vitamins,water soluble vitamins etc

1. VITAMINS
Vitamins are organic compounds that occur in small quantities in natural foods that help in growth and maintenance of the
human body. The insufficient consumption of the vitamins may lead to several deficiency diseases. They are divided into
two groups:
1) Fat soluble vitamins
a. Vitamin A
b. Vitamin D
c. Vitamin E
d. Vitamin K
2) Water soluble vitamins.
a. Vitamin B-complex
i. Thiamine
ii. Riboflavin
iii. Niacin
iv. Pyridoxine
v. Pantothenicacid
vi. Folicacid
vii. Vitamin B12
viii. Biotin
ix. Choline
x. p-amino benzoicacid
xi. Inositol
b. Vitamin C
c. Vitamin P (bioflavonoid)
Fat soluble vitamins can only be absorbed in the presence of fats. Therefore, presence of fat is the diet is essential for their
absorption. They can be stored in the body. Water soluble vitamins consist of a large number of substances. They are
absorbed quickly in the body. They are partly lost during cooking. They are not stored in the body. That is why, their regular
supply in thediet is essential.
Here is a brief note on the water soluble and fat soluble vitamins.
WATER SOLUBLE VITAMINS:
VITAMIN B-COMPLEX
Thiamine
Thiamine (vitamin B1) was obtained by Casimir Funk in 1911 as a crystalline substance from rice polishings. He called it
‘vital amine’ because it was vital and contained nitrogen as amine. Thiamine is readily absorbed from the small intestine and
the capacity for intestine; absorption is five milligram per day. Fish, shrimp and raw animal tissues inhibit its absorption.
Thiamine can also be administered by injection. The body stores about 25 to 30 mg of thiamine in the skeletal muscles
(50%) and the remaining is stored in heart, liver, kidney and brain. The blood thiamine level is the indicator of thiamine
levels in the blood. It is excreted in the urine and faeces. Rice contains adequate amounts of vitamin B-complex but a large
portion of it is lost when it is polished. If the water in which rice is cooked is drained off, further loss of thiamin occurs. That
is why;parboiled rice or home pounded rice is considered superior to polished rice as it has higher percentage of thiamine as
compared to the later one. Chapattis prepared from whole wheat flour are good sources of thiamine whereas bread and cakes
(prepared from white flour) are poor sources of thiamine as they lack fibre that is rich in this vitamin. The deficiency of
thiamine is associated with the low intake of thiamine in the diet. Severe deficiency of thiamine results in dry beri-beri.
This results in the extreme weakness of the individual. Wet beri-beri manifests itself as peripheral vessel dilation
(vasodialtion), high output failure and retention of sodium resulting in oedema. The person may result in cardiac failure.
Lactic acidosis is observed in case of alcoholics who suffer from thiamine deficiency. The toxicity or overdose of thiamine
has not been reported yet.
Riboflavin (vitamin B2):
Riboflavin derives its name from yellow color (flavus=yellow). It is found in milk, eggs, liver and excreted in urine. It is
sensitive to heat. It is absorbed from the small intestine. It is not stored in body. It is also secreted in milk. It has a very
important role in respiration as it acts as enzyme. It is found in milk, meat, cereals and pulses. Fruits, vegetable and pulses
are fair soyurces of the riboflavin. The deficiency of riboflavin is associated with the deficiency of the B-complex vitamins.
The most common diseases are cheilosis andangularstomatitis. Thetoxicity of riboflavin has not been reported.
Nicotinicacid(vitamin B3 or Niacin or Nicotinamide):
Niacin includes nicotinic acid and nicotinamide. Both are absorbed from the stomach, small intestine and large intestine. It is
very important for the metabolic activities of the body. It is found in cells of all the food stuffs especially cereals and flesh

2. foods. Polishing of rice reduced its nicotinamide content. The deficiency of the vitamin causes pellagra which is observed by
dermatitis, dementia and diarrhea. A continuous excessive intake of nicotinic acid results in lowering of serum cholesterol
levels below normal levels.
Folicacid (folate, folacin):
The term folic acid is derived from the word folium (leaf), because it is found in green leafy vegetables. It is abosorbed from
the jejunum and is excreted through the urine. It is stored mainly in the liver. It is found chiefly ion vegetables, fruits,
cereals, meat, liver etc. It is heat sensitive and soluble in water. That is why; it is easily destroyed during cooking; which is a
major cause of folic acid deficiency. Thedeficiency results in anemia and neurological disorders.
Cyanocobalamins (vitamin B12):
It is produced by microorganisms and found in intestines human beings and other animals. It is absorbed through the small
intestine. The bulk of the body stores of vitamin B12are in the form of co-enzyme B12. The major portion of the vitamin B12
is stored in the liver. It is excreted in urine and faeces. It is also found in the milk. The most common deficiency disease
shown by vitamin B12 is pernicious amanmia. It is most commonly observed in vegans (persons who consume only
vegetarian diet.). Even with high doses of vitmia B12, no toxicity has been observed but anaphylactic reactions (allergy) have
been observed.
VITAMIN C:
Ascorbic acid or vitamin C is a water soluble vitamin. It was first synthesized by Reichstein in 1933.
It is synthesized by animals and plant from simple sugars. Vitamin C present in vegetables is readily destroyed when they
are due to the action of the enzyme ascorbic oxidase. It is sensitive to temperature. That is why; finely cut vegetables that are
boiled readily lose ascorbic acid present in them. The water left after boiling the vegetables contains appreciable amounts of
this vitamin and that is why it should not be discarded. Ascorbic acid is absorbed through the intestines. It is excreted in the
urine. It helps in the formation of collagen, osteoblasts, red blood cells and has an anti-oxidant property. It also helps in the
absorption of iron. The main sources of vitamin C are citrus fruits, green vegetables, guava etc. Indian gooseberry or amla is
the richest sources of vitamin C. cereals and pulses do not contain vitaminC in the dry state. If they are soaked in water for
48 hours and allowed to germinate, they become good sources of this vitamin. The most common disease occurring due to
deficiency of vitamin C is scurvy. High doses of vitamin C may prove to be harmful. It may destroy vitamin B12 present in
the food.
FAT-SOLUBLE VITAMINS:
1. Vitamin A (retinol/B-carotene):
Retinol is vitamin A that is found in man and liver oils of salt water fish. Carotene is the precursor of vitamin A. Carotenes
are synthesized by photosynthetic organisms. In 1967, the FAO/WHO advised against the expression of vitamin A values of
foods in IU, and proposed that the activity be stated in the equivalent weight of retinol. The vitamin A activity is expressed
as ‘microgram retinol equivalent’.
1 retinol equivalent = 1 microgram retinol=6 micrograms of beta carotene=3.33 IU vitamin A activity from retinol=10 IU
activity from beta carotene.
Vitamin A is absorbed from the small intestine. The carotene consumed from the plant sources is converted to retinol in the
intestinal wall. It is mostly stored in the liver. It is excreted through the feces. The sources of carotene are green vegetables
like spinach, yellow vegetables like carrots and tomatoes and yellow fruits like papaya, mangoes etc. Egg contains carotene
as well as vitamin A. It is also found in milk of cow, buffalo and other mammals. As it is a fat-soluble vitamin, skim milk
contains only a little amount of the vitamin. It is found in liver and kidneys. It helps in vision and maintenance of epidermal
tissues. It is also associated with the growth of bones and steroid metabolism. The deficiency of vitamin A results in
nyctalopia or night blindness. Hypervitaminosis A occurs on excessive intake of vitamin A. it results in loss of appetite,
nausea, vomiting, irritability, fatigue, weight loss, inflammation, itching and hair loss.
2. Vitamin D:
Vitamin D is collective term for a group of following compounds that help in curing or preventing rickets:
a. Ergocalciferol
b. Cholecalciferol
c. Dihydrotachysterols
Dietary vitamin D is absorbed together with the fat from the intestine. It is stored mainly in the liver. It is also found in brain,
skin, bones and fatty tissues. It is excreted through the feces. It helps in the absorption of calcium in the bones. Thus, it helps
in the formation of the bones. It is a heat-stable vitamin. The major sources are egg yolk, milk, butter, fish liver oils, brain,
milk etc. human beings obtain their daily requirements of vitamin D from their exposure to sunlight. The ultraviolet rays of

3. the sunlight form vitamin D in the skin. The deficiency of vitamin D occurs with inadequate exposure to sunlight and
inadequate intake of vitamin D in the diet. The diseases caused due to deficiency of vitamin D are rickets and osteomalacia.
It is due to lack of deposition of calcium phosphate in the bones. Excessive intakes of vitamin D may be harmful as it may
lead reabsorption of calcium from the bones leading to increased serum calcium levels.
3. Vitamin E:
Vitamin E or tocopherol is essential for reproduction in man and other animals. They are not synthesized in the body and are
mainly found in vegetables and plant oils, cereals, poultry, meat and fish. It is also found in human milk. It acts as an anti-
oxidant. It is found in all cell membranes that contain polyunsaturated fatty acids. It helps in maintaining the cellular
immunity. The deficiency may lead to reproductive failure, liver necrosis etc. It occurs due to insufficient bile secretion and
insufficient pancreatic enzymesecretion. Loses doses of the vitamin may cause muscle weakness, nausea and fatigue.
4. Vitamin K:
Naturally occurring vitamin K is known as phylloquinone. It is absorbed from the small intestine with the help of bile acids.
It is not stored in the body. It is excreted through the feces. It helps in the coagulation of blood. It is found in cereals, turnips,
cabbage, broccoli, lettuce, spinach, peas (green), beans, tomato and potato. The deficiency of vitamin K increases the time of
blood coagulation. The toxicity of thevitamin K affects theliver functioning.
Check your progress:
1) What is the importance of vitamins in the metabolic activities?
2) What are fat-soluble vitamins and water-soluble vitamins?

4. MINERALS
Minerals are inorganic components of food that leave ash as residue when burned. Like vitamins they do not supply heat and
energy to the body. They help in the growth and maintenance of the body. They occur in food in three states:
d. as inorganic salts
e. in combination with organic compounds
f. in ionic form
The inorganic salts can be sodium chloride, calcium phosphate etc. hemoglobin and phospholipids are the examples of
minerals in combination with organic compounds. The minerals are also found in their ionic form like Na+
, K+
etc.
Macro minerals andmicro minerals:
The minerals are classified as macro minerals and micro minerals. Macrominerals are present in amounts greater than
0.005% of the body weight whereas micro minerals are present in leas than 0.005% of the body weight. The macrominerals
are required in greater quantity by thebody, as compared to the microminerals. The macrominerals include the following:
a. calcium
b. phosphorus
c. potassium
d. chlorine
e. sodium
f. Magnesium
The microminerals (trace elements) are as follows:
a. iron
b. fluorine
c. zinc
d. copper
e. iodine
f. chromium
g. cobalt
h. sulphur
About four to six percent of body weight is made up of mineral elements. Their largest concentration is found in bones and
teeth. They are also found in soft tissues such as nerves and muscles and in blood and other body fluids.
They help in regulating various body functions such as:
1. Maintenance of acid-base balance
2. control of water balance
3. muscle contraction
4. stimulation of nervous system
5. blood coagulation
Check your progress:
1) What are minerals?
2) What are macrominerals and microminerals?
3) Give an account on the diseases caused due to deficiency of minerals.
MACRO MINERALS
Calcium:
Calcium occurs in the highest amounts in the body. The human skeleton contains about 99% calcium while the remaining
1% is found in soft tissues. An infant at the time of birth contains about 27.5g calcium and an adult contains 1000 to 1200
gm of calcium. It occurs as calcium phosphate (in crystalline form known as hydroxyapatite as well non-crystalline form
also) in bones. Thecalcium found in soft tissues occurs in ionic form.
Functions:
1) Formation of bones and teeth
2) Coagulation of blood
3) Regulation of permeability of walls of thecapillaries
4) Heart and muscle contraction
5) Regulation of excitability of nerve fibres and nerve centres
6) Activates rennin present in gastric juice

5. 7) Cal-modulin (intracellular receptor protein) and calcium regulate enzymereactions
Calcium absorption:
Our body absorbs 20 to 30% of the ingested calcium. This absorption is affected by the ratio of calcium and phosphorus
present in the diet. Apart from this, thepresence of vitamin D facilitated the absorption of calcium. It has been found that the
presence phytic acid and phosphates decrease the absorption of calcium as they form insoluble calcium salts. The pH of the
intestine affects the absorption of calcium. An alkaline pH lowers its absorption. When calcium reacts with the fatty acids
(that are formed from improper fat absorption), it forms calcium salts of fatty acids that are excreted in the feces. A diet rich
in lactose and a high protein diet increase the absorption of calcium whereas presence of fiber and oxalic acid lowers it
absorption.
The calcium ingested by thebody is excreted in urine and feces. It is also lost in sweat (15 mg per day).
Deficiency:
Calcium deficiency in children leads to rickets in children and Osteomalacia in adults. During ageing of an individual, the
absorption of calcium decreases which results in demineralization of the bones. This is followed by porosity, thinness and
fragility of bones known as osteoporesis.
Hypocalcemia:
It is the lowering down of the blood calcium levels below normal levels. This is caused by hypoparathyroidism. The
symptoms arevisible on face hands and feet.
Sources:
Milk and milk products, sesame seeds, small dried fish, ragi, leafy vegetables etc are the chief sources of calcium. Meat,
poultry and fish are poor sources of calcium.
Milk and milk products are considered to be the best sources of calcium because calcium present in the milk is very easily
assimilated. This assimilation is facilitated by vitamin D that is also present in the milk.
Check your progress:
1) What are thesources of calcium?
2) What are thefunctions of calcium?
3) What are thediseases caused due to deficiency of calcium?
Sodium:
It constitutes about two percent of the total mineral content. Our body contains 100gm of sodium which is found in the
extracellular fluid (ECF), tissues and bones.
Functions:
1) Regulation of acid-base balance
2) Regulation of osmotic pressureof plasma and tissuefluids.
3) Absorption of monosaccharides and amino acids
4) Initiation and maintenance of heart beat
Deficiency (hyponatremia):
Deficiency of sodium occurs during hot weather or as a result of heavy in hot climate, as a result of excessive sweating.
Hyponatremia means low levels of sodium in the blood. It results in severe dehydration. There is lowering down of blood
volume and blood pressure. This may result in failure of the circulatory system.
Toxicity (hypernatremia):
It results oedema, increased blood volume followed by increase in the blood pressure.
Sources:
It is normally consumed in the form of table salt (sodium chloride). About 6 to 8 gm of salt is consumed daily in a normal
diet. That is, 0.6 to 3.5 gm of sodium is consumed daily in our diets.
Check your progress:
1) What are thesources of sodium?
2) What are thefunctions of sodium?
3) What are thediseases caused due to deficiency of sodium?

6. MICRO MINERALS:
IRON:
An adult human contains about 4 to 6gm of iron. About 70% of the total iron is found in the hemoglobin, myoglobin and
enzymes .the remaining 30% is found in stored form in liver bone marrow and spleen.
Absorption
The heam iron present in meat and other non-vegetarian food is absorbed upto 60 to 70 %. This absorption is facilitated by
ascorbic acid, calcium and acidic PH in theintestines.
Functions
Iron is present in haemoglobin, myoglobin, cytochromes and other enzymes that bring about oxidation. Haemoglobin
contains ferrous iron and is responsiblefor carrying oxygen to different tissues.
Deficiency
Iron deficiency results in the reduction of the stored iron that is followed by reduction in haemoglobin concentration & size.
The disease caused due to deficiency of iron is anaemia. It is very common among children, adolescent girls and expectant &
nursing mothers in India. The symptoms include fatigue, lassitude, and breathlessness on exertion, giddiness and pallor of
the skin. In some cases edema of the ankles is also observed. The Hemoglobin level of the blood is low (5 to 9 g/100ml). The
normal haemoglobin level in the blood is 13 to 15 g per 100 ml. Aneamia is caused due to consumption of diets deficient in
iron, protein and the vitamins of B complex group (folic acid, B-12, B6) and vitamin C. Loss of blood through illness, injury
or hemorrhage and excessive loss of blood during menstrual periods also result in iron deficiency.
Sources
Sesame seeds, jaggery and green leafy vegetables are the richest sources of iron. Organ needs such as liver, kidney and heart
are also rich in iron. Lean meats, eggs, pulses, nuts, dried fruits, whole grains and cereals are good sources of iron. Milk and
milk products are poor sources of iron.
Check your progress:
1) What are thesources of iron?
2) What are thefunctions of iron?
3) What are thediseases caused due to deficiency of iron?
FLUORINE
Fluorine is widely distributed in nature, that is, in soil, water, plants and animals. That is why, normal diet is normally never
deficient in fluorine.
Deficiency:
As fluorine is widespread in nature, diseases caused due to deficiency of this mineral is very rare. When a diet lacks fluorine
less than 1 to 2 ppm, then cases of dental fluorosis are reported.
Toxicity:
When the drinking water contains fluorine in excess amounts (3to 5 ppm), then cases of dental fluorosis have been reported.
The symptoms include chalky white patches on the surface of the teeth that are followed by yellow and brown staining. The
enamel becomes weak and gives a corroded appearance. When the concentration of fluorine exceeds 10 ppm, then
hypercalcification of thebones takes place. This is known as skeletal fluorosis.
Functions:
It protects dental caries if consumed in adequate amounts. It also protects adults from osteoporesis.
Check your progress:
1) What are thesources of fluorine?
2) What are thefunctions of fluorine?
3) What are thediseases caused due to deficiency of fluorine?

7. Iodine:
Iodine is an important constituent of thyroxine (thyroid hormones). Thyroxine plays e very important role in various
metabolic activities.
Sources:
The iodine content of food depends on the quantity of iodine present in the soil on which the plant is grown. For example,
the soil of mountainous region contains less iodine than soils near sea. Salts prepared from sea water are rich sources iodine.
Iodized salt and iodine fortified wheat flour also provide regularly to the diet. Apart from these, sea water fishes are also
good sources of iodine.
Deficiency:
Goiter is the disease caused due to deficiency of iodine. The symptoms include the enlargement of the thyroid gland. In
children, iodine deficiency results in growth retardation. This is known as cretinism.
Sometimes presence of some substances in the foods like cabbage, cauliflower and radish, react with iodine present in
the food and make it unavailable to the body. Such substances are known as ‘goitrogens’.
Check your progress:
1) What are thesources of iodine?
2) What are thefunctions of iodine?
3) What are thediseases caused due to deficiency of iodine?