Teaching

1. MA in TEFL
(Feb. 2023)
Hamid Ashraf
hamid.ashraf.elt@gmail.com
Methodology of Teaching
Language Skills
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2. SPEAKING SKILL
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3. The Construct of Spoken Language
 Second Language Speaking construct:
 1. The repertoire: the range of features and combinations of
features that it manifests, in addition to their respective
probabilities
 2. The range of conditions that explain the occurrence of
these features
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4. The Spoken Repertoire
 The condition of production affecting the shape of
speaking
 Three main subgroups of linguistic features:
 Phonological: segmental and super-segmental)
 Lexico-grammatical: morphological and syntactic
resources, a lexical store, formulaic and
pragmalinguistic units
 Discourse: socio-pragmatic features, pragmatic
discourse structures
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5.  Macro socio-pragmatic purposes determine the use
of these features to carry out a particular local social
and informational purpose.
 Hierarchy of linguistic abilities based on the above
mentioned account:
 Micro level: Phonemes serve the purpose of
instantiating lexico-grammatical items
 Mezzo level: Lexico-grammatical items in turn serve
the purpose of conveying meaning
 Overarching macro level: achieving human
convergence
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6. Teaching Speaking: Factors to consider, Developing Adult
EFL students’ speaking ability
By Kang Shumin in Richards & Renandya (pp 201-211)
 Speaking is a hard task for EFL learners: appropriate use
of language in social interaction
 Factors affecting adult EFL learners’ oral
communication
 1. Age or Maturational Constraints
 Beginning learning a second language at an early age through natural
exposure different from learning at a later age (fluency and native like
concerns)
 Oyama's study adult’s progress seems to level off at a certain
stage, "fossilization" _ the permanent cessation of second language
development
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7. 2.Aural Medium
Speaking feeds on listening
Speaking is interwoven with listening
In fact, during interaction, every speaker plays a double role - both as a
listener and as a speaker.
The fleetingness of speech, together with the features of spoken English -
loosely organized syntax, incomplete forms, false starts, and the use of
fillers - undoubtedly hinders EFL learners' comprehension and affects the
development of their speaking abilities.
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8. Teaching Speaking
 3. Sociocultural Factors
 Pragmatic perspective: language is a form of social action i.e.
linguistic communication happens in the context of structured
interpersonal exchange, and meaning is socially regulated .
 Nonverbal communication
 Because of the influence or interference of their own cultural norms, it
is hard for nonnative speakers to choose the forms appropriate to
certain situations .
 4. Affective Factors
 -self-esteem -empathy
 -anxiety -attitude
 -motivation -emotions
 the sensitivity of adult learners to making mistakes, or fear of "losing
face," has been the explanation for their inability to speak English
without hesitation
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9. Teaching Speaking
 Components Underlying Speaking Effectiveness
 1. Grammatical Competence
 Grammar (morphology, syntax), vocabulary, & mechanics (the
basic sounds of letters, syllables, pronunciation of words,
intonation, and stress)
 2. Discourse Competence
 Intersentential relationship
 3. Sociolinguistic Competence
 Knowing what is expected socially and culturally by users of
target language, acquiring the rules and norms governing the
appropriate timing and realization of speech acts
 4. Strategic Competence
 The way learners manipulate language to meet communicative
goals
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10. Teaching Speaking
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11. Teaching Speaking
 Components Underlying Speaking Effectiveness
 1. Grammatical Competence
 Grammatical competence is a concept that includes grammar
(morphology, syntax), vocabulary, & mechanics (the basic sounds of
letters, syllables, pronunciation of words, intonation, and stress)
 grammatical competence enables speakers to use and understand
English-language structures accurately and unhesitatingly, which
contributes to their f1uency
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12. •2. Discourse Competence
•discourse competence is concerned with intersentential relationships
• the rules of cohesion and coherence apply which aid in holding the
communication together in a meaningful way
•both the production and comprehension of a language require one's ability to
perceive and process discourse
•3. Sociolinguistic Competence
•Knowing what is expected socially and culturally by users of target language;
that is, learners must acquire the rules and norms governing the appropriate timing
and realization of speech acts
•“adult second language learners must acquire stylistic adaptability in order to be
able to encode and decode the discourse around them correctly”
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13. 4. Strategic Competence
•The way learners manipulate language to meet
communicative goals
•It is ability to compensate for imperfect
knowledge of linguistic, sociolinguistic, and
discourse rules
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14. Teaching Speaking
 Interaction as the key to improve EFL learners’
Speaking Abilities
 Speaking Functions:
1.Interactional (maintaining social interactions)
 communication derives essentially from interaction
 Communication in the classroom is embedded in meaning -
focused Activity.
 Out of interaction, learners will learn how to communicate
verbally and nonverbally as their language store and language
skills develop
2.Transactional (conveying information & ideas)
 Small Talk
 Short interactional exchanges in which a person can
engage in brief, casual conversation with others or in
an exchange of pleasantries.
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15. Interactive Activities
Effective interactive activities should be manipulative, meaningful, and
communicative, involving learners in using English for a variety of
communicative purposes. Specifically, they should:
(1) be based on authentic or naturalistic source materials
(2) enable learners to manipulate and practice specific features of
language
(3) allow learners to rehearse, in class, communicative skills they
need in the real world; and
(4) activate psycholinguistic processes of learning.
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16. •Different types of interactive activities:
1. Aural: oral activities.
•In practice, students are directed to listen to taped dialogues or short
passages and afterwards to act them out in different ways.
2. Visual: oral activities
•audiovisual materials such as appropriate films, videotapes, and soap
operas, vodcasts,
•Students can be provided with:
• (a) "the motivation based on attractively informative content material;
• (b) the exposure to a varied range of authentic speech: with different
registers, accents, intonation, rhythms, and stresses; and
•(c)language used in the context of real situations
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17. 3. Material-aided: oral activities.
•Appropriate reading materials facilitated by the, teacher and structured with
comprehension questions can lead to creative production in speech. Storytelling can
be prompted with cartoon strips and sequences of pictures.
4. Culture awareness:
•Culture plays an instrumental role, in shaping speakers’ communicative competence.
which is related to the appropriate use of language (e.g., how native speakers make
an apology and what kind of form the apology takes).
Generally, appropriateness is determined by each speech community
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18. What speakers know by Thornbury, 2002 (Chapter 2)
 Linguistic Knowledge: Relevant to features of language
 Genre Knowledge:
 Transactional: phoning to reserve a flight ticket
 Interpersonal: conversation between two friends at the
restaurant
 Genre a type of speech event that is labeled by its participants e.g.
chatting, interviewing, business presentation
 Interactive or non-interactive
 Planned or unplanned
 Discourse Knowledge
 Pragmatic Knowledge:
 Speech act (functions)
 The cooperative principle:
 Four Maxims: Quantity, Quality, Relation, Manner
 Politeness
 Register : affected by tenor, field, and mode 2/25/2023
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19. Linguistic Knowledge: spoken language
 Grammar:
 single words or phrases can be utterances
 Three parts divisions
 Direct speech
 Vague language
 Ellipses
 Performance effect
 Vocabulary
 Words such as ‘well’
 Stance: speaker’s attitude
 Negative or positive appraisal
 Deictic
 Chunks: Lexical phrases, holophrases, formulaic language,
prefabs
 Phonology
 The lowest level of knowledge a speaker draws on
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20.  Extralinguistic Knowledge
 Independent of language
 Includes: topic, cultural knowledge, knowledge of
context, familiarity with the other speakers
 Sociocultural Knowledge
 Both linguistic and extralinguistic
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21.  Speech Conditions (can make speaking easy or difficult)
 Cognitive factors, affective factors, performance factors
 Cognitive factors:
 Familiarity with the topic
 Familiarity with the genre
 Familiarity with the interlocutors
 Processing demands
 Affective factors:
 Feeling towards the topic or participants
 Self-consciousness
 Performance factors:
 Mode, Degree of collaboration, Discourse control, Time
pressure, and Environmental conditions
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22. Towards Autonomy (Thornbury, 2002, Chapter 6)
 Automaticity:
 Feeling fluent
 Speed
 Economy
 Accuracy
 Anticipation
 Reliability
 Criteria for Speaking Tasks
 Productivity
 Purposefulness
 Interactivity
 Challenge
 Safety
 Authenticity
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23.  Feedback and Correction
 How to correct
 Direct
 Indirect
 What courses/aspects
 Fluency
 Accuracy: focus on form (formal accuracy)
 What to correct
 Mistake: momentary failure in the application what they know
o Can be self corrected and repaired
 Error: a gap in the speaker’s knowledge of the system
 When to correct
 On-the-spot correction
 Delayed correction
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