Lecture slides

1. Mineral resource is a concentration of
naturally occurring mineral on the Earth's
crust in such form that economic extraction of
a commodity is regarded as feasible, either
currently or at some future time.
Mineral Reserve is that portion of an
identified resource from which a
usable
mineral can be economically and
legally extracted at the time of
determination.

5. MINERAL RESOURCES
 What are
the main
mineral
resources
that we use?
 This figure
shows the
main non-
metallic
resources
(upper row)
and
metallic
resources
(lower row).

6. Mineral Features Distribution in World
1.MAGNETITE (Fe3O4), Magnetite with nearly 70 per cent iron content is the finest
iron ore. Magnetite ore deposits are in igneous or
metamorphic rocks. The banded type is considered to be the
most important due to extensive occurrence, easy
amenability to beneficiation by crushing and magnetic
separation and agglomeration. Its color ranges from dark
brown to black.
Sweden, Russia and Liberia
2. HAEMETITE
(Fe2O3),
Haemetite Iron ore contains 65 per cent iron. It is hard,
bumpy, compact and reddish in color. Haemetite ores
contribute to more than three-fourths of india’s total
production of Iron ores. They mostly occur as laminated
hematite, micaceous haemitite, and heamatite breecia and
heamatite quartz schist.
Lake Superior ( USA), Qebec( Canada),
Brazil, Russia, Liberia, China and Spain
3.LIMONITE(FeO(OH).n(H2O)) Brown ore occurring in sedimentary formations. Its iron
content is lea than 50 per cent and it has many impurities.
Alabama( USA)
4. SIDERITE(FeCO3). Siderite is carbonate of iron & is found near coal fields. It is
also a residual ore and has an iron content of 20 to 30 per
cent.
England(Lincolnshire),France and
Luxemburg
Iron ore is used to manufacture steels of various types and other
metallurgical products, such as magnets, auto parts, and
catalysts.

7. Nigeria has some 34 known major
mineral deposits distributed in
locations across the country

12. ACID MINE DRAINAGE (AMD)
–Sulfur in ores react with water and oxygen
to form sulfuric acid which leaks out from
the mine
–Acid is carried off the mine site by rainwater
or surface drainage and deposited into
nearby streams, rivers, lakes and
groundwater. AMD severely degrades water
quality, and can kill aquatic life and make
water virtually unusable.

14. HEAVY METAL CONTAMINATION & LEACHING
– Heavy metal pollution is caused when such metals
as arsenic, cobalt, copper, cadmium, lead, silver and
zinc contained in excavated rock or exposed in an
underground mine come in contact with water.
– Metals are leached out and carried downstream as
water washes over the rock surface.
– leaching is particularly accelerated in the low pH
conditions such as are created by Acid Mine
Drainage.

15. PROCESSING CHEMICALS POLLUTION
Occurs when chemical agents (such as
cyanide or sulphuric acid used by mining
companies to separate the target mineral
from the ore) spill, leak, or leach from the
mine site into nearby water bodies. These
chemicals can be highly toxic to humans
and wildlife.

16. Erosion and Sedimentation
–Mineral development disturbs soil and rock in
the course of constructing and maintaining
roads, open pits, and waste impoundments.
–Erosion of the exposed earth may carry
substantial amounts of sediment into
streams, rivers and lakes.
–Excessive sediment can clog riverbeds and
smother watershed vegetation, wildlife
habitat and aquatic organisms.

17. Mineral Processing
• Crushing of ores produces tailings
• Traces of pollutants like mercury, arsenic,
cadmium and uranium may leach out of tailings
and contaminate groundwater and landfills
• Processing chemicals (e.g., Cyanide) are major
hazards (cyanide spill in Danube)
• Smelting releases toxic elements, SO2 etc and
causes acid rain which can destroy vegetation

20. The origin of coal
involves burial, compaction,
and induration of plant material.
The process begins in
extensive swamps. Plant
material produced in the
swamp decomposes to form
peat (about 50% carbon).

21.  Subsidence results in burial,
increase in temperature and
pressure compacts the peat,
expelling water and gases and thus
forming lignite and brown coals
(about 72% carbon).With deeper
burial, the lignite is compressed into
bituminous coal (about 85%
carbon).

22.  Further compression
(commonly induced by
tectonism) drives out most
of the remaining hydrogen,
nitrogen, and oxygen,
producing anthracite coal,
which is about 93% carbon.

24. Petroleum is comprised of almost 94-99%
hydrogen and carbon molecules which is
why Petroleum is otherwise known as
hydrocarbons. While the elemental
composition of petroleum is around

30. FORMATION OF PETROLEUM AND NATURAL GAS
 Black, organic-rich mud is buried deeper and
converted to rock – shale
 With burial, the organic matter is heated
 When heat is sufficient (but not too great) –
in the range of 100-200 degrees C – the
organic matter is “cooked” and oil forms
 Process is called thermal maturation

31. FORMATION OF PETROLEUM AND NATURAL GAS
 If heat is greater than 300 degrees C, the
liquid petroleum is further broken down to
form natural gas
 If heat is too great, even the natural gas is
broken down to form carbon dioxide, which
has no value as a fuel

32. Hdrocarbons form from
Kerogen by a process
called catagenesis

34. MIGRATION AND CONCENTRATION
 Petroleum must leave source rock
 Process is called migration
 Migration is essential because most source
rocks are too fine-grained to enable easy
extraction of the oil
 To be economically concentrated, petroleum
must migrate to a reservoir rock with a trap

35. Both petroleum and coal are formed from
the remains of plants and animals trapped
in or between layers of fine-grained
sediment called “shale” laid down in
oceans and large lakes millions of years
ago. Over time, the organic-rich beds were
buried under other sediments. Plant matter
generally turned into coal (or coaly
fragments in the rock) because of biological
activity, which also released methane (CH4)
and carbon dioxide (CO2). Animal matter,
generally algae-rich shales, turned into oil
and gas when it was buried to depths of

36. The four main types of
hydrocarbons found in crude oil
are
1. Paraffins (15-60%)
2. Naphthenes (30-60%)
3. Aromatics (3-30%) and
4. Asphaltics (remainder)
Natural gas may be found as almost
pure dry methane (>98% CH4), or wet
gas, in association with more valuable
molecules such as ethane, propane

39. OIL SHALE
Some shales and other sedimentary rocks contain a
waxy, solid organic substance called kerogen.
Kerogen is organic material that has not yet
converted to oil. Kerogen bearing rock is called oil
shale. If oil shale is mined and heated in the
presence of water, the kerogen converts to
petroleum. Many oil shales are of such low grade
that they require more energy to mine and convert
the kerogen to petroleum than is generated by
burning the oil, so they will probably never be used
for fuel.
Water consumption is a serious problem in oil shale
development. Approximately two barrels of water
are needed to produce each barrel of oil from shale.

40.  The best known oil sand deposit in the world
is the Athabascata sand in North Alberta,
Canada. Almost 20 of Canadas oil production
comes from these oil sands

41. Oil Shale

42. TAR SANDS
Tar sands (also known as oil
sands) are a mixture of mostly
sand, clay, water, and a thick,
molasses-like substance called
bitumen.

43. Tar sand

50. STRUCTURAL TRAPS
Structural traps are traps
formed because of a
deformation in the rock
layers.

53. Stratigraphic Traps
Stratigraphic traps are traps
that result when a reservoir
bed is sealed by other beds
or by a change in porosity
or permeability within a
reservoir bed.

55. Porosity trap: created because of variations in
porosity within a rock.

56. Environmental
impacts of oil and
gas
OIL SPILL
GAS FLARING
SUBSIDENCE
AIR POLLUTION and GLOBAL
WARMING

58. Water resources
A graphical distribution of the locations of water on
Earth
A graphical distribution of the locations of water on Earth.

59. Water resources
Water resources are sources of water
that are useful or potentially useful.
Uses of water include agricultural,
industrial, household, recreational
and environmental activities.
Virtually all of these human uses
require fresh water.

60. Water resources
97% of the water on the Earth is salt
water. Only three percent is fresh
water; slightly over two thirds of
this is frozen in glaciers and polar
ice caps. The remaining unfrozen
freshwater is found mainly as
groundwater, with only a small
fraction present above ground or in
the air.

61. Surface water
Surface water is water in a river, lake
or fresh water wetland. Surface
water is naturally replenished by
precipitation and naturally lost
through discharge to the oceans,
evaporation, evapotranspiration
and sub-surface seepage.

64. Origin of Groundwater
The origin of groundwater is
primarily one of the following:
Groundwater derived from rainfall
and infiltration within the normal
hydrological cycle. This kind of
water is called meteoric water. The
name implies recent contact with the
atmosphere.

65. Groundwater encountered at great depths in
sedimentary rocks as a result of water having
been trapped in marine sediments at the time
of their deposition. This type of groundwater is
referred to as connate waters. These waters are
normally saline. It is accepted that connate
water is derived mainly or entirely from
entrapped sea water as original sea water has
moved from its original place. Some trapped
water may be brackish.

66. Fossil water if fresh may be
originated from the fact of
climate change phenomenon, i.e.,
some areas used to have wet
weather and the aquifers of that
area were recharged and then the
weather of that area becomes dry.

69. An aquifer can aslo be defined as a
water-bearing layer in which the
vertical flow component is so small
with respect to the horizontal flow
component that it can be neglected.
The groundwater flow in an aquifer is
assumed to be predominantly
horizontal.

72. Aquitard
 An aquitard is a partly permeable geologic formation. It
transmits water at such a slow rate that the yield is
insufficient. Pumping by wells is not possible. For example,
sand lenses in a clay formation will form an aquitard.
 It can also be defined as a water-bearing layer in which the
horizontal flow component is so small with respect to the
vertical flow component that it can be neglected. The
groundwater flow in an aquitard is assumed to be
predominantly vertical. Examples of common aquitards are
clays, shales, loam, and silt.

73. Aquiclude
 An aquiclude is composed of rock or sediment that acts
as a barrier to groundwater flow. Aquicludes are made
up of low porosity and low permeability rock/sediment
such as shale or clay. Aquicludes have normally good
storage capacity but low transmitting capacity.
 It can also be defined as a water-bearing layer in which
both the horizontal and vertical flow components are so
small that they can be neglected. The groundwater flow
in an aquiclude is assumed to be zero.

74. Aquifuge
An aquifuge is a geologic formation which
doesn’t have pores. It is neither porous nor
permeable. Thus, it can neither store water nor
transmit it. Examples of aquifuge are rocks like
basalt, granite, etc. without fissures.

75. Geology controls groundwater flow
 Permeable pathways are controlled by
distributions of geological materials.
 E.g., Artesian (confined) aquifer

76. WaterEarth Interactions
Geology controls groundwater flow
 Permeable pathways are controlled by
distributions of geological materials.
 Groundwater availability is controlled by geology.

77. Geology controls groundwater flow
 Permeable pathways are controlled by
distributions of geological materials.
 Groundwater availability is controlled by geology.
 Subsurface contaminant
transport in is controlled
by geology.

78.  They result from the
interaction of
groundwater with
magma or with
solidified but still-hot
igneous rocks at
shallow depths.
Hot springs and geysers

80. Water table
Water table is the surface of water level
in an unconfined aquifer at which the
pressure is atmospheric. It is the level at
which the water will stand in a well drilled
in an unconfined aquifer. The water table
fluctuates whenever there is a recharge
or an outflow from the aquifer. In fact, the
water table is constantly in motion
adjusting its surface to achieve a balance
between the recharge and the out flow.

81. Piezometric surface
The water in a confined aquifer is under pressure.
When a well is drilled in a confined aquifer, the
water level in it will rise above the top of aquifer.
The piezometric surface is an imaginary surface to
which the water level would rise if a piezometer was
inserted in the aquifer. Thus, it indicates the
pressure of the water in the aquifer. Hence, a
piezometric surface is the water table equivalent of
the confined aquifer.

86. Fig a. Losing streams lose water to the ground-water system .
Interaction of Ground Water and Streams

87. Fig b. Gaining streams receive water from the ground-water system.

88. Fig c. Disconnected streams are separated from the ground-water system by an
unsaturated zone.

93. Environmental effects of water extraction
Subsidence
A problem caused by the excessive
withdrawal
of groundwater is ground subsidence —
the sinking of land. The volume of water
underground helps support the weight of
the soil, sediment, and rock above. When
the height of the water table drops, the
weight of the overlying material is
increasingly transferred to the aquifer’s
mineral grains, which then squeeze
together more tightly. As a result, the land

94. Ground-Water Contamination
 Dissolved contamination travels with ground water flow
 Contamination can
be transported to
water supply
aquifers down flow
 Pumping will draw
contamination into
water supply

95. Ground-Water Contamination
 Leaking Gasoline
 Floats on water
table
 Dissolves in
ground water
 Transported by
ground water
 Contaminates
shallow aquifers

96. POLLUTION AND FOSSIL FUELS
The pollution of the atmosphere is primarily caused
by the combustion of fossil fuels in energy
conversion devices. Some water and land pollution
also occurs during the use of fossil fuels, but this
problem is not as severe as that of air pollution and
it is similar to that confronted by other industries
(such as the chemical industry, to name just one).

97. POLLUTANTS AND POLLUTION
 A pollutant is a substance – usually a harmful one
that is not a natural constituent of the
environment. If it does occur naturally, it is
present in abnormally high concentrations.
 The pollutant are usually chemical, physical and
biological substances that affect the natural
condition of water.

98. CONTAMINATION AND POLLUTION
 Contamination: the presence of a substance that is
normally not present; that substance does not need
to be harmful to be considered as a contaminant.
pollution: when a certain substance is considered as
harmful in any given aspect; the substance is
considered as a pollutant even if it is a substance that
is normally present there, but when it exceeds
harmless limits, that's when the term pollution is
used.
Therefore you can have a contaminated environment
without it being polluted but you cannot have a
polluted environment without it being contaminated

99. TYPES OF POLLUTION
 Water pollution is the discharge of unwanted
biological, chemical and physical materials into
water bodies from man’s environment.
 Soil pollution is the occurrence of unwanted
materials or waste on land.
 Air pollution is the introduction of
chemicals, particulates, biological
materials, or other harmful materials into
the Earth's atmosphere

100. Pollution can be classified following different criteria. Pollution types will be
studied along the course. As an overview:
a) According the medium in which it occurs: air (or atmospheric) pollution,
water and soil pollution.
b) Depending on who/what produced pollution (the source). Anthropic
pollution refers to pollution caused by man, while natural pollution refers to
pollution that has occurred naturally, i.e. originated by “nature”. Note that the
term “natural pollution” indicates a non anthropic source, not a “natural”
substance.
c) Depending on the location of the source: emissions can be due to mobile
or
stationary sources (point source).
d) Depending on the chemical transformations of the pollutants. If pollutants
are
emitted directly by a source, they are called “primary pollutants”, if they arise
from the transformation of primary pollutants into other substances, they are
usually called secondary “pollutants”.
For instance, by air (atmospheric) pollution we refer to all kind of
substances
(gases, particles, etc.) from both natural sources and anthropic origin,
that

101. AIR POLLUTION

102. Sources of Outdoor Air Pollution
o Two main sources
• Transportation
• Industry
o Intentional forest
fires is also high

103. Major Air Pollutants

104. The principal air pollutants resulting from fossil fuel
combustion are the following:
(a)carbon monoxide;
(b) the oxides of sulfur, SO2
and SO3 (represented as
SOx);
(c) The oxides of nitrogen,
NO and NO2 (NOx); and
(d) ‘particulates’(soot
and Ash)
Unburned Hydrocarbons.

105. These primary pollutants can further interact with
the environment to generate additional deleterious
effects. examples of these effects are shown bellow:
(secondary
pollutants) are
• acid rain
• smog
• the greenhouse effect
• the high ozone levels
in the air we breathe.

106. GREEN HOUSE EFFECT
For every 100 units of radiant energy that reaches the atmosphere, 25 are
reflected from the clouds and another 25 are estimated to be absorbed by the
clouds. Of the 50 units that reach the Earth's surface, 5 are reflected and 45
are absorbed. The absorbed radiation is re-emitted from the surface back
toward space as infrared radiation (heat). However, because of the presence of
CO2 and other infrared-absorbing gases . it is trapped and returned back to
the surface, as an estimated 88 units of energy (greenhouse effect). As the CO2
concentration increases, it may be responsible for an increase in this amount.
The burning of fossil fuels is estimated to contribute about 50% of the gases
that are thought to be responsible for the greenhouse effect (global warming).
Other culprits are methane (that might escape from natural gas reservoirs, or
is vented from coal mines, or is produced by anaerobic fermentation in
landfills and by cows), nitrous oxide (yet another nitrogen oxide produced
during fossil fuel combustion), and chlorofluorocarbons. Deforestation is also
a problem because it decreases nature's capacity to absorb, by photosynthesis,
the CO2 already present in the atmosphere.

107. Ordinary window glass has the same behavior as
carbon dioxide. It is of course transparent to visible
light. However, it traps infrared radiation. We are
all familiar with this effect: a car parked in the
sunlight on a summer day builds up an inside
temperature that is much higher than the outside
temperature. The growth of plants in greenhouses
exploits the same effect. This analogy between the
behavior of glass in greenhouse and the behavior of
CO2 in the atmosphere has led to the use of the
term greenhouse effect.

109. EFFECTS OF GLOBAL WARMING
 Polar ice disintegration
 Melting permafrost and damage to
infrastructure
 Forests and wildfires
 Killer heat waves
 Torrential rains and flooding
 Drought
 Sea level rise and coastal flooding
 Outbreaks of vector-borne diseases

110. Ground-level ozone (O3)
Ground-level ozone (O3) is a secondary air pollutant
and an important smog constituent. It is formed by
complex chemical reactions of primary pollutants with
oxygen(O2).
Its effect depends on its concentration in the air. At low
concentrations, it can be beneficial, as in fresh air after
a storm. At higher concentrations, it is an irritant. Its
concentration rises proportionately with that of primary
pollutants and it is often reported as an indicator of
smog accumulation in a city

111. EFFECTS ON THE AIRWAYS.
Ozone is a powerful
oxidant that can:
Irritate the air ways
causing coughing, a
burning sensation,
wheezing and
shortness of breath
and
It can aggravate
asthma and other lung
diseases.
The energy and fuels industry (primarily vehicles and
fuel filling stations) accounts for about 50% of ground
level ozone; the rest comes from other industrial and
nonindustrial uses

112. MAN-MADE CAUSES OF DEPLETION OF OZONE
LAYER:
 The main cause for the depletion of ozone is determined as
excessive release of chlorine and bromine from man-made
compounds such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). CFCs
(chlorofluorocarbons), halons, CH3CCl3 (Methyl chloroform), CCl4
(Carbon tetrachloride), HCFCs (hydro-chlorofluorocarbons),
hydrobromofluorocarbons and methyl bromide are found to have
direct impact on the depletion of the ozone layer. These are
categorized as ozone-depleting substances (ODS).
Chlorofluorocarbons are released into the atmosphere due to:
• Cleaning Agents
• Coolants in refrigerators
• Packing material
• Air conditioning
• Aerosol spray cans etc.

113. EFFECT OF OZONE CONTINUED
Ozone also affects sensitive
vegetation and ecosystems,
including forests, parks, wildlife
refuges and wilderness areas. In
particular, ozone harms sensitive
vegetation, including trees and
plant

114. OZONE LAYER
 This is a deep layer in earth’s atmosphere
that contain
 These ozone molecules form a gaseous
layer in the Earth’s upper atmosphere called
stratosphere.
 This lower region of stratosphere containing
relatively higher concentration of ozone is
called Ozonosphere.

115. CAUSES OF OZONE LAYER DEPLETION
 The ozone layer has the capability to absorb
almost 97-99% of the harmful ultraviolet
radiations that sun emit and which can
produce long term devastating effects on
humans beings as well as plants and
animals.

116. Ozone Depletion in Stratosphere
o Hole over Antarctica requires two
conditions:
• Sunlight just returning to polar region
• Circumpolar vortex- a mass of cold air that
circulates around the southern polar region
• Isolates it from the warmer air in the rest of the
planet
o Polar stratospheric clouds form
• Enables Cl and Br to destroy ozone

117. MAN-MADE CAUSES OF DEPLETION OF OZONE
LAYER
 Excessive release of chlorine and
bromine from man-made compounds
(ODS) such as
 CFCs (chlorofluorocarbons),
 halons, CH3CCl3 (Methyl chloroform),
 CCl4 (Carbon tetrachloride),
 HCFCs (hydro-chlorofluorocarbons),
 hydrobromofluorocarbons and methyl
bromide Chlorofluorocarbons

118.  Cleaning Agents
 Coolants in refrigerators
 Packing material
 Air conditioning
 Aerosol spray cans etc.
Sources of ODS

119. NATURAL CAUSES OF DEPLETION OF OZONE
LAYER
Sun-spots
 stratospheric winds.
Volcanic eruptions

120. Effects of Ozone Depletion
o Higher levels of UV-
radiation hitting the
earth
• Eye cataracts
• Skin cancer (right)
• Weakened immunity
o May disrupt
ecosystems
o May damage crops
and forests

121. Smog
Smog is another secondary pollutant. This
term was developed to describe a substance
that is a hybrid of smoke and fog.
Modern-day smog is often referred to as
‘photochemical’ smog. It is produced by
complex, sunlight-stimulated chemical
reactions among the components of
automobile exhaust.

122. HAZARDS OF SMOG
An estimated 80% of smog today arises from
vehicle exhausts.
Smog smell
bad and
obstructs
vision.
Eye
irritation
develops
upon short-
term
exposure.
Chronic
pulmonary
diseases,
Asthma,
bronchitis
and even
lung cancer
may result
from longer-
term
Paint and
fabrics
slowly
deteriorate
during long-
term
exposure.

123. CONTROL OF SMOG
CATALYTIC CONVERTER
it converts any
CO in the
combustion
products to CO2.
It also facilitates the
combustion of any
unburned
hydrocarbons to
carbon dioxide and
water.
Finally, it also helps
to reduce the
emissions of
nitrogen oxides by
transforming them
into the harmless
nitrogen (N2).

124.  The problem with the Ozone-Depleting Substances (ODS) is that
they are not washed back in the form of rain on the earth and in-
fact remain in the atmosphere for quite a long time. With so much
stability, they are transported into the stratosphere. The emission
of ODS account for roughly 90% of total depletion of ozone layer
in stratosphere. These gases are carried to the stratosphere layer
of atmosphere where ultraviolet radiations from the sun break
them to release chlorine (from CFCs) and bromine (from methyl
bromide and halons). The chlorine and bromine free radicals
react with ozone molecule and destroy their molecular structure,
thus depleting the ozone layer. One chlorine atom can break
more than 1, 00,000 molecules of ozone. Bromine atom is
believed to be 40 times more destructive than chlorine molecules.

125. SMOG CONTROL CONT’
Since oxygenated fuels reduce
carbon monoxide emissions,
legislation to sell oxygenate-rich
or ‘reformulated’ gasoline might
be another control measure.

127. Acid Deposition
o Sulfur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide
emissions react with water vapor in the
atmosphere and form acids that return to
the surface as either dry or wet deposition
o pH scale

128. How Acid Deposition Develops

129. Effects of Acid Deposition
o Declining Aquatic
Animal Populations
o Thin-shelled eggs
prevent bird
reproduction
• Because calcium is
unavailable in acidic soil
o Forest decline
• Ex: Black forest in
Germany (50% is
destroyed)

130. CONTROL POLLUTION DUE TO SULPHUR OXIDE
Flue gas desulfurization (post –
combustion)
Coal gasification and coal(pre -
combustion)
Liquefaction( pre- combustion)
fluidized bed coal combustion(during
combustion)

131. CONTROL OF POLLUTION DUE TO NOX
 One approach to reducing thermal NOx formation in
motor vehicles is to add compounds containing
oxygen to the gasoline.
 Another approach is flue gas denitrogenation, a
process analogous to flue gas desulfurization.
Oneway to accomplish this is to inject some
substance into the boiler, or into the exhaust gas
stream, which will react with and destroy the
nitrogen oxides An example is the use of ammonia:

132. Particulates Can be Removed Using a Number of
Techniques :
FABRIC FILTERS
ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATORS
CYCLONES

133. CAUSES OF WATER POLLUTION
Factors that contribute to water pollution can
be categorized into two different groups
–Point sources
–Non-point sources
 Point sources are the easiest to identify and
control
 Non point sources are ambiguously defined
and harder to control

134. POLLUTION
point-
source
pollution.
nonpoint-
source
pollution.
Trsanboundary
pollution

135. POINT SOURCES
•Some point sources of water pollution include
–Factories
–Sewage system
–Power plants
–Underground coalmines
–Oil wells
•Are direct sources of water pollution and can be reduced
and monitored

136. NON-POINT SOURCES
•The term non-point source encompasses a
large range of sources such as:
–when rain or snow moves through the ground
and picks up pollutants as it moves towards a
major body of water
–the runoff of fertilizers from farm animals and
crop land
–air pollutants getting washed or deposited to
earth
–storm water drainage from lawns, parking lots,
and streets

138. Transboundary pollution
Sometimes pollution that enters the
environment in one place has an effect
hundreds or even thousands of miles
away. This is known as transboundary
pollution. One example is the way
radioactive waste travels through the
oceans from nuclear reprocessing plants
in England and France to nearby
countries such as Ireland and Norway.

139. SOIL POLLUTION
• It is defined as the build-up in soils of persistent
toxic compounds, chemicals, salts, radioactive
materials, or disease causing agents, which have
adverse effects on plant growth and animal health.
 Soil pollution is also caused by means other than
the direct addition of xenobiotic (man-made)
chemicals such as agricultural runoff waters,
industrial waste materials, acidic precipitates, and

140. CAUSES OF SOIL POLLUTION
 Seepage from a landfill
 Discharge of industrial waste into the soil
 Percolation of contaminated water into the soil
 Rupture of underground storage tanks
 Excess application of pesticides, herbicides or
fertilizer
 Solid waste seepage
 Deforestation and Soil erosion

141.  Excess application of
pesticides etc.
Excess use & disposal of Plastics and polyethene wastes

142.  Industrial seepage
 Solid waste seepage

143. THE MOST COMMON CHEMICALS INVOLVED IN
SOIL POLLUTION ARE:
• Petroleum hydrocarbons
• Heavy metals
• Pesticides
• Solvents

144. TYPES OF SOIL POLLUTION
• Agricultural Soil Pollution
i) pollution of surface soil
ii) pollution of underground soil
• Soil pollution by industrial effluents and solid wastes
i) pollution of surface soil
ii) disturbances in soil profile
• Pollution due to urban activities
i) pollution of surface soil
ii) pollution of underground soil

145. AGRICULTURAL SOIL POLLUTION
 Plants on which we depend for food are under
attack from insects, fungi, bacteria, viruses,
rodents and other animals, and must compete with
weeds for nutrients.
 To kill unwanted populations living in or on their
crops, farmers use pesticides.
 The remnants of such pesticides used on pests
may get adsorbed by the soil particles and
contaminate root crops grown in that soil.
 The consumption of such crops causes the
pesticides remnants to enter human biological
systems, affecting them adversely.

146. AGRICULTURAL EFFECTS:
• Reduced soil fertility
• Reduced nitrogen fixation
• Increased erodibility
• Larger loss of soil and nutrients
• Deposition of silt in tanks and reservoirs
• Reduced crop yield
• Imbalance in soil fauna and flora

147. AGRICULTURAL EFFECTS:

148. INDUSTRIAL SOIL POLLUTION
 Large quantity of solid wastes like unused and rejected
chemicals (like sludge, press mud, saw dust, bottles,
plastic materials etc.), unwanted industrial wastes
generated during manufacturing processes are dumped
over on the surface of soil by almost all industries with
difference in the degree.
 Larger the production base, larger is the generation of
wastes.
 Traditionally, these materials have been dumped around
the factory site or around the entire city. Rarely, they are

149. INDUSTRIAL SOIL POLLUTION

150. INDUSTRIAL EFFECTS:
• Dangerous chemicals entering underground
water.
• Ecological imbalance.
• Release of pollutant gases.
• Increased salinity.
• Reduced vegetation.

151. INDUSTRIAL EFFECTS:
Soil pollution due to industrial waste
Polluted land with dangerous chemicals

152. SOIL POLLUTION DUE TO URBANIZATION
 Urban activities generate large quantities of
city wastes including several Biodegradable
materials (like vegetables, animal wastes,
papers, wooden pieces, carcasses, plant
twigs, leaves, cloth wastes as well as
sweepings) and many non-biodegradable
materials (such as plastic bags, plastic
bottles, plastic wastes, glass bottles, glass
pieces, stone / cement pieces).

153. URBANIZATION EFFECTS:
• Clogging of drains
• Inundation of areas
• Public health problems
• Pollution of drinking water sources
• Foul smell and release of gases
• Waste management problems

154. URBANIZATION EFFECTS:
Contamination of soil due to waste
water

155. SOME MORE EFFECTS OF SOIL POLLUTION:
• Pollution runs off into rivers and kills the fish, plants and other
aquatic life.
• Crops and fodder grown on polluted soil may pass the pollutants
on to the consumers.
• Polluted soil may no longer grow crops and fodder
• Soil structure is damaged (clay ionic structure impaired.)
• Corrosion of foundations and pipelines
• May release vapours and hydrocarbon into buildings and cellars
• May create toxic dusts
• May poison children playing in the area

156. SOME MORE EFFECTS OF SOIL
POLLUTION:

157. METHODS TO CONTROL SOIL POLLUTION
 Reducing chemical fertilizer and pesticide use.
 Recycling is another way to reduce and control soil
pollution. Recycling paper, plastics and other
materials reduces the volume of refuse in landfills,
another common cause of soil pollution.
 Reusing of materials
 Re-forestation, the cutting down of trees, causes
erosion, pollution and the loss of fertility in the
topsoil. Planting trees--or re-forestation--helps
prevent soil erosion and pollution.

158. METHODS TO CONTROL SOIL POLLUTION
 Weeds soak up minerals in the soil. Reducing weed
growth helps reduce soil pollution. One of the more
common methods of reducing weed growth is
covering the soil with numerous layers of wet
newspapers or a plastic sheet for several weeks
before cultivation. This prevents light from reaching
the weeds, which kills them.
 Designated pits should be used for the dumping of
soil wastes. These wastes should be treated
chemically and biologically to make them less toxic

159. METHODS TO CONTROL SOIL POLLUTION

160. KINDS OF WATER POLLUTANTS
•Inorganic Pollutants
•Organic Pollutants
•Biological Pollutants

161. INORGANIC POLLUTANTS
•Pb in gasoline
•Radionuclides
•Phosphorus, nitrogen (Great
Lakes)

162. PHOSPHATES AND NITRATES
•Phosphates—mostly a result of sewage
outflow and phosphate detergents
–Additional phosphate grows excess
algae…oxygen depletion
•Nitrates—sewage and fertilizers

163. ORGANIC POLLUTANTS
•Three classes of compounds
–Pesticides and Herbicides
–Materials for common household and industrial
use
–Materials for industrial use

164. CAUSES OF AIR POLLUTION
•carbon dioxide -Deforestation and fossil fuel
burning
•Sulfur dioxide -burning of sulfur containing
compounds of fossil fuels.
•Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) reduces the amount
of ozone. CFCs come from
–the burning of plastic foam items
–leaking refrigerator equipment
–spray cans

165. NATURAL AIR POLLUTANTS
•Natural air pollutants can include:
 –Smoke from wild fires
 –Methane released from live stock
 –Volcanic eruptions

166. NATURAL CAUSES OF DEPLETION OF OZONE
LAYER:
 Ozone layer has been found to be affected
by certain natural phenomena such as Sun-
spots and stratospheric winds. But this has
been found to cause not more than 1-2%
depletion of the ozone layer and the effects
are also thought to be only temporary. It is
also believed that the major volcanic
eruptions (mainly El Chichon in 1983 and
and Mt. Pinatubo in 1991) has also
contributed towards ozone depletion.

167.  Ozone layer is a deep layer in earth’s
atmosphere that contain ozone which is a
naturally occurring molecule containing three
oxygen atoms. These ozone molecules form
a gaseous layer in the Earth’s upper
atmosphere called stratosphere. This lower
region of stratosphere containing relatively
higher concentration of ozone is called
Ozonosphere.

168. CAUSES OF SOIL POLLUTION
•Contamination of soil system by considerable
quantity of chemicals or other substances resulting
in reduction of its fertility.
•Four Main causes of Soil pollution
 –Construction
 –Agriculture
 –Domestic waste
 –Industrial Waste

169. CHEMICALS CAUSING SOIL POLLUTION
 •Metallic pollutants-textiles, dyes, soaps,
detergents, drugs, cement, rubber, paper, metal
industries release Fe, Pb, Cu, Zn, Hg, Cd, CN,
acids, alkalies etc.
 •Agro chemicals-Fertilizers, pesticides,
insecticides, weedicides, rodenticides,
fumigants release toxic chemicals like Pb, As,
Cd, Hg, Co etc.
 •Radioactive Chemicals

170. GEOLOGIC HAZARDS
A geologic hazard is a geologic phenomenon
or condition, natural or man made that is
potentially dangerous to the environment
and to its inhabitants. Natural hazards
include earthquakes, volcanic eruption and
floods. While man hazards include ground
subsidence as a result of over- mining

171. Foreshocks: An increase in the frequency of small
earthquakes (foreshocks) have been used to predict
large earthquakes. Probably the most famous example
was the prediction of the 1975 Haicheng earthquake
which measured 7.2 on the Richter scale. However,
only about 5% of foreshocks lead to bigger
earthquakes so there can be a lot of false alarms.
Seismic History: Seismologists can study the seismic
history of earthquakes and try and make predictions of
when future earthquakes are likely to happen. For
example El Salvador has a major earthquake roughly
once every ten to twenty years. However, at best this
can only give a rough time frame and can certainly not
pinpoint the time or location of an earthquake.

172. Geological Changes: Scientists believe that small-
scale uplift, tilt or subsidence of the ground can be
precursor to major earthquakes. However, it would be
almost impossible to try and monitor all geological
changes around the world to try and predict
earthquakes.
Rock stress: Scientists also believe that changes in
the stress of rocks can also be a sign of imminent
earthquakes. Some research done along the San
Andres fault suggested changes in rock stress 2 hours
before an earthquake. Again though it would be almost
impossible to monitor all plate boundaries look for
changes in stress.

173. Animal behaviour: Some scientists believe that
small animals e.g. cats, toads and dogs are able to
detect pre-seismic activity and alert people to an
imminent earthquake. Some scientists believe that it
is low frequency electromagnetic signals that they
are responding to. It is believed that toads en mass
hopping across the road in Taizhou, China two days
before a major earthquake that killed 10,000 people
was actually a warning sign that local authorities
should have acted upon.

174. Plate boundaries: Most earthquakes are
found along plate boundaries so scientists can
alert countries and populations to the risk of
earthquakes. However, even knowing the
potential location certainly does not help
predicting the time of a quake. Also some
earthquakes happen along old and unknown
plate boundaries and faults or actually happen
with plate boundaries e.g. intraplate
earthquakes. Because these earthquakes are
almost impossible to predict that they can
cause a lot of damage because populations
are not prepared.

175. Radon: The release of radon has
been studied as a precursor to a
major earthquake. However, all
studies have proved inconclusive, but
what scientist claimed that he did
predict the recent L'Aquila
earthquake in Italy using this
technique.

176. LAND SLIDE
Rapid downslope movement of rock and soil
known as a landslide.

178. VOLCANIC ERUPTION
Volcanic eruptions can hurl hot rocks for at least 20 miles.
Floods, airborne ash, or noxious fumes can spread 100 miles
and more. If you live near a known volcano, active or
dormant, be ready to evacuate at a moment’s notice.
 • Earthquakes
 • Flash floods
 • Landslides and mudflows
 • Thunderstorms
 • Tsunamis

179. Compared to earthquakes, volcanoes are much easier to predict, because unlike
earthquakes they normal release warning signs before they erupt. Below are some
examples of how scientists predict volcanoes and also a case study of how the
Japanese volcano Sakurajima is monitored in an attempt to predict future eruptions.
Thermal tracking: The build up of magma can often cause an increase in the
temperature of a volcano. Scientists can monitor temperatures changes through
underground probes, infrared or even satellite.
Mass movements: Prior to volcanoes increases in seismic activity, changes in the
shape of volcano e.g. slope angle or changes in temperature can trigger a variety of
mass movements e.g. rockfall, avalanches and lahars which can be studied by
scientists as warning signs of an imminent eruption.
.
Prediction of Volcanic Hazards

180. Gas emissions: Scientists often
measure the release of gases
around volcanoes. An increase in
the release of some gases e.g.
sulphur dioxide can indicate that an
eruption is likely.

181. Ground deformation: On known
active volcanoes, scientists will often
study the tilt (slope) of the volcano or
the development of any bulges.
Vulcanologist knew that the Mount St.
Helens volcano was about to erupt
because of the development of large
bulge on its side.

182. Seismic History: By studying previous
volcanic history, scientists can look for patterns
of eruptions and also establish if volcanoes are
active, dormant or even extinct. However,
volcanoes don't always follow patterns, so
apart from giving rough estimates this system
is not particularly useful.

183. Remote sensing: Remote sensing
equipment like satellites, thermal
image cameras and gas monitors
detect changes in shape,
temperature, gas and chemical
composition, etc to try and predict
likely eruptions.

184.  Hydrology: Scientists can monitor changes in
water in a number of ways. They can study
changes in temperature and chemical
composition. They can also look for the
presence of volcanic gases. Also scientists
study rivers flowing from volcanoes to look for
volcanic related sediment, but also increases in
snow melt and possible the presence of lahars
caused by increased temperatures.

185. This microseismic activity commonly
increases prior to an eruption and is
characterized by relatively constant
amplitudes and wave lengths that are
possibly caused by the turbulent motion of
the magma ascending to the surface from a
magma chamber. The relatively slow ascent
of viscous magma to the upper crust
generates a surface expansion that can be
measured with modern geodetic
instruments. Temperature increases within a
volcano as a result of ascending magma can
be detected by infrared signals via satellite.

186. Heat conductivity and the magnetic field are
changing. An increase of SO2 emission, often
has been observed before eruptions. The
characteristic behavior of a volcano can be
identified with the help of intensive monitoring
by satellite.

187.  Finally, subsoil disturbances can cause changes
in groundwater flows, which in turn can cause
abrupt changes in the level of the water table and
a sudden drying up of surface springs.

188. Rapid changes in water levels
are an indication of an
approaching tsunami.

189.  Lahars are rapidly flowing mixtures of rock
debris and water that originate on the slopes of a
volcano. They are also referred to as volcanic
mudflows or debris flows.

191. The careful analysis of the history of a vol-
cano is the most important method in
assessing the long-term probability of the
occurrence of a specific eruption type and
its eruptive energy. Volcanic eruptions are
often announced years, months, days, or
hours before (e.g., by harmonic tremors in
the deeper conduit system).

192. Seismic activity: An increase in
earthquakes can signify that a
volcanic eruption is likely. Therefore
scientists carefully monitor seismic
activity around known volcanoes

193. TSUNAMIS

194. .
Tsunamis are often caused by an underwater
disturbance such as an earthquake, a landslide, an
erupting volcano, or even a meteorite impact.