MA, Sem.II_

1. Sachin Kr Tiwary
MA, Sem.II
C-III
Material Remains as Source of
Ancient Indian History & Culture

2. Unit-I
(A) Introduction
Nature, Retrieval and Classification of Data
(B) Prehistoric to Early Historic Excavated Remains
Reconstruction of Socio-Economic and Religious Life on the Basis of
Following:
1. Tools
2. Pottery
3. Beads
4. Seal-Sealing
5. Metal Objects
6. Non-Artificial Remains: Botanical and Zoological

3. Material Remains as Source of Ancient Indian History & Culture
• The historical sources of ancient Indian history materialize as
remnants of bygone eras, ranging from archaeological artifacts like
different types of sites and architectural ruins to textual sources such
as inscriptions, literary works, chronicles, and accounts of travelers.
• They encompass a diverse array of materials, including coins,
monuments, palaces, forts, royal estates, court records,
correspondences, and other tangible relics that provide valuable
insights into the past.

4. UNIT-I (A) Introduction
Nature and Classification of Data
1. Nature: The artefacts we find from ancient times can
be put into different groups based on what they are.
These groups include things like old objects, buildings,
writings, pottery, tools, artwork, and even things like
bones or plant remains.
• Each group tells us different things about how ancient
people lived, like what they believed, how they made
things, and how they organized their societies.
2. Classification: We can also sort these things based on
what they're made of, what they were used for, where
we found them, and when they were made, which helps
us understand them even better.

5. Aspects: Key aspects to consider when analyzing artifacts/material remains include their archaeological context,
cultural significance, historical context, technological characteristics, and socio-economic implications.
Importance
of any
Material
Remains
Medium
Purpose
Size
Technique
Context
Decoration
Sources of
Raw
Materail
Economy
Benefit of
Research

6. Importance
Importance
of any
Material
Remains
Skill/Tech
Economy
Social
condition
Trade-
Commerce
Flora-Fauna
Dresses
Ornaments
Weapon
Mode of
Trade
Political
Authority

7. Medium
Material
Remains
T.C.-
Stucco
Stone
Metal
Paste
Ivory-
Bone-
Antler etc
Glass
Painting
Mix

8. Uses
Uses of
Material
Remains
Economy
Trade
Worship
Temp.-
Permanent
Toy
Replica
Decorative
Items
Model
Symbol of
Political
Authority

9. Manufacturing Technique
Material
Remains
Handmade
Wheel made
Moulded
Mix of all 3
above
Sun Dried-
Fired/Backed
Chiseled/Carve
d
Lost Wax
Technique
Etching

10. Benefit of Research
Material
Remains
Cognitive
Development
Religion
Gradual
Growth of
Technique
Wild-Domestic
Fauna
Wild-Domestic
Flora
Trade-
Commerce
Cultural-
Political
Contact
Purpose of
Manufacturing

11. Architectural Contexts
Architecture
Settlement Pattern
Inland/Coastal/River
Side/Lake Side
Wall –Fortification
Type
Roads
Streets
Housing Pattern
Public-Personal
Drainage Pattern
Sanitation
Dams
Water Management
Raw Material Used
in the Architecture
With & without
Mortar
Religious of Secular

12. Material Remains: Retrieval
Retrieval
Exploration
Excavation
Chance
Discovery
Donation

13. Reconstruction of Socio-Economic & Religious life on the basis
of following:
1. Tool
2. Pottery
3. Beads
4. Seal-Sealing
5. Metal Objects
6. Non-Artifactual Remains:
1. Botanical
2. Zoological
The reconstruction of socio-economic and religious life in
ancient civilizations based on archaeological artifacts such as
tools, pottery, beads, seals, metal objects, and non-artifactual
remains,
involves analyzing their material properties, distribution
patterns, and cultural contexts to interpret the various facets of
ancient societies, including their economy, technology, trade
networks, social organization, and religious beliefs and
practices.

14. Tool:
• Tools are essential artifacts that reveal much about the
socio-economic organization of ancient societies.
• The types of tools found, their materials, and their
distribution patterns can indicate the technological
advancements, division of labor, and economic
activities of a civilization.
• The presence of specialized tools such as agricultural
implements may suggest an agrarian economy, while
sophisticated tools could indicate a developed stone
industry.
• The presence of finely crafted tools may suggest the
existence of skilled artisans and trade networks,
shedding light on the economic specialization and
exchange systems of the society.
Tool
Type Material Technique Uses Context Sources of Raw
Material Size

15. Pottery:
• The form, decoration, and distribution of pottery can
reveal trade networks, economic activities, and
cultural exchange between different regions.
• The analysis of pottery styles and techniques can
help identify regional production centers, trade
routes, and the social status of individuals based on
the types of pottery they used.
• Pottery often played a significant role in religious
rituals and ceremonies, with specific vessel shapes
and decorations associated with religious practices
and beliefs.
Pottery
Type Material Technique Uses Context Sources of
Raw Material Shape Decoration

16. Uses
Deluxe
Table
Kitchen
Storage
Transport
Religious
Toilet
Types & Uses of Ceramic
Types
Non-Perishable
Earthen
Ware
Stone
Ware
Glass
Ware
Metal
Ware

17. Types
Dish
Bowl
Vase
Basin
Major Types of Ceramic based on shapes

18. Name of the body parts
https://peachstatearchaeologicalsociety.org/index.php/8-pottery/179-definition-of-vessel-shapes

19. Ancient repair holes are visible on the side of a late 6th to early 5th
millennium BCE bowl from Iran
Unravelling ancient drilling techniques: A case of pottery repair in the Early European Neolithic
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0305440323001954
Socio-Economic Aspects of Ceramics
Northern Black Polished Ware in Indian Archaeology: A Study of Spatial and
Chronological Distribution
https://asc.iitgn.ac.in/assets/publications/research_papers/NBPW_encyclopaed
ia_2021.pdf

20. Roman Trade: Ceramic Evidence
Amphora, Rouletted, Arretine Wares
Rouletted Ware at Arikamedu: A New Approach by Vimala Begley
American Journal of Archaeology, Vol. 92, No. 3 (Jul., 1988), pp. 427-440 (14 pages)
https://www.jstor.org/stable/505557?seq=13

21. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/02666030.2001.9628589

22. Beads:
• A BEAD IS A GEOMETRICAL or NON-GEOMETRICAL,
SYMMETRICAL OR asymmetrical object made of
organic or nonorganic raw material, perforated or
pierced for threading or stringing.
• Beads are small but significant artefacts that provide
insights into ancient socio-economic and religious life.
• The materials, colours, and styles of beads can indicate
trade networks, social status, and cultural exchange.
• The presence of exotic beads made from locally
unavailable materials suggests long-distance trade
connections and the circulation of luxury goods.
• Beads also had symbolic and religious significance, and
they were used as personal adornments, amulets, or
offerings in religious rituals.
Beads
Type Material Technique Uses Context Sources of
Raw Material Shape Decoration

24. Material
Organic-
Inorganic
Eggshell, Bone,
Plant Seed, Conch,
Ivory, coral, wood,
teeth
Stone
Amber
Amber is a fossilized
resin. It occurs in
orange and yellow
colours.
T.C.
Glass
Aquamarine
Paste/Steati
te
Faience
.
Socio-Economic Aspects of Ceramics
Glass Beads in Ancient India and Furnace- Wound
Beads at Purdalpur: An Ethnoarchaeological
Approach by
ALOK KUMAR KANUNGO
https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/5105475.pdf
Indirect Evidence of Beads

25. The oldest Eggshell beads in India 40,000 BCE to 10,000 BCE
Khapadkheda, MP
Socio-Economic, Technological Aspects of Ceramics
Etched Bead

26. Seal-Sealing:
• Seals and sealings are important artifacts used for
administrative, economic, and religious purposes in
ancient societies.
• The imagery, inscriptions, and materials of seals can
provide information about political authority, trade
transactions, and religious beliefs.
• Seals bearing the names or symbols of rulers indicate
their authority and control over administrative
matters.
• Sealings found on storage jars or documents suggest
economic activities such as trade, taxation, or record-
keeping.
• Seals may bear religious motifs or inscriptions
associated with deities, rituals, or religious institutions.
Seal-Sealing
Type Material Technique Uses Context Sources of
Raw Material Shape Decoration

28. Metal Objects:
• Metal objects, such as tools, weapons, ornaments,
and coins, offer valuable insights into ancient
socio-economic and religious life.
• The presence of metalworking technology
indicates the level of technological advancement
and economic specialization within a society.
• Metal objects also reflect social status, with
elaborate ornaments and weapons often
associated with elites or religious leaders.
• Coins provide evidence of economic systems,
trade networks, and political authority, while
metal artifacts used in religious rituals offer clues
about religious beliefs and practices.
Metal
Type Material Technique Uses Context Sources of
Raw Material Sizes Decoration

29. Metal
Object
Purpose
Medium
Context
Theme
Technique
Types
Influence
Place
Sources
Unique
Feature
Under
whom
Order ?

30. Context
Coins
Ornaments
Weapon
Statues
Inscriptions
Seal
Utensils
Pillar
Architectural
Member
Toys

31. Types
Freestanding
Sculptures
small in size
Freestanding
Sculptures
Lifesize for
outside yatra
God-Goddess King-Queen
Saint Others
In group on the
single platform
Copper Plate
Stamp
Coins
Sambandar

32. • Metal- Bronze (Image), Copper, Gold (Coin), Bronze is an alloy, (Copper + Tin).
Modern Bronzes (Lead + Aluminum + Manganese or Zinc).
oReligious
oPolitical- Public, King, Queen, Saint
 Moulding- Lost Wax Technique,
Religious Place- Temples,
Public Place- Public Building,
Political Buildings- Royal Palaces.
Medium
Theme
Technique
Context

33. Purpose
Religious
Political
Reach the
idol door to
door
Showing
Power/ To
get fame
Ceremonies
Social
Activities-
cultural
activities
Metal mold
was more
Easy

34. • The Chola images were made of Bronze with an unusually high percentage of copper.
• The statues were cast by the `cire perdue’ (lost wax) process, of which two methods are practiced in India from earliest
times.
• Beeswax and kungilium/ Sal dhuna/Dammer are mixed with a little oil and kneaded well. The figure is sculpted from this
mixture fashioning all the minute details. This is the wax model original.
• The entire figure is then coated with clay made from termite hills until the mould is of a necessary thickness.
• This particular bronze alloy is known as Pancha Loham.
• The similarity between so many Hindu Bronze is explained by the fact that the craftsmen were religiously required to
follow strict canons of measurement and iconography, set out in the Shilpa Shastras, the manual of sculpture,
architecture, and other crafts.
• Basic to the rules were measurement defined by the width of the craftsman’s finger and length of his palm.
Technique ‘Cire perdue’ (Lost Wax)/ Madhu Uchchishtta Vidhana in Sanskrit

35. 1. (Solid) First method of
making bronze art:
I. They prepare a wax model
II. Over this they made a clay
mould.
III. When this mould became
hard, they melted the wax
out and poured liquid
metal into the clay mould.
IV. When the metal had
cooled, they broke the
mould and gave the image
the final chasing and
burnishing.
V. It gives a solid figure.
Technique
2. (Holo) Second method of making bronze art:
I. They first made a clay model and coated it with a layer of
wax to reproduce exactly all the details of the form.
II. Then they covered the wax with a thin layer of fine clay.
III. When this dried, they added more layers until a thick out
shell had formed.
IV. This is called the negative.
V. They heated the statue until the wax melted and ran
through openings, leaving a space between the clay
mould and the negative.
VI. They poured liquid metal to replace the wax and
reproduce all the details of the figure.
VII. When the metal had cooled and hardened, they broke
away the outer shell.
VIII. Then the figure was chased with a chisel and polished
IX. It gives a shell.
https://www.quora.com/What-is-Chola-bronze-art
The first method gave a solid figure, the second a shell

36. 1 Sculptors mold images from hard beeswax mixed with a small amount
of dammar (resin) from the shal tree. The wax is carefully molded into
the separate parts that comprise the sculpture and then lowered into a
basin of cold water where it hardens instantly
Technique The following process, which was used by Chola-period artists:
.
2 In order to join the individual pieces into a whole, they are returned to a malleable state through brief
reheating. Simple tubular struts connect the hands of the images to the body providing both stability to
the wax model and acting as channels through which molten bronze can be poured. While the wax is still
soft, details, down to the individual beads of a sculpted necklace, are added with a sharp wooden chisel.

37. 3 The fully assembled wax model is then
encased within several layers of clay. The
entire piece is held together with metal
wire to ensure a strong container that will
withstand the heat of fire and molten
metal.
4 The heavily clay-encased mold is then
baked in a fire pit, melting the wax, which
runs out through the channels leaving a
perfectly detailed hollow clay mold.
Specialized metal-workers now take over,
heating copper with a small proportion of
lead and tin (and in earlier times small
amounts of gold and silver). This alloy is
carefully poured into the clay mold, which
has been heated to the temperature of
the molten metal.
Technique The following process, which was used by Chola-period artists:

38. Technique
5 After cooling for several days, the clay mold is
broken open to reveal a rough version of the
sculpture.
The following process, which was used by Chola-period artists:

39. 6 The sculptors carefully
chip away the clay and then
smooth and polish the
bronze, a process that can
take anywhere from a few
days to several weeks.
During the Chola dynasty,
only the barest minimum of
finishing work, such as
removing the channels of
bronze connecting hand to
torso, remained to be
executed. Today, however,
artists resort to an extensive
amount of cold chiseling
that gives a distinct, sharp
finish to the details.
Technique The following process, which was used by Chola-period artists:

40. Non-Artifactual Remains (Botanical and Zoological):
• Non-artifactual remains, including botanical and zoological remains such
as plant seeds, animal bones, and fossils, provide indirect evidence of
ancient socio-economic and religious activities.
• Analysis of botanical remains can reveal agricultural practices, food
sources, and environmental conditions, while zoological remains offer
insights into animal husbandry, hunting, and dietary preferences.
• The presence of domesticated plants and animals suggests settled
agricultural communities, while the absence of certain species may
indicate environmental changes or cultural preferences.
• Botanical and zoological remains found in religious contexts, such as
sacrificial deposits or burial sites, may reflect religious beliefs and rituals
related to food offerings, animal sacrifice, or funerary practices.
Non-Artifactual Remains
Species Climate
Wild-
Domestic
Uses Context Sources-
Origin Sizes
Purpose of
usage

41. Non-Artifactual Remains:
Archaeobotany, Botanical Archaeology,Paleoethnobotany
Archaeobotany
includes the
study of
Plant
macroremains
(grains, seeds,
chaff, fruits,
nuts)
Plant
microremains
(starch,
phytoliths,
and pollen)
Wood and
charcoal
Archaeobotanical studies include such diverse research
themes as:
1. The identification of beverages (Bouby et al., 2011),
2. The use of wild–domestic fruits (Fairbairn et al., 2007),
3. Plants and political complexity, social status and
organisation (Hastorf, 1993),
4. Plants as indicators of ethnicity (Scarry, 1993),
5. Spices (Livarda and Van der Veen, 2008),
6. Plants in ritual (Margaritis, 2014a; Heiss, 2014),
7. Human environmental impacts, land management and
use (Miller and Marston, 2012),
8. Plant domestication & cultivation (Zohary et al., 2012),
9. Crop husbandry (Jones et al., 2010),
10.Foodways (Hastorf, 2022).

42. • This entry focuses on plant macro
remains, mainly found charred in
the archaeological record, and
discusses subjects such as:
1. Preservation,
2. Sampling,
3. Recovery,
4. Taphonomy,
5. the key species found in
archaeological contexts and
basic steps in interpreting an
archaeobotanical assemblage.
Non-Artifactual Remains:
Archaeobotany, Botanical Archaeology, Paleoethnobotany

43. Non-Artifactual Remains:
Zoological Archaeology,Palaeontology, Archaeozoologists
1. These include bones, shells, hair, scales, proteins, and DNA.
2. Bones and shells are the best preserved at archaeological sites.
3. Faunal remains do not usually survive. They may decompose or break under various
circumstances, making identifying and interpreting their significance difficult.

44. Relationship between animals and humans:
1. What was the diet like, and in what ways were the animals used for food?
2. Which animals were eaten, in what amounts, and with what other foods?
3. Who were the ones to obtain the food, and did the availability of that food
depend on age or gender?
4. How was culture, such as technologies and behavior, influenced by and
associated with diet?
5. How can faunal remains identify social differences such as class or ethnicity?
6. What purposes, other than food, were animals used for?
7. What was the environment like?
8. How did hunter-gatherers collect food?
9. How have human populations changed over time?
10. How have humans domesticated animals over time?
11. How do modern animals compare to past animals, and how does this give
context to human populations who interacted/still interact with those
animals?
Non-Artifactual Remains:
Zoological Archaeology,Palaeontology, Archaeozoologists

45. Thank You
Any Question