Four main types of animal tissue are epithelial, connective, muscular, and neural. Epithelial tissue provides covering and lining and has two types - simple and compound. Simple epithelium is a single cell layer lining cavities and tubes, while compound has multiple cell layers and protects the skin. Connective tissue is the most abundant and widely distributed. It connects and supports other tissues. The main connective tissues are loose connective, dense connective, adipose, cartilage, bone, and blood. Muscle tissue contains long cells that contract and help with movement. The main types are skeletal, smooth, and cardiac. Nervous tissue contains neurons that receive and conduct messages in the brain, spinal cord, and nerves.

1. �Animal tissue: Four types: a) Epithelial, b)
Connective, c) Muscular, d) Neural.
�Epithelial tissue:
� Provides a covering or lining for some part of
the body.
� The cells are compactly packed with little
intercellular matrix.
� Two types: Simple epithelium and compound
epithelium.
� Simple epithelium is composed of a single layer
of cells and functions as a lining for body
cavities, ducts and tubes.
� Compound epithelium consists of two or more
cell layers and has protective function (Skin).

2. Classification of simple epithelium
Squamous Cuboidal Columnar
Squamous:
�Made up of a single thin layer of
flattened cells with irregular
boundaries.
�Found in the walls of blood vessels
and air sacs of lungs.
�Involved in a functions like forming a
diffusion boundary.

9. Cuboidal:
� Made up of a single layer of cube like
cells.
� Found in ducts of glands and tubular
parts of nephron in kidneys.
� Main function is secretion and absorption.
Columnar:
� Made up of single layer of tall and
slender cells.
� Nucleus present at the base of the cells.
� Found in lining of stomach and intestine.
� Helps in secretion and absorption.

10. �Ciliated epithelium:
�If the columnar and Cuboidal cells
bear cilia on their free surface it is
called ciliated epithelium.
�Their function is to move particles or
mucus in a specific direction.
�Present in the inner surface of hollow
organs like bronchioles and fallopian
tubes.

12. Glandular epithelium:
�If the columnar and Cuboidal cells get
specialised for secretion it is called
glandular epithelium.
�They are of two types: a) Unicellular
consisting of isolated glandular cells
(goblet cells of alimentary canal). b)
Multicellular consisting of cluster of
cells (Salivary gland).

15. Glands are of two types:
�Exocrine: With ducts
Secretes mucus, saliva, earwax, oil,
milk, digestive enzymes etc.
(Released through ducts or tubes)
�Endocrine: Without ducts
Hormones are secreted directly and
pour the secretion in the body fluid .
They are secreted from the site of
production to the site of action.

16. Compound epithelium:
�Made up of more than one layer of
cells.
�It provides protection against
chemical and mechanical stresses.
�Cover the dry surface of skin, moist
surface of buccal cavity, pharynx,
inner lining of ducts of salivary
glands and pancreatic ducts.

17. Junctions: Epithelial cells are held
together by little intercellular material
called as junctions. It provides both
structural and functional links between the
individual cells. There are three types of cell
junctions:
� Tight junctions: It helps to stop substances
from leaking across a tissue.
� Adhering junctions: It performs cementing
to keep neighbouring cells together.
� Gap junctions: It helps in transfer of ions,
small molecules and sometimes big molecules.

18. Connective tissues:
� Most abundant and widely distributed
tissue.
� It has function of linking and supporting
other tissue/organs of the body.
� In all connective tissues except blood, the
cell secretes fibres of structural proteins
(collagen or elastic) that provide
strength, elasticity and flexibility to the
tissue.
� It also secretes modified
polysaccharides.

19. Types of connective tissues
Loose connective Dense connective Specialised
Tissue Tissue Connective tissue
Aerolar Adipose Regular Irregular
Cartilage Bone Blood
.
R.B.C. W.B.C. Platelets Blood Plasma

20. Aerolar:
�Present beneath the skin.
�Often it serves as a support
framework for epithelium.
�It contains fibroblasts, macrophages
and mast cells.
Adipose:
�Present beneath the skin.
�It stores fats.

23. �Dense regular tissues: The
collagen fibres are present in rows
between many parallel bundles of
fibres. E.g. Tendons (muscles to
bone) and ligament (bone to bone)
�Dense irregular tissues: It has
fibroblasts and many fibres
(collagens) that are oriently
different. The tissue is present in
the skin.

24. DENSE REGULAR CONNECTIVE TISSUE

26. �Cartilage:
⮚The intercellular material of
cartilage is solid and flexible and
resists compression.
⮚Cells of this tissue (Chondriocytes)
are enclosed in small cavities within
the matrix secreted by them.
⮚Present in tip of nose, outer ear
joints, between adjacent bones of
the vertebral column, limbs and
hands in adults.

28. �Bone:
⮚Have a hard and non flexible ground
substance.
⮚Rich in calcium salts and collagen fibres
that gives strength.
⮚Provide structural frame work of the
body.
⮚Support and protects softer tissues and
organs.
⮚Bone cells (Osteocytes) are present in
the spaces called lacunae.
⮚The bone marrow in some bones is the
site of production of blood cells.

29. �Blood:
⮚Fluid connective tissue.
⮚Consists of plasma, R.B.C., W.B.C. and
platelets.
⮚Main circulating fluid that helps in
transport of various substances.

30. �Muscle tissue:
⮚Made up of many long cylindrical
fibres arranged in parallel arrays.
These fibres are composed of
numerous fine fibres called
myofibrils.
⮚Helps in contraction and expansion.
⮚Helps in movement.

31. Types of muscle tissue
Skeletal Smooth Cardiac
(Striated) (non-striated)

33. Skeletal (Striated muscle):
�They are attached to the bones and
helps in body movement.
�Cells are long cylindrical non tapering
and unbranched.
�Presence of transverse light and dark
bands (striations).
�They are multinucleated and nuclei
are situated towards the periphery.
�Present in limbs, tongue etc.

34. �Smooth muscles (Non-striated):
�The cells are long with pointed ends.
�Cells are uni nucleate.
�Nucleus is in the centre.
�Absence of striations.
�Present in intestine, oesophagus,
stomach, lungs, urinary bladder etc.

35. �Cardiac:
�Present only in the wall of heart.
�Cells are non-tapering.
�Presence of faint striations.
�Presence of one or two nuclei.
�Nuclei situated in the centre.
�Cells are elongated and branched.

36. � Neural tissue or nervous tissue:
� Brain, spinal cord and nerves all are composed of
nervous tissue.
� The cells of nervous tissue are called neurons.
� They receive and conduct messages.
� A neuron cell consists of cell body which
contains nucleus and cytoplasm.
� Fine structure arises from cell body are called
dendrites.
� A single nerve fibre (axon) arises from cell body
which ends in many branches.
� The dendrite receives impulses and the axon
takes impulse away from the cell body.

40. �Earth worm:
⮚Reddish brown terrestrial
invertebrate.
⮚Inhabits the upper layer of moist
soil.
⮚Found by their faecal deposits
(worm casting).
⮚Scientific name: Pheretima postuma
⮚Indian earthworm : Pheretima and
lumbricus.

41. �Morphology:
❖Cylindrical body.
❖Segmented body (100-120 segments)
❖The dorsal surface of the body is
marked by a dark median mid dorsal
line (dorsal blood vessel) along the
longitudinal axis of the body.
❖The ventral surface is distinguished
by genital openings.
❖Anterior end consists of the mouth
and prostomium(Sensory in function).

42. �The first body segment is called
peristomium(buccal segment) which
contains the mouth.
�In mature earthworm segment 14-16
are covered by dark band of
glandular tissue called clitellum.
�Segment 5th to 9th : Four pairs of
spermathecal aperture.
�14th segment: single female genital
pore.
�18th segment: a pair of male genital
pore.

43. �Numerous minute pores called
nephridiopores open on the surface
of the body.
�In every segment of body except the
first, last and clitellum there are
rows of S-shaped setae that help in
locomotion.

44. �Digestion
❖Alimentary canal is straight running
from 1-last segment.
❖Buccal cavity from 1st -3rd segments.
❖Oesophagus from 5th -7th segments.
❖Muscular gizzards from 8th -9th
segments.
❖Stomach from 9th -14th segments.
❖Food of earth worm is decaying
leaves and organic matter mixed with
soil.

45. �Intestine from 15th – last segment.
�Intestinal caecae is in 26th segment.
�Typhlosole (internal median fold of
dorsal wall) is from 26th -35th
segments. It helps in absorption.
�Anus is in last segment.

46. �Circulation
⮚Blood vascular system is of closed
type that consists of blood vessels,
capillaries and heart.
⮚Smaller blood vessels supply blood to
the gut, nerve cord and the body
wall.
⮚Blood glands are present on 4th ,5th
and 6th segment that produces blood
cells and hemoglobin which is
dissolved in blood plasma.

47. �Respiration
�No special breathing devices.
�Exchange of gases takes place
through moist skin .

48. �Excretion:
⮚Takes place by coiled tubules called as
Nephridia.
⮚Three types of Nephridia are present:
Septal, Integumentary and Pharyngeal.
⮚Septal Nephridia: Present on both the
sides of inter segmental septa of
segment 15 to the last that open into
intestine.
⮚Integumentary Nephridia: Attached to
lining of the body wall of segment 3 to
the last that open on the body surface.
⮚Pharyngeal Nephridia: Present as three
paired tufts in the 4,5 and 6 segments.

49. �Nervous system:
�Represented by ganglia arranged
segment wise on the ventral paired
nerve cord. The nerve cord in the
anterior region (3th and 4th segment)
bifurcates, laterally encircling the
pharynx and joins the cerebral
ganglia dorsally to form as nerve ring.
�Sensory system does not have eyes
but possess light and touch sensitive
organs. Specialized chenoreceptors
are also present.

50. �Reproductive system:
�Earthworm is hermaphrodite.
�Two pairs of testes are present in
10th and 11th segments.
�Vasa deferentia run up to 18th
segment where they join the
prostatic duct.
�Two pairs of accessory glands are
present each pair in 17th and 19th
segment.
�One pair of ovary on the 12th and 13th
segment.

51. o There is mutual exchange of sperm
between two worms during mating.
o Fertilization and development occurs
within the cocoons which are
deposited in soil.
o After about 3 weeks each cocoon
produces 2-20 baby worms deposited
in soil.
o The development in earthworm is
direct.

52. �Why earthworm is called
farmer’s friend?
�Because they make burrows in the
soil and make it porous. This helps in
respiration and penetration of the
developing plant roots. The process
of increasing fertility of soil by
earthworms is called vermi-
composting. Earthworm is used as
bait in game fishing.

53. �Cockroach:
� Brown or black bodied animals.
� Included in class insecta of phylum
Arthropoda.
� In tropical region coloured may be
bright yellow, red or green.
� Size ¼ inches – 3 inches.
� Presence of long antenna, leg and head.
� Nocturnal.
� Omnivorous.
� Serious pests and vectors of several
diseases.

54. �Morphology:
�Common species: Periplanata
americana
�Body segmented and divided into
head, thorax and abdomen.
�Entire body covered by a hard
chitinous exoskeleton (brown).
�In each segment, exoskeleton has
hardened plates called sclerites.
(tergites dorsally and sternites
ventrally).

55. � Head is triangular in shape and lies
anteriorly at right angles to the
longitudinal body axis.
� A pair of compound eye is present.
� A pair of antennae present.
� The mouth parts consisting of a labrum
(upper lip), a pair of mandibles, a pair of
maxillae and a labium (lower lip).
� Thorax divided into prothorax,
mesothorax and metathorax.
� Three pairs of walking legs are present.

56. � Two pairs of wings: First pair arises
from mesothorax and second pair from
metathorax.
� Mesothoracic wings are opaque dark and
leathery and are called legmina.
� Metathorax wings are transparent,
membranous and used in flight They are
called hind wings.
� Abdomen consists of 10 segments.
� Males bear a pair of short, thread like
anal styles that are absent in females.
� In both sexes the 10th segment bears
anal cerci.

57. �Digestive system:
� Alimentary canal divided into foregut,
midgut and hindgut.
� Mouth opens into pharynx, leading to a
narrow tubular passage called
oesophagus.
� Oesophagus opens into a sac like
structure called crop (for storing food).
� Crop is followed by gizzard having six
chitinous plate called teeth.
� Gizzard helps in grinding the food.

58. �Hepatic or gastric caecae is present
at the junction of foregut and midgut
that secrete digestive juice.
�At the junction of midgut and hindgut
thin filamentous Malpighian tubules
are present that helps in excretion.
�The hindgut is broader than midgut
and is differentiated into ileum, colon
and rectum.
�Rectum opens into anus.

59. �Blood vascular system:
�It is open type.
�Blood vessels are poorly developed
and open into space (haemocoel)
�Presence of haemolymph which is
composed of colourless plasma and
haemocytes.
�Heart of cockroach consists of
elongated muscular tube lying along
mid dorsal line of thorax and
abdomen.

60. �It is differentiated into funnel
shaped chambers with Ostia on
either side.
�Blood from sinuses enter heart
through Ostia and is pumped
anteriorly to sinuses again.

61. �Respiratory system:
�Consists of a network of trachea
that opens through 10 pairs of small
holes called spiracles present on the
lateral side of the body.
�Trachea is divided into tracheoles
that carry oxygen from the air to all
the parts.
�The opening of spiracle is regulated
by sphincters muscles.
�Exchange of gases by diffusion.

62. �Excretory system:
�Excretion done by Malpighian tubules
which is lined by glandular and
ciliated cells.
�Malpighian tubules absorb
nitrogenous waste and convert into
uric acid which is excreted out
through hindgut. That is why this
insect is called uricotelic. In addition
nephrocytes and urecose gland also
help in excretion.

63. �Nervous system:
� The nervous system consists of series
of ganglia.
� 3 ganglia lie in thorax and six in the
abdomen on the ventral side.
� The nervous system spread throughout
the body.
� The head holds a bit of nervous system
that is why if the head of a cockroach is
cut off, it will still live for as long as one
week.
� Sense organs are antennae, eyes,
maxillary pulps, labial palps, anal cerci
etc.

64. �Reproductive system:
� Cockroaches are Dioecious.
� Male reproductive system:
� A pair of testes lying one on each lateral
side in the 4-6th abdominal segment.
� From each testes arises a thin vas
deferens that opens into ejaculatory
duct through seminal vesicles.
� The ejaculatory duct opens into male
gonopore situated ventral to anus.
� The sperms are stored in the seminal
vesicles and are glued together to form
bundles called spermatophores which are
discharged during copulation.

65. �Female reproductive system:
�Consists of two large ovaries, lying
laterally in the 2nd -6th abdominal
segments.
�Each ovary is formed of a group of 8
ovarian tubules or ovarioles,
containing a chain of developing ova.
�Oviducts of each ovary unite into a
single median oviduct (vagina) which
opens into genital chamber.

66. �Process:
� Sperms are transferred through
spermatophores.
� Fertilized eggs are encased in capsules
called oothecae (dark reddish to
blackish brown capsule) which is about
3/8” (8mm) long.
� Oothecae are dropped or glued to a
suitable surface near a food source.
� Female produce 9-10 Oothecae, each
containing 14-16 eggs.
� Development is indirect, It forms
nymphs.

67. �Frogs:
�Amphibious.
�Poikilotherms.
�Common species is Rana tigrina.
�Property of camouflage (mimicry).
�Show aestivation and hibernation.

68. �Morphology:
�Skin smooth and slippery due to
presence of mucus.
�Colour of dorsal side: Olive green
with dark irregular spots.
�Colour of ventral side: Pale yellow.
�The frog never drinks water but
absorb it through the skin.
�Body divided into head and trunk.
�Neck and tail are absent.

69. �Above the mouth a pair of nostril is
present.
�Eyes are bulged and covered by
nictitating membrane.
�Presence of tympanum(ear) to
receive sound signals.
�Limbs helps in swimming, walking,
leaping and burrowing.
�Hind limbs ends in five digits but
forelimbs ends in four digits.
�Webbed digits helps in swimming.

70. �Sexual dimorphism is seen.
�Male frogs can be distinguished by
vocal sacs and a copulatory pad on
the first digit of the fore limb.
�Digestive system:
�Consists of alimentary canal and
glands.
�The alimentary canal is short due to
carnivorous nature and hence the
intestine is reduced.

71. �The mouth opens into buccal cavity
that leads to oesophagus through
pharynx.
�Oesophagus is short and opens into
stomach which in turn continues as
the intestine, rectum and finally
opens outside by the cloaca.
�Bile secreted by liver is stored in
gall bladder.
�Pancreas produces pancreatic juice
that contain digestive enzymes.

72. �Frog capture its food by bilobed
tongue.
�HCl and gastric juices secreted by
wall of stomach helps in digestion of
food.
�Partially digested food (chyme)
passes from stomach to the first
part of the intestine, duodenum.
�From a common bile duct, duodenum
receives bile from gall bladder and
pancreatic juice from pancreas.

73. �Bile emulsifies fat and pancreatic
juice digest carbohydrates and
proteins.
�Complete digestion takes place in the
intestine.
�Digested food is absorbed by villi
and microvilli.
�The undigested solid waste moves
into the rectum and passes out
through cloaca.

74. �Respiratory system:
�Frogs respire on land and in water by
two different methods.
�In water skin acts as aquatic
respiratory organs (cutaneous
respiration). Diffusion plays an
important role in water.
�On land, the buccal cavity, skin and
lungs act as the respiratory organs.

75. �The respiration by lungs is called
pulmonary respiration.
�Air enters through the nostrils into
the buccal cavity and then to lungs.
�During aestivation and hibernation
gaseous exchange takes place
through skin.

76. �Blood Vascular system:
�Closed vascular system.
�Frog has a lymphatic system also.
�Blood vascular system consists of
heart, blood vessels and blood.
�Lymphatic system consists of lymph,
lymph channels and lymph nodes.
�Heart is three chambers with two
atria and one ventricle. Heart is
covered by a membrane called
pericardium.

77. �A triangular structure called sinus
venosus join the right atrium. It
receives blood through major veins
called vena cava.
�The ventricle opens into a sac like
conus arterious on the ventricle.
�The blood from the heart is carried
to all parts of the body by the
arteries. (arterial system)
�The veins collect blood from
different parts of body to the heart
and forms the venous system.

78. �Hepatic portal system and renal
portal system is also present in frog.
�Composition of blood is R.B.C., W.B.C.
(leucocytes), platelets and blood
plasma.
�R.B.C. are nucleated and contains
haemoglobin.
�Lymph lacks few proteins and R.B.C.
�Blood helps in transportation of
nutrients, gases and water.
�The circulation of blood is done by
heart.

79. �Excretory system:
�It consists of a pair of kidneys,
ureters, cloaca and urinary bladder.
�Unit of kidney is composed of several
structural and functional units called
uriniferous tubules or nephron.
�Two ureters are emerging from
kidney in male frog and it acts as
urinogenital duct that opens into the
cloaca.
�In females the ureters and oviduct
open separately in the cloaca.

80. �Urinary bladder also open in the
cloaca.
�The frog excretes urea so it is a
ureotelic animal.
�The excretory wastes are carried by
blood into the kidney where it is
separated and excreted.

81. �Control and coordination:
�It is highly evolved and includes both
neural system and endocrine glands.
�The chemical coordination is
governed by hormones released from
endocrine glands.
�The main endocrine glands are
pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid,
thymus, pineal body, pancreatic
islets, adrenal and gonads.

82. �The nervous system is organised into
a central nervous system(brain and
spinal cord), a peripheral nervous
system(cranial and spinal nerve) and
an autonomic nervous
system(sympathetic and
parasympathetic).
�Ten pairs of cranial nerves arising
from the brain.
�Brain is enclosed in brain box.
�Brain is divided into forebrain,
midbrain and hind brain.

83. �Forebrain has three parts: olfactory
lobes, paired cerebral hemispheres
and unpaired diencephalon.
�Midbrain is characterised by a pair
of optic lobes.
�Hindbrain consists of cerebellum and
medulla oblongata.
�Medulla oblongata ends into spinal
cord enclosed in the vertebral
column.

84. �Frog has different types of sense
organs: Organs of touch(sensory
papillae), taste buds, smell(nasal
epithelium), vision(eye),
hearing(tympanum with internal ear)
�Eyes and internal ears are well
organised.
�Eyes are spherical and situated in
the orbit in skull.
�External ear absent. Internal ear
helps in balancing (equilibrium) also.

85. Reproductive system:
� Well organised male and female
reproductive systems.
Male reproductive system:
⮚It consists of a pair of yellowish ovoid
testes which are found adhered to the
upper part of kidneys by double fold of
peritoneum called mesorchium.
⮚10-12 vasa efferentia arises from
testes.
⮚They enter the kidneys on their side and
open into Bidder’s canal.

86. ⮚Finally it communicates with the
urinogenital duct that comes out of
the kidneys and opens into the
cloaca.
⮚Cloaca is meant for passing faecal
matter, urine and sperms through
cloacal aperture.

87. �Female reproductive system:
� It includes a pair of ovaries and it has
no functional connection with the
kidneys.
� A pair of oviduct arising from the
ovaries opens into the cloaca separately.
� A mature female can lay 2500 to 3000
ova at a time.
� Fertilisation is external and takes place
in water.
� Development involves a larval stage
called tadpole that convert into an adult.

88. Exercises
1.(i) Cockroach (common name of Periplanata
americana)
(ii) 4 pairs of spermathecae are found in
earthworm located in 6th -9th segments
(iii) Ovaries in cockroach are lying laterally in
the 2nd -6th abdominal segments.
(iv) 10 segments are present in the abdomen
of cockroach.
(v) In cockroach at the junction of midgut
and hindgut is present another ring of
100-150 yellow coloured thin filamentous
Malpighian tubules.

89. 2. (i) Nephridia regulates the volume and
composition of body fluids i.e. helps in
excretion.
(ii) Three types of Nephridia are present
in earthworm based on their location. They
are Septal, Integumentary and pharyngeal.
3. Fig. 7.13
4. Fig. 7.16
5.a) Prostomium- Serves as a covering for
mouth and as a wedge to force open cracks
in the soil. It is sensory in function.
Peristomium- It is the first segment of the
body of earthworm that contains mouth.

90. b) Septal Nephridia- Present on both sides
of inter segmental septa of segment 15
to the last that open into intestine.
Integumentary- Attached to lining of the
body wall of segment 3rd to the last that
open on the body surface.
Pharyngeal- Present as three paired tufts
in the 4th, 5th, and 6th segments
6.Cellular components of blood are: R.B.C.,
W.B.C., Platelets.

91. 7.a) Chondriocytes- Cells of cartilage.
Present in the tip of nose, outer ear
joints, between adjacent bones of the
vertebral column, limbs and hands in
adult.
b) Axons- One of the part of neuron. It
is a long fibre, distal end of which is
branched.
c) Ciliated epithelium- Types of epithelial
tissue. Their function is to move
particles or mucus in a specific direction
over the epithelium. Mainly present in
the inner surface of hollow organs like
bronchioles and fallopian tubes.

92. 8.From notes
9.From notes
10.a) Neuron
b) Cartilage
c) Ligament
d) Antenae
e) Protonema
11.a)Compound epithelium- Skin
b)Compound eye- Mosaic vision
c)Septal Nephridia- Earthworm
d)Open circulatory system- Cockroach
e)Typhlosole- Alimentary canal
f)Osteocyte- Bone
g)Genitalia- Phallomere.

93. 12. From notes
13. Frog digestive system from book
14. a) Ureters in frog- It acts as
urinogenital duct which opens into
the cloaca.
b) Malpighian tubules- Helps in
removal of excretory products.
c) Body wall in earthworm- sensory
function.

94. THANKS