The document presents on VLSM and supernetting. It contains introductions to VLSM and supernetting, their histories, basic concepts and processes. It provides examples of implementing VLSM by applying variable length subnet masks to divide networks into differently sized subnets. It also demonstrates how to create larger networks through supernetting by combining multiple IP addresses or networks and setting their common bits. The document aims to explain the techniques of VLSM and supernetting.
This presentation contains why we need sub netting, how we do sub netting, CIDR, Subnet mask, Subnet mask value, Class A Sub netting, Class B Sub netting, Class C Sub netting.
Subnet Calculation from a given IP range, using the classless Subnet mask. Calculating number of hosts in a subnet and number of subnets possible to create in a given IP range.
This presentation contains why we need sub netting, how we do sub netting, CIDR, Subnet mask, Subnet mask value, Class A Sub netting, Class B Sub netting, Class C Sub netting.
Subnet Calculation from a given IP range, using the classless Subnet mask. Calculating number of hosts in a subnet and number of subnets possible to create in a given IP range.
A
PROJECT REPORT
On
CISCO CERTIFIED NETWORK ASSOCIATE
A computer network, or simply a network, is a collection of computer and other hardware components interconnected by communication channels that allow sharing of resources and information. Where at least one process in one device is able to send/receive data to/from at least one process residing in a remote device, then the two devices are said to be in a network. Simply, more than one computer interconnected through a communication medium for information interchange is called a computer network.
This study guide is intended to provide those pursuing the CCNA certification with a framework of what concepts need to be studied. This is not a comprehensive document containing all the secrets of the CCNP nor is it a “braindump” of questions and answers.
I sincerely hope that this document provides some assistance and clarity in your studies.
Complete understanding of subnet masking
also available on the youtube channal in three parts 1,2,3
link:-
https://www.youtube.com/channel/UC36lyOTi8w1EhQ-yZssjX1g?view_as=subscriber.
Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR) is a method for allocating IP addresses and IP routing. The Internet Engineering Task Force introduced CIDR in 1993 to replace the previous addressing architecture of classful network design in the Internet.
Classless Inter-Domain Routing is based on variable-length subnet masking (VLSM), which allows a network to be divided into variously sized subnets, providing the opportunity to size a network more appropriately for local needs.
A
PROJECT REPORT
On
CISCO CERTIFIED NETWORK ASSOCIATE
A computer network, or simply a network, is a collection of computer and other hardware components interconnected by communication channels that allow sharing of resources and information. Where at least one process in one device is able to send/receive data to/from at least one process residing in a remote device, then the two devices are said to be in a network. Simply, more than one computer interconnected through a communication medium for information interchange is called a computer network.
This study guide is intended to provide those pursuing the CCNA certification with a framework of what concepts need to be studied. This is not a comprehensive document containing all the secrets of the CCNP nor is it a “braindump” of questions and answers.
I sincerely hope that this document provides some assistance and clarity in your studies.
Complete understanding of subnet masking
also available on the youtube channal in three parts 1,2,3
link:-
https://www.youtube.com/channel/UC36lyOTi8w1EhQ-yZssjX1g?view_as=subscriber.
Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR) is a method for allocating IP addresses and IP routing. The Internet Engineering Task Force introduced CIDR in 1993 to replace the previous addressing architecture of classful network design in the Internet.
Classless Inter-Domain Routing is based on variable-length subnet masking (VLSM), which allows a network to be divided into variously sized subnets, providing the opportunity to size a network more appropriately for local needs.
This pdf is about the Schizophrenia.
For more details visit on YouTube; @SELF-EXPLANATORY;
https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCAiarMZDNhe1A3Rnpr_WkzA/videos
Thanks...!
This presentation explores a brief idea about the structural and functional attributes of nucleotides, the structure and function of genetic materials along with the impact of UV rays and pH upon them.
Richard's aventures in two entangled wonderlandsRichard Gill
Since the loophole-free Bell experiments of 2020 and the Nobel prizes in physics of 2022, critics of Bell's work have retreated to the fortress of super-determinism. Now, super-determinism is a derogatory word - it just means "determinism". Palmer, Hance and Hossenfelder argue that quantum mechanics and determinism are not incompatible, using a sophisticated mathematical construction based on a subtle thinning of allowed states and measurements in quantum mechanics, such that what is left appears to make Bell's argument fail, without altering the empirical predictions of quantum mechanics. I think however that it is a smoke screen, and the slogan "lost in math" comes to my mind. I will discuss some other recent disproofs of Bell's theorem using the language of causality based on causal graphs. Causal thinking is also central to law and justice. I will mention surprising connections to my work on serial killer nurse cases, in particular the Dutch case of Lucia de Berk and the current UK case of Lucy Letby.
Introduction:
RNA interference (RNAi) or Post-Transcriptional Gene Silencing (PTGS) is an important biological process for modulating eukaryotic gene expression.
It is highly conserved process of posttranscriptional gene silencing by which double stranded RNA (dsRNA) causes sequence-specific degradation of mRNA sequences.
dsRNA-induced gene silencing (RNAi) is reported in a wide range of eukaryotes ranging from worms, insects, mammals and plants.
This process mediates resistance to both endogenous parasitic and exogenous pathogenic nucleic acids, and regulates the expression of protein-coding genes.
What are small ncRNAs?
micro RNA (miRNA)
short interfering RNA (siRNA)
Properties of small non-coding RNA:
Involved in silencing mRNA transcripts.
Called “small” because they are usually only about 21-24 nucleotides long.
Synthesized by first cutting up longer precursor sequences (like the 61nt one that Lee discovered).
Silence an mRNA by base pairing with some sequence on the mRNA.
Discovery of siRNA?
The first small RNA:
In 1993 Rosalind Lee (Victor Ambros lab) was studying a non- coding gene in C. elegans, lin-4, that was involved in silencing of another gene, lin-14, at the appropriate time in the
development of the worm C. elegans.
Two small transcripts of lin-4 (22nt and 61nt) were found to be complementary to a sequence in the 3' UTR of lin-14.
Because lin-4 encoded no protein, she deduced that it must be these transcripts that are causing the silencing by RNA-RNA interactions.
Types of RNAi ( non coding RNA)
MiRNA
Length (23-25 nt)
Trans acting
Binds with target MRNA in mismatch
Translation inhibition
Si RNA
Length 21 nt.
Cis acting
Bind with target Mrna in perfect complementary sequence
Piwi-RNA
Length ; 25 to 36 nt.
Expressed in Germ Cells
Regulates trnasposomes activity
MECHANISM OF RNAI:
First the double-stranded RNA teams up with a protein complex named Dicer, which cuts the long RNA into short pieces.
Then another protein complex called RISC (RNA-induced silencing complex) discards one of the two RNA strands.
The RISC-docked, single-stranded RNA then pairs with the homologous mRNA and destroys it.
THE RISC COMPLEX:
RISC is large(>500kD) RNA multi- protein Binding complex which triggers MRNA degradation in response to MRNA
Unwinding of double stranded Si RNA by ATP independent Helicase
Active component of RISC is Ago proteins( ENDONUCLEASE) which cleave target MRNA.
DICER: endonuclease (RNase Family III)
Argonaute: Central Component of the RNA-Induced Silencing Complex (RISC)
One strand of the dsRNA produced by Dicer is retained in the RISC complex in association with Argonaute
ARGONAUTE PROTEIN :
1.PAZ(PIWI/Argonaute/ Zwille)- Recognition of target MRNA
2.PIWI (p-element induced wimpy Testis)- breaks Phosphodiester bond of mRNA.)RNAse H activity.
MiRNA:
The Double-stranded RNAs are naturally produced in eukaryotic cells during development, and they have a key role in regulating gene expression .
Slide 1: Title Slide
Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Slide 2: Introduction to Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Definition: Extrachromosomal inheritance refers to the transmission of genetic material that is not found within the nucleus.
Key Components: Involves genes located in mitochondria, chloroplasts, and plasmids.
Slide 3: Mitochondrial Inheritance
Mitochondria: Organelles responsible for energy production.
Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA): Circular DNA molecule found in mitochondria.
Inheritance Pattern: Maternally inherited, meaning it is passed from mothers to all their offspring.
Diseases: Examples include Leber’s hereditary optic neuropathy (LHON) and mitochondrial myopathy.
Slide 4: Chloroplast Inheritance
Chloroplasts: Organelles responsible for photosynthesis in plants.
Chloroplast DNA (cpDNA): Circular DNA molecule found in chloroplasts.
Inheritance Pattern: Often maternally inherited in most plants, but can vary in some species.
Examples: Variegation in plants, where leaf color patterns are determined by chloroplast DNA.
Slide 5: Plasmid Inheritance
Plasmids: Small, circular DNA molecules found in bacteria and some eukaryotes.
Features: Can carry antibiotic resistance genes and can be transferred between cells through processes like conjugation.
Significance: Important in biotechnology for gene cloning and genetic engineering.
Slide 6: Mechanisms of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Non-Mendelian Patterns: Do not follow Mendel’s laws of inheritance.
Cytoplasmic Segregation: During cell division, organelles like mitochondria and chloroplasts are randomly distributed to daughter cells.
Heteroplasmy: Presence of more than one type of organellar genome within a cell, leading to variation in expression.
Slide 7: Examples of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Four O’clock Plant (Mirabilis jalapa): Shows variegated leaves due to different cpDNA in leaf cells.
Petite Mutants in Yeast: Result from mutations in mitochondrial DNA affecting respiration.
Slide 8: Importance of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Evolution: Provides insight into the evolution of eukaryotic cells.
Medicine: Understanding mitochondrial inheritance helps in diagnosing and treating mitochondrial diseases.
Agriculture: Chloroplast inheritance can be used in plant breeding and genetic modification.
Slide 9: Recent Research and Advances
Gene Editing: Techniques like CRISPR-Cas9 are being used to edit mitochondrial and chloroplast DNA.
Therapies: Development of mitochondrial replacement therapy (MRT) for preventing mitochondrial diseases.
Slide 10: Conclusion
Summary: Extrachromosomal inheritance involves the transmission of genetic material outside the nucleus and plays a crucial role in genetics, medicine, and biotechnology.
Future Directions: Continued research and technological advancements hold promise for new treatments and applications.
Slide 11: Questions and Discussion
Invite Audience: Open the floor for any questions or further discussion on the topic.
Cancer cell metabolism: special Reference to Lactate PathwayAADYARAJPANDEY1
Normal Cell Metabolism:
Cellular respiration describes the series of steps that cells use to break down sugar and other chemicals to get the energy we need to function.
Energy is stored in the bonds of glucose and when glucose is broken down, much of that energy is released.
Cell utilize energy in the form of ATP.
The first step of respiration is called glycolysis. In a series of steps, glycolysis breaks glucose into two smaller molecules - a chemical called pyruvate. A small amount of ATP is formed during this process.
Most healthy cells continue the breakdown in a second process, called the Kreb's cycle. The Kreb's cycle allows cells to “burn” the pyruvates made in glycolysis to get more ATP.
The last step in the breakdown of glucose is called oxidative phosphorylation (Ox-Phos).
It takes place in specialized cell structures called mitochondria. This process produces a large amount of ATP. Importantly, cells need oxygen to complete oxidative phosphorylation.
If a cell completes only glycolysis, only 2 molecules of ATP are made per glucose. However, if the cell completes the entire respiration process (glycolysis - Kreb's - oxidative phosphorylation), about 36 molecules of ATP are created, giving it much more energy to use.
IN CANCER CELL:
Unlike healthy cells that "burn" the entire molecule of sugar to capture a large amount of energy as ATP, cancer cells are wasteful.
Cancer cells only partially break down sugar molecules. They overuse the first step of respiration, glycolysis. They frequently do not complete the second step, oxidative phosphorylation.
This results in only 2 molecules of ATP per each glucose molecule instead of the 36 or so ATPs healthy cells gain. As a result, cancer cells need to use a lot more sugar molecules to get enough energy to survive.
Unlike healthy cells that "burn" the entire molecule of sugar to capture a large amount of energy as ATP, cancer cells are wasteful.
Cancer cells only partially break down sugar molecules. They overuse the first step of respiration, glycolysis. They frequently do not complete the second step, oxidative phosphorylation.
This results in only 2 molecules of ATP per each glucose molecule instead of the 36 or so ATPs healthy cells gain. As a result, cancer cells need to use a lot more sugar molecules to get enough energy to survive.
introduction to WARBERG PHENOMENA:
WARBURG EFFECT Usually, cancer cells are highly glycolytic (glucose addiction) and take up more glucose than do normal cells from outside.
Otto Heinrich Warburg (; 8 October 1883 – 1 August 1970) In 1931 was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology for his "discovery of the nature and mode of action of the respiratory enzyme.
WARNBURG EFFECT : cancer cells under aerobic (well-oxygenated) conditions to metabolize glucose to lactate (aerobic glycolysis) is known as the Warburg effect. Warburg made the observation that tumor slices consume glucose and secrete lactate at a higher rate than normal tissues.
A brief information about the SCOP protein database used in bioinformatics.
The Structural Classification of Proteins (SCOP) database is a comprehensive and authoritative resource for the structural and evolutionary relationships of proteins. It provides a detailed and curated classification of protein structures, grouping them into families, superfamilies, and folds based on their structural and sequence similarities.
What is greenhouse gasses and how many gasses are there to affect the Earth.moosaasad1975
What are greenhouse gasses how they affect the earth and its environment what is the future of the environment and earth how the weather and the climate effects.
2. Presented by:
BUG FREE
Group Members:
1. Md. Omor Faruk ID: 151-15-5444
2. Nahian Ahmed ID: 151-15-5137
3. Monsur Ahmed Shafiq ID: 151-15-5439
4. Md. Sajibul Hasan ID: 151-15-4986
5. Md. Taikul Islam ID: 151-15-5144
4/2/2017 VLSM & Supernetting
3. Contains:
• Introduction
• History of VLSM
• Basic knowledge about Subnet Masking
• Process of Subnet Masking
• Steps of Variable Length Subnet Masking(VLSM)
• Implementing VLSM
• History of Supernetting
• Basic knowledge about Supernetting
• Steps of Supernetting
• Implementation of Supernetting
4/2/2017 VLSM & Supernetting
4. History of VLSM
Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR) is a method for
allocating IP addresses and IP routing. The Internet Engineering
Task Force introduced CIDR in 1993 to replace the previous
addressing architecture of classful network design in the
Internet.
Classless Inter-Domain Routing is based on variable-length subnet
masking (VLSM), which allows a network to be divided into variously
sized subnets, providing the opportunity to size a network more
appropriately for local needs.
5. What is VLSM ?
• Subnetting of a subnet.
• The more realistic way of Subnetting.
• To make the most efficient use of all the bits of a
network.
• Prevent network and host from waste.
4/2/2017 VLSM & Supernetting
6. •Steps of VLSM:
• Find the largest segment which need largest number of hosts address.
• Do Subnetting to fulfill the requirement of largest segment.
• Assign the appropriate subnet mask for the largest segment.
• For second largest segments, take one of these newly created subnets and
use different subnet mask for this one.
• It will cover from the large number host first.
• Repeat this process until the last network.
4/2/2017 VLSM & Supernetting
8. VLSM Examples(cont.)
• We have 192.168.1.1/24
192.168.1.1/24192.168.1.1/24
192.168.1.0/25
126 Hosts
192.168.1.128/25
126 Hosts
9. VLSM Examples(cont.)
• We have 192.168.1.0/25
192.168.1.0/25
192.168.1.0/26
62 Hosts
192.168.1.64/26
62 Hosts
Assign To A which need 50 hosts Assign To B which need 50 hosts
10. VLSM Examples(cont.)
• We have 192.168.1.128/25
192.168.1.128/25
192.168.1.128/26
62 Hosts
192.168.1.192/26
62 Hosts
Assign To C which need 40 hosts We can assign in D but ……
11. VLSM Examples(cont.)
• We have 192.168.1.192/26
192.168.1.192/26
192.168.1.192/27
30 Hosts
192.168.1.224/27
30 Hosts
Assign To D which need 20 hosts May be in future……
12. Why use VLSM
• Because of Addressing crisis.
• The Internet Engineering Task Force identified two problems in
1992
----IPv4 may not enough in future
----Rapid increase of internet user.
**Freedom to use different subnet masks for networks within a single
autonomous system.
13. Advantage of VLSM
• We can divide our Network in to many area.
• It helps ISP to allocate more host.
• Save our Host IP Addresses.
• VLSM is supported by :
1.OSPF
2.Integrated IS-IS
3.RIPv2
4.Static Routing
14. VLSM VS CIDR
VLSM: 1 bit subnetting of Network address.
CIDR : IP network is represented by a prefix, which is an IP
address and some indication of the length of the mask
16. Introduction of Supernetting
4/2/2017 VLSM & Supernetting
• Reverse process of VLSM
• Creating larger network.
• Combination of two or more networks (or subnets).
• This method facilitates regional route aggregation.
17. Basic Knowledge of Supernetting:
• Need two or more Network or Subnets.
• Make the decimal network into binary value.
• Counting 0 and 1.
• Supernetting requires the use of routing protocols
that support Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR).
4/2/2017 VLSM & Supernetting
18. Steps of Supernetting:
• Contain many IP or network.
• Write down IP serially then convert into binary.
• Find matching from left site and underline upto match.
• Write upto match and make “0” zero upto end.
• Put dot (.) after the (8) eight interval.
• Make decimal from the binay of each portion which
will be the new network address.
• Make all (1) upto match and zero upto end which will
be the musk.
4/2/2017 VLSM & Supernetting
20. Implementation of Supernetting:
Make a Summation of the following network:
192.168.98.0 , 192.168.99.0 , 192.168.100.0 , 192.168.101.0, 192.168.102.0 , 192.168.105.0
Firstly, the addresses are converted to binary format and aligned in a list:
4/2/2017 VLSM & Supernetting
21. 4/2/2017 VLSM & Supernetting
Results:
Secondly, the bits at which the common pattern of digits
ends are located. These common bits are shown in red.
Lastly, the number of common bits is counted.
The summary route is found by setting the remaining
bits to zero, as shown below. It is followed by a slash
and then the number of common bits.
The summarized route is 192.168.96.0/20.
The subnet mask is 255.255.240.0.
22. Supernet Advantages
• Lower Development & Deployment Costs:
Supernet Technologies allows networking equipment manufacturers,
ISP's and System Integrators to empower their business by focusing
their resources and dollars where it matters most, getting product to
market and revenue in the door, sooner.
• Robust and cutting edge technology:
In the near future the newer Wireless Scalable Access System models
will use smart supernetting device.