are eukaryotic, and whilst the eukaryotic type of cell is not exclusive to
mammals, mammalian cells differ from other eukaryotic cells because of the organelles that are or
are not present. For instance some plant cells have chloroplasts which are not present in mammalian
cells, but both plant cells and mammalian cells are eukaryotic in nature. The term eukaryotic refers
to the cell having specific membrane bound organelles, which are not present in prokaryotic cells.
The defining feature of a eukaryotic cell is usually its membrane bound nucleus (the exception being
the red blood cell) [1].
Because of ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The small ribosomal subunit, amongst other things, is initiates the engagement of the mRNA and is
responsible decoding the genetic information during translation [4].
The endoplasmic reticulum is specialised for protein processing and lipid biosynthesis. One of its
primary functions is to regulate the ionic concentration in the cytoplasm via the movement of Ca2+,
via ionic pumps and channels. It also contains enzymes responsible for the metabolising of drugs.
Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) can come in two forms. As depicted in Fig. 2 Rough ER has ribosomes
present as part of the membrane of the organelle, and together with these ribosomes takes
polypeptides and amino acids from the cytosol and synthesises proteins destined for attachment to
cell membranes. It is in the lumen of the rough ER that the proteins are folded into the specific three
dimensional shapes that are so important for biochemical recognition and linking sites [6]. It is
called rough because of the presence of ribosomes makes the surface of the membrane look rough,
unlike smooth ER, which lacks the ribosomes so the membrane looks smooth. Rough ER is
composed of a large but convoluted flattened sac. The main function of the smooth ER is the
production of lipids and the metabolism of compounds (such as the breakdown of glycogen into
glucose). Because of the different functions between the rough and smooth ER, different specialised
cells will have different amounts of each; for example, hepatic

Essay about Parkinson’s Disease
Introduction/background
Parkinson's disease (PD) is the most frequent movement disorder and the second most common
neurodegenerative disease (Bueler 2009). Over 1% of the entire population over the age of 60, and
up to 5% of age 80, is affected by PD (Wood–Kaczmar, Gandhi et al. 2006). The pathogenesis of PD
remains unclear, but can be categorized as sporadic, being the most common form, and Mendelian,
which accounts for 5–10% of all PD cases (Guo 2008). The studies of Mendelian onset of PD have
lead to the identification of five genes being linked to this neurodegenerative disease (Guo 2008). α–
Synuclein (SNCA) and Leucine–rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) mediate autosomal dominant forms
of PD. PTEN–induced putative kinase 1 (PINK1), ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
These genes have become a central theme in PD pathogenesis and may hold the key to future novel
therapeutics. Using Drosophila as the study model, the Guo lab have shown PINK1 mutants exhibit
vacuolations in mitochondria and aggregations of PINK1 proteins to nebenkerns, a large spherical
structure composed of two intertwined mitochondria essential for proper spermatogenesis in
Drosophila (Deng, Dodson et al. 2008). The Guo lab have also shown null PINK1 flies exhibit
phenotypes similar to that of sporadic PD: male sterility, held–up wings due to muscle defects,
features of apoptosis, reduced ATP/mtDNA, cristae fragmentation, and vacuolations of the
mitochondria. From epistatic studies, the over expression of PARKIN in PINK1 mutant models
caused rescue of mitochondrial defects associated to PINK1 mutants indicating the two genes are
utilized in a common pathway. The reverse rescue, over expression of PINK1 to PARKIN mutants,
did not show any improvement in the mutant phenotype and is suggestive that PINK1 is upstream
from PARKIN (Dodson and Guo 2007). The Guo lab has also shown that the expression of human
PINK1 in Drosophila PINK1 mutants restored mitochondrial defects and fertility; suggesting studies
into PINK1 may be relevant to humans.
The Guo lab also demonstrated that a downstream effect

Mitochondrial Neurogastrointestinal Encephalopathy Disease...
Zarae Allen
Mrs.Willard
Honors Biology
1December 2016
Mitochondrial Neurogastrointestinal Encephalopathy
Mitochondrial Neurogastrointestinal Encephalopathy disease (MNGIE) is an extremely rare disease
that affects the process of muscles and shows up in equal numbers of men and women. Only 70
cases of this disease have been reported. A mutation of the thymidine phosphorylase causes MNGIE
and lowers the production of adenosine triphosphate production. To begin, mitochondrial
neurogastrointestinal encephalopathy disease is related to adenosine triphosphate because it lowers
the production. In a case report on Hindawi called " Anesthetic Management of a Child with
Mitochondrial Neurogastrointestinal Encephalopathy" it states, " These mutations can result in a
decrease in ATP production via oxidative phosphorylation in the respiratory chain found in the
mitochondria, affecting tissues that have high energy demands including cardiac, nervous, and
skeletal muscle tissue." An enzyme called thymidine phosphorylase, mutates affecting how ATP is
made. As a result, it affects the muscle cells of the organism because people with this disorder do
not have enough energy to move their muscles in their body. Also, in Genetic Home Reference that
had the topic of MNGIE, it reads "... the muscles and nerves of the digestive system do not move
food through the digestive tract efficiently. The resulting digestive problems include feelings of
fullness (satiety)

Factors That Affect The Cell Of Mitochondrial Proteins And...
The mitochondrion is an organelle which originated from the endosymbiosis of eubacteria and, as a
result, contains its own genome which encodes for essential mitochondrial transcriptional machinery
proteins and subunits of electron transport chain (ETC) complexes [1, 2]. However, the vast
majority of mitochondrial proteins are encoded for by the nucleus [3]. As a result, these two
organelles must be able to communicate in order to coordinate protein synthesis and maintain
mitochondrial homeostasis [4]. This communication is also particularly important in the cells
response to stress. Mitochondria are deemed 'endogenous stress detectors' as they can sense stresses
induced by high reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels and oxidative stress, membrane
depolarisation, cellular energy levels, and an accumulation of unfolded proteins [5]. Therefore, in
response to stress, this mitochondrial–to–nuclear communication is essential to bring about a change
in nuclear gene expression, which will relieve the stress and protect the cell from damage. This
commonly occurs through the activation of specific retrograde stress response pathways from
mitochondria to the nucleus, which combat the stress and allow mitochondria to regain homeostasis
[6, 7].
It is important that we understand these retrograde stress responses, as many of these pathways have
been implicated in lifespan regulation in model organisms [8]. For example, dysregulation of two
well characterised stress response pathways, the

The Mitochondrion: Eukaryotic Cells
Introduction
Mitochondria
The Mitochondrion is an organelle surrounded by an outer and inner membrane, it is found is most
eukaryotic cells and it is the site of aerobic cellular respiration.
Most of activities inside the mitochondrion take place near or in the mitochondrial inner membrane,
it is the outer membrane which controls what enter and what leaves the organelle.
The mitochondrial outer membrane has similarities with the cell's own membrane, it separates the
mitochondrion from the rest of the cell, exactly like the cell's membrane. It is composed of a double
phospholipid bilayer with inserted proteins that regulate what goes into and out the mitochondrion
and make it selectively permeable which means that the mitochondrial outer membrane

A Critical Analysis Of The Theory Of Endosymbiosis And It...
A critical analysis of the Theory of Endosymbiosis and it's supporting evidence
Abstract
Introduction
The endosymbiotic theory is an evolutionary theory explaining the origin of Eukaryotic cells from
Prokaryotic, and is at present; the most widely accepted evolutionary theory of the Eukaryotic cell.
The theory explains the origins of mitochondria and chloroplasts and their double membranes,
suggesting that chloroplasts and mitochondria represent formerly free–living bacteria that were
taken into a cell as an endosymbiont. Molecular evidence suggests that mitochondria developed
from proteobacteria and chloroplasts from cyanobacteria. It is thought that the Prokaryotes may
have entered the host cell as a parasite or source of nutrient for the host, however avoided digestion.
The primitive chloroplast may have provided the host cell with crucial nutrients, and the primitive
mitochondrion may have aided the exploitation of oxygen for the extraction of energy. In return the
host cell offered a protected environment for the Prokaryotes to live in. This was the beginning of a
symbiotic relationship between the primitive chloroplast and mitochondria, and the Eukaryotic cell.
The theory was ridiculed for years due its controversial nature, however in 1967 Lynn Margulis, a
biologist from Boston University, developed the modern Serial Endosymbiosis Theory.
Primary Endosymbiosis vs. Secondary Endosymbiosis
Primary endosymbiosis involves the engulfment of a bacterium by another

Is Composting A Natural Fertilizer?
The reason for the mass of that pile of leaves decay according to the laws of thermodynamics would
be composting which is a natural way by which microorganisms break down organic material as a
finished compost. The material for known as humus is very rich in nutrients and is used as a natural
fertilizer. In aerobic respiration, cells oxidize organic compounds, obtaining the energy from the
chemicals bonds which can later be converted to ATP. Then we have aerobic bacteria which is one
of the most important organism in the composting process, breaking down organic material through
aerobic respiration. In this case with leaves they are made up of cellulose which is made of glucose
molecules.The vast majority of it will be converted into gases that are ventilated throughout the air.
Some of the gases you would probably find would be from the compost pile which includes carbon
dioxide and water. (Freudenrich , 2001) (Raven, Johnson, Mason, Losos, & Singer, 2013) B) What
happens to the energy contained in those leaves? (hint: consider that leaves are mostly cellulose,
which is a polymer of D–glucose, and composting is done by microorganism) The energy contained
in those leaves start off with the First Law of Thermodynamics mentions that energy can't be created
or destroyed. It can though only be converted between different forms. Some of the energy will be
used to perform the necessary work needed by the decomposers to the power the reactions that's
keeping them living and

Study Of Evolution Of Mitochondria Essay
Title: Study of Evolution of Mitochondria in different species of plants and Animals.
Aayushi Shah shah.947 ID#:200404635
Title: Study of Evolution of Mitochondria in different species of plants and Animals.
ID#:04635
Introduction: – The mitochondria is a double membrane organelle that is found in all eukaryotic
organisms. There is some evidence that proves some eukaryotes lack mitochondria, but there is no
true evidence about complete lack of mitochondria in the organisms. Mitochondria is known as a
power house of the living body cell. They store energy in the cell and release it as needed. Every
structure in Mitochondria have their own specific roles which helps in storing energy (See Figure 1
for details). Evidence shows that mitochondria evolved from primitive bacteria. Did mitochondria
evolve from primary bacteria or were they the new adaptation in the plants and animals? In this
paper we are going to see how Mitochondrion have been evolved in different species and what
methods have been used to prove that evolution. There is still debate between scientists about
whether mitochondrion really evolved from bacteria or if it was present in the cells before bacteria
were present.
Yang et al. [1] says that Mitochondria's cytochromes c (which is a mitochondrial intermembrane
protein that is loosely attached to the inner membrane of mitochondrial membrane) is relatively
close to the bacterial medium subunit in sequence of cytochrome. Cytochrome c is

Mitochondria Research Paper
Many students know mitochondria as "the powerhouse of the cell" whose main role is to make
energy for the cell. Mitochondria produce the majority of the body's energy. While energy synthesis
is a very important role, it is not the only role that mitochondria play. Production of a mitochondrion
requires 3000 genes; the mitochondrion itself codes 37 genes, called mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA).
The nucleus houses the rest of the genes. For ATP synthesis, mitochondria use about 3% of its three
thousand genes. Other functions of mitochondria can change as humans develop, and mitochondria
in specific types of cells have specialized functions. Functions of mitochondria involve building,
breaking, and recycling molecules, including DNA and RNA, detoxification, ... Show more content
Dysfunctional mitochondria can lead to mitochondrial diseases that can be sometimes fatal to
individuals affected by the disease. However, scientists are developing ways to use healthy
mitochondria from a donor to replace the mother's unhealthy mitochondria in order to avoid
transmitting the disease to the baby (Chinnery 2012). This method is referred to as three–parent in
vitro fertilization, and there are two techniques used: maternal spindle transfer and pronuclear
transfer (Teh 2014). In recent years, scientists in the United Kingdom have been developing new
ways to allow women with this disease to enjoy parenthood without the risk of passing it on to their
offspring. In the first method, maternal spindle transfer, scientists extract the meiotic spindles during
metaphase when the nuclear DNA material aligns the chromosomes in the center of the cell (Teh
2014). They then transplant the extracted spindle into the donor cytoplasm of an unfertilized oocyte
that has been enucleated. The reconstructed oocyte can be fertilized and safely transplanted to the
patient (Teh

Mitochondrial Turnover Rate Essay
The cell's mitochondrial population is normally highly dynamic and exhibits variable turnover rates.
The turnover process is accomplished by an actively regulated transcriptional network for
mitochondrial replenishment that is coordinated with the degradation and elimination of senescent
and damaged mitochondria by selective mitochondrial autophagy or mitophagy. Although
mitochondria are constantly renewed, the ongoing rate of homeostatic QC processes in vivo is fairly
low (Miwa et al., 2008) on the order of days, whereas in cells, it is more rapid (Hernandez et al.,
2013). Mitochondrial turnover in the rat heart has an estimated half–life of roughly two weeks
(Rabinowitz and Zak, 1975). Thus, for a typical cardiomyocyte under basal conditions (~1000
mitochondria), 1.5 mitochondria would be replaced each hour. Moreover, mitochondrial turnover
may be regulated by the circadian clock as a number of OXPHOS enzymes show strong diurnal
variation in expression. This may be related in part to the period of fasting during sleep; therefore
mitochondrial turnover at night may be more active with a few percent of the mitochondrial
population replaced each night. Mitochondrial turnover rates also vary with specific metabolic status
of tissues, but can be greatly ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
However, mitochondrial biogenesis is also activated in response to certain hormones, such as
thyroid hormone, to oxidative stress, to an increase in the energy requirements of the cell, to
inflammation, to electrical stimulation, and in certain mitochondrial diseases (Scarpulla, 2011). The
result is the maintenance or an increase in the mitochondrial mass of the cell (Onyango et al.,

A Research Study On Cellular Respiration Essay
A cellular poison is considered as a metabolic poison that inhibits cellular respiration, electron
transport chain and mitochondrial membrane. Cyanide poison is the poison that block the last
enzyme from entering the electron transport chain and mitochondrial membrane. This poison also
inhibits the formation of producing ATP. Without the formation ATP, ATP has to be formed through
the steps of glycolysis. During glycolysis, the process in cell respiration. It produces four ATP but it
uses two ATP and form two net ATP. Cyanide poison is the main reason why the formation ATP in
not complete. Research will show why that is.
The most effective method of ATP production is cellular respiration. Cellular respiration is the
breakdown of glucose into carbon dioxide, water, and producing molecules of ATP( The Free
Resource). There are three steps that involve cellular respiration: glycolyis, the Kreb cycle and
electron transport chain. Glycolysis is the breakdown of glucose. It mostly occur in the cytosol of
the cell. During the process of glycolysis, a phosphate group from the ATP is transferred to glucose
to produce glucose 6 phosphate. Glucose 6 phosphate is converted into fructose 6 phosphate with
the help of an enzyme called isomerase. The enzyme phosphofructokinase change fructose 6
phosphate to fructose 1,6 biophosphate. Fructose 1,6 biophosphate is split into two sugar. Those
sugars are dihydroxyacetone phosphate and glyceradehyde 3 phosphate. The enzyme triophosphate

Compare And Contrast Prokaryotes And Eukaryotic Cells
Eukaryotic cells have structural advantages over Prokaryotic cells, due to the presence of specific
internal organelles, such as a nucleus; where DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid) and genetic codes are
found, as well as the presence of other organelles which are bigger in eukaryotes, such as
mitochondria. Also, eukaryotes can be considered structurally advanced as its organelles are
enclosed by a membrane, making it larger in size and stronger compared to a prokaryote. Both
prokaryotes and eukaryotes have the ability of movement, but the eukaryotes is more complex.
Although, the eukaryotic cell is more structurally advanced to that of a prokaryotic cell, prokaryotes
are simple in nature but are capable of performing the same processes to that of ... Show more
content on Helpwriting.net ...
Internal organelles such as the nucleus; a membrane enclosed organelle that houses the genetic
material, the endoplasmic reticulum; where proteins and carbohydrates are produced, and
mitochondria, which provides fuel for the cell; assist in creating a specialized environment, which
"along with the ability to concentrate the right ingredients in a single place, give eukaryotes a big
structural advantage." This becomes significant as it functional groups becomes more complex and
increases its size and general strength, supporting the notion that eukaryotic cells are in fact more
structurally advanced to prokaryotes. The presence of a nucleus in a eukaryotic cell makes the cell
more specialised, as the DNA that is responsible for creating new cells becomes more efficient. It
must also be noted that "DNA in eukaryotes is neatly organized and packaged into chromosomes,
also increasing efficiency". This system of organised chromosomes, which is not found prokaryotes,
is intended to make eukaryotes efficient in its functional groups, and as a result making all
eukaryotic cells structurally

The Effect Of Different Frequencies Of Light On The Cell
The Effect of Different Frequencies of Light on the Number of Cristae in the Mitochondria of
Drosophila melanogaster
Malavika Pillai 09/22/16
Introduction
Rationale
Statement of problem:
My topic aims to investigate the effect of different frequencies of light on the number of cristae in
the mitochondria of Drosophila melanogaster. Cells, tissues, organs, and an organism all depend on
healthy and efficient mitochondria which fuel essential metabolic reactions and provide energy to
various processes. Because of that, it is not surprising that mitochondria play central roles in making
life and death decisions for the cell.
Cristae are structures in the mitochondria of a cell that are studded with ATP and other proteins
involved in the electron transport chain. If the number of cristae in a mitochondrion of a cell is
increased, the cell has more energy and is more metabolically active, and this is an indicator of
slowed ageing processes and increased cell survival. Drosophila melanogaster, commonly known as
a fruit fly, is a great model to study ageing due to the fact that their lifetime is only about 2 months
and after 1 month they start to age. Also, scientists have sequenced the entire genome of Drosophila
melanogaster which showed very close similarity to the human genome. Furthermore, fruit flies are
easy and cheap to grow, they reproduce prolifically, and have been successfully used in the past to
conduct studies on ageing.
Neuroscientists have been

Stages Of Cellular Respiration And Interdeynthesis And The...
Cellular respiration and photosynthesis form a critical cycle of energy and matter that supports the
continued existence of life on earth. Describe the stages of cellular respiration and photosynthesis
and their interaction and interdependence including raw materials, products, and amount of ATP or
glucose produced during each phase. How is each linked to specific organelles within the eukaryotic
cell? What has been the importance and significance of these processes and their cyclic interaction
to the evolution and diversity of life?
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) are the cells most important source of energy carrier and energy
storage molecules, without them cells wouldn't be able to fuel all the important processes. The
energy in form of food must be transformed into ATP before the cell can burn it for fuel or store it.
When the cell is low on energy and needs to make energy, it breaks the bond to form adenosine
diphosphate (ADP) and a free phosphate molecule. There is a lot of stored energy in these bonds.
Once the bond is broken the energy is freed and usable. On the other hand, if cells have too much
ADP then they bond together with a phosphate molecule to store the excess energy for later usage
and the ADP turns back into a ATP. Cells are extremely energy efficient and do not waste energy that
is already in the cell. Survival might depend on every bit of existing energy (Contributing writer,
2015). if Although both cell types (animal and plant cells) use ATP as their

Essay on Vlab Report
Name ______________________________________
Virtual Lab Report: Part I
Due by: 11:59 PM PST on the second Saturday of class
Virtual Lab 1: Virtual Microscopy
A. Estimate the size (length and width) of these microscopic objects in micrometers (microns):
1. An E. Coli cell. 3 x 0.6 um =1.8 um
2 A mitochondrion. 4 x 0.8 um = 3.2 um
3. A Red blood cell. 8 um
4. A virus. _Hepatitis 45 nm = .045 um
5. A water molecule. 275 pm =.275 um
B.
1 Describe three differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.
Prokaryotic don't have a nucleus and their cell type is unicellular. They do not have a true membrane
bound nucleus and they have loop DNA. They are rod shaped, spherical and spiral and they divide
by binary fission. They are smaller ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Therefore, we are able to determine that the cell in question is prokaryotic.
Virtual
Virtual Lab 2: Cellular Processes
A. Bacterial Growth.
1. Estimate how long it takes for this population of bacteria to double. Hint– this population doubles
multiple times during the duration of this recording. In the first cell frame there was two cells when
I moved up the time to approximately 20 minutes it appeared to have doubled. Based on this I would
say anywhere from 20–25 minutes.
B. Cellular reproduction
1. Estimate the percentage of time that a constantly developing cell spends in interphase. Use the
cell cycle links. According to the link it says anywhere between 12–24 hours so I would say
approximately 90 % of the cycle.
2. In a random selection of 100 such cells, estimate the number that would be undergoing mitosis at
any given time. (Use your answer from part 1.) If the cells spend 90 % of the time in interphase then

I would have to say that 10 % go through mitosis at any time so approximately 10.
3. Understand the basic differences between mitosis, meiosis, and binary fission. Is mitosis more
similar to meiosis or to binary fission? Explain your reasoning.
In mitosis the chromosomes align and then split in two where they replicate the original cell. The
only stage of mitosis creates daughter diploids

The Pathway Of Cancer Cells Essay
Cancer cells are characterized by unlimited cell growth, inefficient apoptosis and excessive
anabolism. The process of becoming cancer cells includes gene activation, micro–environmental
changes and metabolic reprogramming. All of which compound upon one another and lead the
cancer cells to continue with their overwhelming growth and activity. Malignant cancer cells invade
and destroy organ infrastructure and replace it with disorganized and damaging cells. (1) The
metabolic preference of cancer cells is wide ranging with cervical and glioma cells maintaining a
normal oxidative phosphorylation and others exhibiting the switch to glycolysis. (2) This metabolic
switch exhibits the adaptation to environmental changes and the tumor's energy needs and activity.
Overall, the carcinogenic process that defines each malignant tumor determines the metabolic
profile of the cells. For the purpose of examining the metabolic switch, this paper will focus
primarily on the Warburg principle with only slight examination of other cancer cell metabolic
profiles.
The Typical Cell Metabolism
In a typical cell, the mitochondria works to provide the cell with adequate energy (in the form of
ATP) in a well organized system. This system takes the glucose from the body and through
glycolysis breaks it down to pyruvate, releasing 2 ATP. The products of glycolysis then enter the
mitochondria, and are decarboxylated and attached to coA. Acetyl–coA can then enter the Krebs's
cycle. The Krebs cycle is

Metabolism and Energy Essay
Metabolism is defined the sum of all chemical reactions which occurs and are involved in sustaining
life of a cell, and thus an organism. Metabolism is of the following two types: catabolism and
anabolism. In catabolism, molecules break down producing energy
During anabolism, synthesis of essential compounds needed by the cells are produced (such as
DNA, RNA, and protein synthesis).
Bioenergetics describes the metabolic pathways by which a cell obtains energy. Nutrition science
studies the relation between food substance and living things. The study deals with:
1) Body requirements of various substances.
2) The function of various substances in body.
3) The amount of the substances needed.
4) The lower levels below which health gets ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
MECHANISM OF ATP SYNTHESIS
Energy metabolism is the process by which living cells obtain energy and use them to live, grow and
reproduce. Energy is released when the chemical bonds of the nutrient molecules break and form
high energy compounds such as ATP. ATP is the main chemical energy carrier in all the cells. ATP
synthesis can occur by two mechanisms:
1) Synthesis from ADP and inorganic phosphate that takes place in mitochondrion.
2) Synthesis by transfer of high energy phosphoryl groups from high energy compounds to ADP.
The synthesis occurs in both mitochondrion and in cytoplasm.
OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYLATION: THE MAIN MECHANISM OF ATP SYNTHESIS IN MOST
HUMAN CELLS
In the metabolic reactions, oxidation–reduction reactions are very essential for ATP synthesis. The
electrons removed in the oxidation are transferred to two major electron carrier enzymes. The
electrons are transported through protein complexes in present in the inner mitochondrial
membrane. The complexes contain attached chemical groups which are capable of accepting or
donating one or more electrons. The protein complexes are known as the electron transfer system
(ETS). The ETS allow distribution of the free energy between reduced coenzymes and the O2. The
ETS is associated with proton (H+) pumping from the mitochondrial matrix to intermembrane space
of the mitochondria.
TRICARBOXYLIC ACID CYCLE (TCA)
The tricarboxylic acid cycle is known as Krebs cycle, named after Sir

Nitric Oxide On Oxygen Levels
Nitric Oxide on Hypoxia Levels in Metabolism and Vasoactivity Regulation This review paper is
based on research and learned techniques through this semester (Fall 2015), conducted under Dr.
Kenneth Kambis in the Adair Hall Facility. Although final approval was authorized in December,
there were previous volunteers that were informed under another approval given. In the research
project titled: "Individual Variability Upon Acute Exposure to a Normobaric Hypoxic Environment
Simulating a Physiologic Altitude Equivalent to 3,500 Meters" it covered and explores hypoxia
levels in various ethnic backgrounds at rigorous activity. The concept of metabolism and
vasoactivity in certain species systems is highly regulated under laboratory conditions with proper
materials, methods, and equipment. Measuring ranging levels of oxygen whether in humans, sheep,
rats or mice is essential to understand chemical regulation in the organism's system. This may be
done in vivo or in vitro. In the laboratory, a normobaric hypoxia chamber is utilized to decrease the
oxygen content of the chamber atmosphere to a percentage that closely reflects the partial pressure
of oxygen in a given hypobaric environment without reducing the atmospheric pressure (Kambis,
2015). Thus the regulation of oxygen in partial pressures is similar to those found in hypobaric
atmospheres of up to extreme altitude. Innovation In human research the demographics to consider
in a study are age, gender, height, weight, and

Mitochondria is one of the main organelles inside a cell. It is considered the energy factory and has
many functions all over the cell. Its main purpose is to make ATP, or adenosine triphosphate. ATP is
the energy that every cell in the body can use to stay alive and continue each individual function.
"Mitochondrion is a combination of the Greek words mitos (thread) and chondros (granule)" (van
der Giezen). "Mitochondria are eukaryotic, membrane–enclosed, 1–10um sized organelles,
described as 'cellular power plants' as they are responsible for the production of adenosine
triphosphate (ATP) and oxidative phosphorylation" (Mulchandani). The Mitochondria interacts with
other places in the cell by giving them energy to perform their functions. ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
These ribosomes translate the mRNA into mitochondrial proteins, which are found in the inner and
outer membranes and in the matrix. These different membranes help transport certain particles
around the interior of the Mitochondria.
The inner membrane "is loaded with proteins involved in electron transport and ATP synthesis"
(Mitochondria) and also houses the mitochondrial matrix, "where the citric acid cycle produces the
electrons that travel from one protein complex to the next in the inner membrane" (Mitochondria).
The outer membrane has "many protein–based pores that are big enough to allow the passage of
ions and molecules as large as a small protein" (Mitochondria). In between the two membranes is
the intermembrane space, which is a small space between the inner and outer membrane. "During
electron transport, the participating protein complexes push protons from the matrix out to the
intermembrane space. This creates a concentration gradient of protons that another protein complex,
called ATP synthase, uses to power synthesis of the energy carrier molecule ATP" (Mitochondria).
The DNA found inside the Mitochondria is known as mitochondrial DNA, or mtDNA. This DNA
serves as structures within the cell that converts the energy from food into each certain form that the
cell could use. The folds of the inner membrane are called cristae, chemiosmosis and the electron
transport chain take place on this membrane as

What Is The Four Properties Of Water That Make It Life...
1. Describe 4 properties of water that make it life sustaining? Do not give just a list. Describe why
each property helps sustain life.
The lower density of ice it can form the ice crystal by the hydrogen bonds at cooler temperature.
Water's high polarity ions and other polar molecules are attracted to the high level of polarity in
water. What make water very good solvent is its ability to form hydrogen bonds.
High heat capacity the amount of energy that take to rise temperature from 1g of a substance by 1
°C.
Heat of fusion water can hold a lot of heat energy before it changes temperatures
2. What is a buffer?
The changes in pH that happened because of the addition of acids or bases can be moderated by
Buffer.
3. Draw the structure of a tripeptide Phe–Gln–Asp with the correct ionization at pH 7.
4. Starch and cellulose are polymers of glucose formed by plants. Why is it that humans can utilize
the glucose in starch but not in cellulose? How are herbivores able to breakdown the glucose in
cellulose while we cannot?
First, Cellulose is the polymer of beta D–glucose however, starch is the polymer of alpha–D
glucose.
Second, Human have the enzyme to utilize the glucose in starch but do not have enzyme that can
utilize cellulose. The reason is because human do not have symbiotic connection with some bacteria
in their gut that can produce the enzyme cellulose unlike herbivores which have the ability to
produce the enzyme cellulose.
5. How is the information

The Importance Of The Citric Acid Cycle
The Krebs cycle also known as the Citric Acid cycle, is the second part of the three steps in which
cellular respiration happens. The Krebs cycle was discovered and named after Hans Krebs, a
German scientist. The Krebs cycle takes place in the mitochondrial matrix of the cell, occurring
between glycolysis, which breaks down glucose turning into pyruvate, and oxidative
phosphorylation, which is what creates ATP. This is processes where the body harvests energy from
the food we consume. The Krebs cycle takes in the energy stored in the bonds of acetyl CoA. The
energy taken in from the Krebs cycle is then passed on to oxidative phosphorylation, where it is
transformed to a usable form of cellular energy, ATP. We then use that energy to move, breathe, for
our hearts to beat, along with many other functions. The Electron transport chain is the third step in
the process of cellular respiration, after the Krebs cycle. "The main purpose of the electron transport
chain is to build up a surplus of hydrogen ions (protons) in the intermembrane space so that there
will be a concentration gradient compared to the matrix of the mitochondria."(Quia, N.D) The
electron transport chain is made up of four protein complexes located in the inner mitochondrial
membrane.
The location of the Krebs cycle takes place in the matrix of the mitochondrion and the electron
transport chain is in the Inner Mitochondrial Matrix. Within the mitochondria, eight major steps take
place for the process of the

Case Study 2 WwWL
Case Study II –– Wrestling with Weight Loss: The Dangers of a Weight–Loss Drug
Part I
1. What do you know about the mitochondria?
The main function of the mitochondria is to convert fuel into a form of energy the cell can use.
Specifically, the mitochondria is where pyruvate ––derived from glucose–– is converted into ATP
(Adenosine triphosphate) through cellular respiration. Cellular respiration involves four stages:
glycolysis, the grooming phase, the citric acid cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation. The final two
stages listed occur in the mitochondria.
Part II
2. What are the consequences of a proton gradient and how could a gradient be used in the
mitochondrion? List all the possibilities that come to mind.
Protons have a strong ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
b. To the amount of ATP produced by the mitochondria?
The lack of a proton gradient would mean that protons would no longer diffuse through the ATP
synthase, as there is no difference in charge or concentration which would cause them to do so.
When working normally, as protons pass through the synthase, they lose some energy, which is then
used to bond ADP with Pi and form ATP. No proton gradient would mean no movement of protons
through the synthase, and therefore ADP would not get the energy it requires to form ATP.
Production of ATP in the mitochondria would greatly decrease, as this process (called oxidative
phosphorylation) is responsible for 90% of ATP production. Substrate–level phosphorylation in the
citric acid cycle would continue to produce ATP, but the overall production by the mitochondria
would be only 10% of normal as oxidative phosphorylation stops.
c. To the energy released in the movement of the protons?
The movement of protons would no longer be controlled by the carrier protein embedded within the
inner membrane of the mitochondria. Normally, the ATP synthase is able to use the potential energy
contained in the protons passing through it to produce ATP, but as was explained in the previous
question, protons would no longer be passing through the synthase. Uncontrolled movement of this
kind would mean any energy release would be uncontrolled as well, and therefore

Parkinson's Disease: A Case Study
How the Mitochondria works, and what dysfunctions attribute to Parkinson's
(Thomas, Beal, Vol. 16, 2007) Parkinson's Disease is a disorder that progressively degenerates
nigrostriatal dopaminergic neurons. Nigrostriatial dopaminergic neurons are neurotransmitter
passage ways to the brain. Many studies show that Mitochondria dysfunctions may be a key
component in the development of Parkinson's disease. (Thomas, Beal, Vol. 16, 2007)
The mitochondria is the energy producer of the cell. It takes in nutrients and breaks them down
producing ATP, in a process known as cellular respiration. These organelles take food molecules and
combine them with oxygen to produce the energy for the cell. Each cell may vary in number of how
many mitochondrion they ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
A neurotoxin that inhibits mitochondrial respirations, can cause Parkinson's. (Exner, Lutz, Haass,
Winklhofer, 2012) MPTP can pass through the blood–
brain membrane, and then can be absorbed by the neurons after oxidation. It can then inhibit
complex 1 of the mitochondria, and cause the role of dysfunction causing some of the Parkinson's
syndromes. (Exner, Lutz, Haass, Winklhofer, 2012)
Parkinson's Disease is incurable, and untreatable. Some people who have the Parkinson's gene may
want to know, and some patients may not want to know. Some may want to know, because they may
want to be prepared for this condition, and make arrangements for their life when the symptoms
come. They may also want to join drug trials to either help themselves or try to find a treatment for
the future Parkinson's patients. Although, some people may not want to know. They may not want to
know, because they are afraid that it may affect the way they

Carbohydrates, Lipids, Proteins, And Nucleic Acids
There are four types of biomolecules, carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids.
Carbohydrates are large chains of sugar found in food and living tissues. This includes sugars,
starch, and cellulose. They have the same ratio of hydrogen and oxygen that water has, 2:1. They are
broken down to release energy in the animal body. Lipids are any organic compounds that are fatty
acids and don't dissolve in water but do in organic solvents. Fatty acids can be found in natural oils,
waxes, and steroids. Proteins are macromolecules that do everything in the cell. They are tools and
machines that make things happen. Nucleic acids are long strands of nucleotides, and function
primarily in storage and transmission of genetic information. There are two types of nucleic acids,
DNA and RNA. DNA is the genetic material of all cellular organisms, and RNA sends out messages
from the information that is held in the DNA. These four biomolecules are metabolized by the
animal body. Each biomolecule is broken down in a different process. The end result of each process
is the creation of usable energy for the body. This energy is used to work and generate other
chemical reactions that help the body move and think. Carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and nucleic
acids each provide energy to different places within the body that, in turn, stimulate other chemical
reactions to occur, creating a chain reaction of chemical reactions throughout the body. The
metabolization of these major

Summary Of Succinate Dehydrogenase Activity Of Mitochondria
Succinate Dehydrogenase Activity of Mitochondria
Student Name: Lolwa Alfouzan
SMU Id Number: A00423662
Date:16, November 2017
Lab time: 2:30–5:29
Biol2321(cell biology)
Lab Section:(01)
Lab (7) Full lab report
INTRODUCTION:
Mitochondrion produces the energy that cell needs by breaking down sugars, fatty acids and amino
acids to CO2 and H2O. In this process, which is called cellular respiration, the chemical energy in
sugar, fatty acid and amino acid molecules is captured as ATP. Krebs cycle is a part of the cellular
respiration that consists of series of reactions. And succinate dehydrogenase is one of the enzymes
that is used in this cycle. It basically catalyzes the oxidation of succinate to fumarate. In this
reaction, succinate reduces a FAD molecule, which eventually donates its electrons to coenzyme Q.
However, Azide prevents FADH2 from giving its electrons to coenzyme Q, rather than an artificial
electron acceptor, DCIP takes the electrons. DCIP is a dark blue solution that gets lighter as it gains
electrons. As DCIP gets lighter, its absorbance will decrease. So, the rate of the reaction can be
relatively observed by looking at the absorbance values of DCIP since the reaction processes, DCIP
gains electrons and gets lighter in color. By spectrophotometry we took the absorbance values.
Spectrophotometer is used in the process, which sends beams of light to the sample and measures
the intensity of the light that passes through the sample. This way we can

Mitochondria Essay
The mitochondria's structure is very unique. Every mitochondria is shaped perfectly to help
productivity. It is made up of 3 main parts, The outer membrane, inner membrane, and a fluid called
the matrix. The outer membrane makes up the shell of the mitochondria which holds it all together.
The inner membrane is what folds over many times in side the mitochondria creating layered
structure called cristae. The final structure part is the matrix which is the fluid that creates the atp
and is located in the cristae.
The mitochondria serves a main purpose of creating ATP for the cell. ATP or adenosine triphosphate
which is used as energy throughout the cell. The matrix part of the cell is where the citric acid cycle
takes place, which is what makes ATP. The inner membrane keeps the matrix in place and allows the
ATP to channel through the mitochondria. The ATP created is then later used as chemical energy in
the rest of the cell. Essentially, the mitochondria is the powerhouse of the cell.
Mitochondrion can be found in all organelles, prokaryotic or eukaryotic. Some cells such as red
blood cells have few mitochondrion but there is only 1 organelle known to not have a mitochondria.
Since the mitochondria's purpose is to create ATP. Most cells must have it.
Mitochondria have a unique oval like shape and are one of few organelles with a ... Show more
content on Helpwriting.net ...
I chose to 3D print my model because I thought that would be the best way to get as accurate as
possible. Over the course of thanksgiving break, I used autodesk (a 3D CAD software) to design a
model of the mitochondria. I made sure to include all the main parts of the mitochondria. Once I 3D
printed it, I colored the organelle to look like a mitochondria and also to use as a key for all the parts
of it. My inspiration came from photos and cross sections of many mitochondrion I found on the
web. The cross section inspired me and that's what I ended up

The Role Of Bioenergetics On Disease And Use Of Small...
Role of Bioenergetics in Disease and use of Small Molecule Therapeutics
Name
Institutional Affiliations
Role of Bioenergetics in Disease and use of Small Molecule Therapeutics
Introduction
The study of bioenergetics includes and not limited to study of biological membranes incurred in
energy conversion and transfer. In particular, the study concentrates on structures acquired using X–
ray craystallography, molecular mechanisms of the photosynthesis processes, bacteria respiration,
mitochondrial, transport, motility and oxidative phosphorylation. Furthermore, areas of structural
biology, spectroscopy, molecular modelling and biophysics of the system applications are not left
out while studying the specific chemical process of a disease. Bioenergetics further spans in the
biology of mitochondrial that embodies biomedicine, features of mitochondrial disorders and energy
metabolism (Zheng et–al, 2010, p.519). Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, aging, cancer and
diabetes are among the well–known neurodegenerative illnesses studied under bioenergetics and use
of small molecule therapeutics.
Small molecule therapeutics is one of the scientific techniques designed to help visualize the
magnanimity of genomics data which is prodigious in the process of making drugs. When this
technique is used, genomics data can yield random number of proteins produced in a disease tissue.
By understanding the role played by bioenergetics in a particular

Study Of Evolution Of Mitochondria Through Different...
Title: Study of Evolution in Mitochondria through different species of plants and Animals.
Aayushi Shah shah.947 ID#:200404635
Title: Study of Evolution in Mitochondria through different species of plants and Animals.
ID#:04635
Introduction: – The mitochondria is a double membrane organelle that is found in all eukaryotic
organisms. There is some evidence that proves some eukaryotes lack mitochondria, but there is no
true evidence about complete lack of mitochondria in the organisms. Mitochondria is known as a
power house of the living body cell. They store energy in the cell and release it as needed. Every
structure in Mitochondria have their own specific roles which helps in storing energy (See Figure 1
for details). Evidence shows that mitochondria evolved from primitive bacteria. Is it really evolved
from primary bacteria or were they the new adaptation in the plant and animal body? In this paper
we are going to see how Mitochondrion have been evolved in different species and what methods
have been used to prove that evolution. There is still debate between scientists about whether
mitochondrion really evolved from bacteria or if it was present in the cells before bacteria were
present. Yung et al. [1] says that Mitochondria's cytochromes c (which is a mitochondrial
intermembrane protein that is loosely attached to the inner membrane of mitochondrial membrane)
is relatively close to the bacterial medium subunit in sequence of cytochrome. However,

Cardiovascular Diseases and Infection/Inflammation
Previous studies have shown that there is an association between infection/inflammation and the risk
of cardiovascular diseases. This association exists in two patterns: an association between chronic
low–grade inflammation/infection and the slow process of atherogenesis, and an association
between acute systemic inflammation and a transient increase in the risk of an acute cardiovascular
event. It has been suggested that changes in endothelial function may underly the association
between inflammation and acute cardiovascular event risk.29 Impaired endothelial function appears
to be mediated, at least in part, by systemic inflammation in human vascular disease states. The
endothelial dysfunction occurs through a variety of mechanisms such as increased vascular
oxidative stress, activation of redox–sensitive transcriptional pathways, and decreased eNOS
function. Enhanced formation of reactive oxygen species in vascular wall and reduced endothelial
function have all been associated with systemic inflammation.30
As mentioned previously, generation of NO by eNOS requires the enzymatic cofactor BH4. In the
setting of vascular disease, reduced BH4 bioavailability leads to enzymatic uncoupling of eNOS and
formation of O_2^ instead of NO. Investigations have demonstrated a complex association between
plasma biopterins, inflammation, and endothelial function. Plasma BH4 is correlated with high–
sensitivity C–reactive protein (hsCRP) but inversely associated with endothelial

Mitochondria Each cell contains hundreds to thousands of mitochondria (1), which are located in the
fluid that surrounds the nucleus called cytoplasm. Mitochondria are organelles within cells that
convert the energy from food into a form that cells can use. Mitochondria produce energy through a
process called oxidative phosphorylation which is the final stage of cellular respiration. During
oxidative phosphorylation, an electron transport chain works in conjunction with chemiosmosis to
create energy molecules named adenosine triphosphate (ATP) using oxygen and simple sugars. In
the electron transport chain, an electrochemical gradient is formed by the chemical gradient from the
inside to the outside of a mitochondrion counteracting with the electrical gradient from the outside
to the inside of the mitochondrion. During chemiosmosis, the energy stored in the gradient is used to
make ATP. In addition to energy production, mitochondria play a role in several other cellular
activities such as regulating apoptosis which is the programmed self–destruction process of cells and
producing substances such as heme which is a component of hemoglobin, and cholesterol (2).
Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) Most DNA is nuclear DNA (nDNA) because it is packaged in
chromosomes within ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Human eyes are highly dependent on mitochondria for energy, thus are commonly affected by
mitochondrial defects. For instance, people with Kearns–Sayre syndrome have a single, large
deletion of mitochondrial DNA. The deletions range from 1,000 to 10,000 nucleotides, and the most
common deletion is 4,997 nucleotides (9). The mitochondrial DNA deletions result in the loss of
genes that produce proteins required for oxidative phosphorylation, causing a decrease in cellular
energy production

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