The document discusses facial morphology variations among cultural groups in Southern Africa, examining how morphological differences arise due to historical migrations, ethnic mixing, and geographical factors. It details the historical context of the populations in the region, highlighting the impact of trading, settlement patterns, and intermarriages on facial features. The study aims to enhance understanding of ethnic diversity in Southern Africa for applications in maxillofacial surgery and prosthodontics.

1. MORPHOLOGY ON FACIAL VARIATION BETWEEN CULTURAL
GROUPS IN SOUTHERN AFRICA
Mick Iván de Sousa Muianga (MScDent)
In Memory of my supervisor
Prof Emeritus Phillip V Tobias (14/10/1925 – 07/06/2012)
Mick Iván de Sousa Muianga (MScDent
University of the Witwatersrand
School of Oral Health Sciences
Department of Prosthodontics
Department of Anthropology
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2. INTRODUCTION
Africa also known as “The Cradle of Mankind” is a continent fairly un-researched in
regards to culture and ethnicity. Various researchers, anthropologists and paleontologists
have investigated the continent with some degree of success to retrieve information of its
past. Within the continent‟s various cultures are people from various regions and these
people although to many appear similar there are differences in each cultural group and
further variations within particular groups.
In some cases distinguishing people solely on their facial morphology may be
challenging, this is by no means impossible when considering the differences in features
possessed by each ethnic group. One problem with research on the cross-culture
identification is that recognition for other ethnic groups can be related to different
experiences with members of the dissimilar cultural groups due to social contact Malpass
and Kravitz or due to perceptual expertise O'Toole et al.
In this assignment, the focus is concentrated on the basic morphological features between
different cultural groups of Southern Africa. Facial features differ in important respects,
especially in terms of length, breadth, and height of the cranium Curnoe D, Tobias PV.
The purpose of this is to complete facial reconstructions in maxillofacial prosthodontics
or maxillofacial surgery in the events of malformations, traumas and disfigurements of
the facial region. Much or all of the variations in facial form can be attributed to sex
dimorphism and/or local differentiation of populations within the geographic regions
Rightmire GP. In order to best complete the process of reconstruction and identification,
an understanding of facial morphology in regards to ethnicity is vital.
Recently most studies of facial morphology have concentrated on characteristic features
and not on the construction and testing of models of face shape variation to discriminate
facial differences Astley and Clarren, Sampson et al., Sokol et al. This study is focused
solely on particular features of the face on different cultural groups of Southern Africa.
Southern Africa in this context is the area below the Sahara, from the equator southwards.
BRIEF HISTORY
To understand the differences and similarities in culture as well as facial morphology, it is
important to know the origins of the people of Southern Africa.
The first human like hominid to be discovered aged about 3 millions years old was found
in Africa. It is not clear where this hominid species came from but it is stated that the
present humans are descendants of the first Homo Sapiens of the hunter and gatherer
Bushmen.
There is very little knowledge of Africa prior the trade era outside the archaeological
artifacts as there are no known written records before 5th Century AD available to date.
The history of Southern Africa begins with the arrival of traders from the Middle East,
Europe and Asia.
Originally the ethnic groups occupying most of Southern Africa were the San and the
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3. Khoikhoi. But the „Black ethnic groups‟ who presently dominate most of sub-Saharan
Africa are tribes from the North (Niger, Nigeria, Cameroun bordering the Gulf of Guinea)
who spoke Bantu languages, they started moving southwards around 500 BC. Around
500-1000BC the Bantu people made their way South East, as they not only had domestic
animals, practiced agriculture, had working tools and migration was in small waves they
settled in different regions and areas on their route southwards, thus also lived together
with local ethnic groups. Some of these groups are ancestors of the present Nguni people
(Zulu, Xhosa, Swazi and Ndebele). The exact reason for movement is not clear. The
Khoikhoi, the San and Bantu people lived fairly peacefully Historyworld.
It should be stated that during the pre-colonial era there was little serious tension amongst
ethnic groups and there were no political borders or countries, therefore movement and
mixing was freely occurring even though according to African tradition inter-marriage at
that time must occur within the same ethnic group (marrying within the family/same
ethnicity was a must-tribalism). Although there were no countries, kingdoms however did
exist.
Africa is the first region into which Islam is carried by merchants rather than armies in
the 8th-11th century AD. It spreads down the well-established trade routes of the east coast
which are present day Ethiopia, Somalia, Kenya, Tanzania and Mozambique.
Archaeological evidence exists from the 8th century of a tiny wooden mosque as far south
as modern Kenya; Shanga, one of the islands offshore from Lamu. Shanga's international
links at the time are further demonstrated by surviving fragments of Persian pottery and
Chinese stoneware. From the 8th century Islam spreads gradually south in the oases of the
Sahara trade routes. From the 5th-15th AD Arab traders gradually moved west and thus the
religion spread, to this day Islam is still a very strong religion in the East and West of
Africa due to strong trade relations with Arab merchants. This shows migration of Arab
and Asian groups to Africa, inevitably mixing within these migrant traders and the local
people occurred, the extreme South East, South and parts of Central Africa is dominantly
Christian due to strong trading relations with the Portuguese, British and the Dutch. The
West coast was predominantly Muslim until the Portuguese interest in the slave trade
15th-16th AD, resulting in Portuguese settlements in both Guinea and Angola. Throughout
the 16th Century the Portuguese had no European rivals until early 17th Century, when
both the Dutch and the British created the East India companies.
The Portuguese were the first to arrive in the present South Africa in 1487 but did not
settle, choosing instead to settle in present day Mozambique around 1498, the Dutch were
the second and settled for trade reasons around 1647, the British seized the Cape in 1795
to prevent it falling into rival French hands. From there on European expansion inland led
to meetings between the locals and the settlers.
Due rapid spreading of the settlers and thus leading to a decrease in space the Khoikhoi
moved northwards as far as present day Namibia and Botswana where intermarriage with
the San led to extensive mixing, so much that differentiation between the 2 groups was
difficult, therefore resulting in the Khoisan group.
As the settlers faced labour problems with their ever increasing numbers and expansion,
labour was procured amongst the locals, an outcome of this ever increasing merge with
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4. settlers and Khoisan the „coloured‟ group was introduced to the region. The addition of
van Riebeek and the VOC importation of large numbers of slaves from Madagascar and
Indonesia where intermarried with the Dutch settlers resulted in offspring known as the
Cape coloured. With the mixing of the Khoisan-settler coloured, the Cape malays and
Cape coloured; the ‘Coloured’ population formed.
From the above brief history of trade, occupation and movement of ethnic groups, traders,
importation of slaves and settlers the unavoidable consequence of mixing between the
locals and the settlers naturally led to morphological changes of the people especially
those on the coastal regions which came in greater contact with the settlers. In the
Southern extremity, people with African and European features are common, in the East
people with African and Arab features are prevalent, in Mauritius and Madagascar people
with African, East Asian and South-East Asian features dominate the region. West and
Central Africa is still mostly African, showing that the most affected regions of trade and
settlement were Eastern and Southern Africa. Another reason why West and Central
Africa is not exceedingly mixed could be that the region was extremely impenetrable
until when the scramble for Africa occurred. By this time almost 2000 years had passed
from the initial trade with Arabs; West Africa was predominantly the trade of slaves with
a large stop over in Cape Verde, it should be noted that Cape Verde‟s population is
almost completely mixed (African and European).
Map 1a & 1b. Map showing the distribution of African language families and some major African languages.
Afro-Asiatic extends from the Sahel to Southwest Asia. Niger-Congo is divided to show the size of the Bantu
sub-family.
By most estimates, Africa contains well over a thousand languages, some have estimated it
to be over two thousand languages (most of African rather than European origin), this
shows direct correlation with the number of ethnic groups in the continent. Africa is the
most polyglot continent in the world. There are four major language families native to
Africa:
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5. •The Afro-Asiatic languages are a language family of about 240 languages and 285 million
people widespread throughout East Africa, North Africa, the Sahel and Southwest Asia.
•The Nilo-Saharan language family consists of more than a hundred languages spoken by
30 million people. Nilo-Saharan languages are mainly spoken in Chad, Ethiopia, Kenya,
Sudan, Uganda, and northern Tanzania.
•The Niger-Congo language family covers much of Sub-Saharan Africa and is probably the
largest language family in the world in terms of different languages. A substantial number
of them are the Bantu languages spoken in much of sub-Saharan Africa.
•The Khoisan languages number about 50 and are spoken in Southern Africa by
approximately 120 000 people. Many of the Khoisan languages are endangered. The Khoi
and San peoples are considered the original inhabitants of this part of Africa Wikipedia.
The Bantu Expansion
Map 2. The3 stages of Bantu Expansion
One common hypothesis of the Bantu expansion:
Some historians still accept a synthesis of the above named theories. The Bantu first
originated around the Benue-Cross rivers area in southeastern Nigeria and spread over
Africa to the Zambia area. Sometime in the second millennium BC, perhaps triggered by
the drying of the Sahara and pressure from the migration of people from the Sahara into the
region, they were forced to expand into the rainforests of Central Africa (phase I). About
1000 years later they began a more rapid second phase of expansion beyond the forests into
Southern and Eastern Africa (phase II). Then sometime in the first millennium new
agricultural techniques and plants were developed in Zambia, probably imported from
South East Asia via Austronesian-speaking Madagascar. With these techniques another
Bantu expansion occurred centered on this new location (phase III) Wikipedia.
By about AD 1000 it had reached modern day Zimbabwe and South Africa. In Zimbabwe a
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6. major southern hemisphere empire was established, with its capital at Great Zimbabwe. It
controlled trading routes from South Africa to north of the Zambezi, trading gold, copper,
precious stones, animal hides, ivory and metal goods with the Arab traders of the Swahili
coast. By the 14th or 15th centuries the Empire had surpassed its resources and had
collapsed. By then the Southern African population was predominantly of Bantu origin
Weidenberg and Nicolson.
Studies and casts carried out by Proffesor Lidio Cipriani and the University of
Witwatersrand Anatomy Department have revealed a number of ethnic groups of which
some are compared below:
1) Zulu
2) Xhosa
3) Pondo
4) Shanggana-Thonga
5) Pedi
6) Swazi
7) Sotho
8) Tswana
9) Fingo
10) San
11) !Ung
12) River San
13) Griquaa
14) Pygmy
15) Massai
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7. METHOD
Visage Demonstration Applet, it incorporates the forehead and eyebrows, eyes and
eyelids, nose, mouth, jaw & lip area, area of the cheeks, chin and ears.
The studies took place in WITS Anatomy Museum from the Raymond A. Dart Gallery of
African Faces, all pictures are of casts of different cultural groups of Southern Africa.
FACIAL MORPHOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES
1. Zulu (South East South Africa-Eastern Cape)
a) Head shape
Generally oval
b) Temple
Flat and moderately steep curve before the beginning of the hair line.
c) Zygomas/Cheek bones
Moderately high, males tend to have higher zygomas than females.
d) Nose
Slightly wide on males, not wide on females. Moderate length. Tip of nose usually
slightly anterior to upper lip.
e) Lips
Moderately thicker on males compared to females, on average lips are moderately thick.
f) Mandible
Thin, V-shaped with clear contours on the mandibular angle
g) Chin
Thin chin, flat or slightly posteriorly inclined.
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8. 2. Xhosa (South Central South Africa)
a) Head shape
Generally oval
b) Temple
Non-protruding; being flatter towards the eye brows towards with a tendency to flow
posteriorly having an overall moderately smooth curve.
c) Zygomas/Cheek bones
Moderately low.
d) Nose
Moderately wide. Usually slightly anterior to upper lip and not flat.
e) Lips
Moderately thick.
f) Mandible
U-shaped with smooth contours on the mandibular angle
g) Chin
Moderately flat chin
3. Pondo (South East Cape Province)
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9. a) Head shape
Round and wide. Face flows anteriorly from superior-inferior with the temple lying
posteriorly to chin.
b) Temple
Non-protruding; moderately smooth curve as the temple flows postriorly.
c) Zygomas/Cheek bones
Moderately low, clear protrusion on zygomas due to width of face.
d) Nose
Wide, short, round and flat
e) Lips
Thick and protruding.
f) Mandible
U-shaped with smooth and clear contours on the mandibular angle
g) Chin
Moderately thin and posteriorly inclined.
4. Shangana-Thonga (South East Africa-Southern Mozambique; Mpumalanga &
Limpopo regions of Eastern South Africa)
a) Head shape
Oval and slightly wide on the inferior half of the face. Face flows anteriorly from
superior-inferior with the temple lying posteriorly to chin.
b) Temple
Slightly flat with moderately smooth curve as the temple flows posteriorly.
c) Zygomas/Cheek bones
Moderately low, due to width of face there is protrusion on certain individuals
d) Nose
Wide, short, round and fairly flat.
e) Lips
Moderately thick and protruding anteriorly with lower lip posterior to upper lip.
f) Mandible
U-shaped with smooth and clear contours on the mandibular angle.
g) Chin
Square U-shaped moderately thick chin posteriorly inclined.
9

10. 5. Pedi (Part of Sotho ethnic group aka Northern Sotho-Central, Eastern South
Africa & Lesotho)
a) Head shape
Elongated round and wide on the inferior half of the face. Face flows anteriorly to a high
degree from superior-inferior with the temple lying posteriorly to chin.
b) Temple
Flat; moderately smooth curve as the temple flows posteriorly.
c) Zygomas/Cheek bones
Moderately low, highly protrusive on certain individuals
d) Nose
Wide, short and flat to a high degree.
e) Lips
Relatively thick and protruding anteriorly with lower lip anterior to upper lip.
f) Mandible
U-shaped with smooth and clear contours on the mandibular angle. Thick mandible.
g) Chin
U-shaped thick chin highly inclined posteriorly (run-away chin).
6. Swazi (South East Africa-Swaziland)
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11. a) Head shape
Oval and wider on the centre of the face. Face flows slightly anteriorly on the inferior
half and flat on the superior half. On certain individuals profile view shows a dome
shaped face.
b) Temple
Round smooth curve as the temple flows posteriorly.
c) Zygomas/Cheek bones
Moderately high.
d) Nose
Not wide on most but some individuals show slightly wide noses. Short but not flat.
e) Lips
Moderately thick and protruding anteriorly with lower lip anterior to upper lip.
f) Mandible
Round U-shaped. Thick mandible on males.
g) Chin
Round U-shaped thick chin posteriorly inclined (run-away chin).
7. Sotho (Central South Africa & Lesotho)
a) Head shape
Oval.
b) Temple
Round smooth curve as the temple flows posteriorly.
c) Zygomas/Cheek bones
Moderately high.
d) Nose
Moderately wide, short and slightly flat.
e) Lips
Moderately thick with limited protrusion.
f) Mandible
V-shaped. Thin mandible.
g) Chin
V-shaped thin chin being flat or slight protruding.
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12. 8. Tswana (Botswana & North East South Africa)
a) Head shape
Oval.
b) Temple
Round smooth curve as the temple flows posteriorly being flat towards the eye brows.
c) Zygomas/Cheek bones
Relatively high.
d) Nose
Wide on most but some individuals show slightly wide noses. Short and slightly flat.
e) Lips
Fairly thick and protruding.
f) Mandible
U-shaped. Slightly thick mandible on males.
g) Chin
Round, U-shaped, thick chin posteriorly inclined (run-away chin).
9. Fingo aka Ama-Fengu (South West Africa-Western Cape Province of South
Africa) many intermarried with Europeans resulting in a
certain population of the “Cape Coloureds)
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13. a) Head shape
Oval.
b) Temple
Realtively flat to round with smooth curve as the temple inclines posteriorly.
c) Eyes
d) Zygomas/Cheek bones
Medium high.
e) Nose
Moderate width, moderate length and not flat
f) Lips
Moderate thickness showing slight protrusion.
g) Mandible
U-shaped. Slightly thick mandible on males.
h) Chin
U-shaped slightly thick and flat chin fairly inclined posteriorly.
10. San (Northern South Africa, South & Eastern Namibia, West & Southern
Botswana)
a) Head shape
Small, round.
b) Temple
Short, round and flat.
c) Eyes
Generally small.
d) Zygomas/Cheek bones
High and protrusive.
e) Nose
Moderate thin, small, short and flat.
f) Lips
Moderate thin and protrusive.
g) Mandible
Thin V-shaped.
h) Chin
Posteriorly inclined (run-away chin).
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14. 11. !Kung/!’O!Kung/!Xũ (Kalahari region, Namibia, Angola & Botswana)
Part of the Khoisan group
a) Head shape
Elogated round
b) Temple
Round smooth curve as the temple flows posteriorly.
c) Zygomas/Cheek bones
Medium high.
d) Nose
Wide, short and flatter on males; moderate wide, short and flat on females.
e) Lips
Moderate thickness showing high degree of protrusion.
f) Mandible
Round and thick on males. U-shaped slightly thick mandible on females.
g) Chin
Round and thick on males. U-shaped slightly thick mandible on females. Flat to
protruding chins.
12. River San (Northern South Africa, Southern Namibia & Botswana)
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15. a) Head shape
Round with wider inferior half.
b) Temple
Flat with posterior inclination
c) Zygomas/Cheek bones
Medium high.
d) Nose
Moderate, short and wide nostrils but not flat.
e) Lips
Moderate thickness to fairly thick showing high degree of protrusion.
f) Mandible
Round and thick. Clear contours on mandible angle..
g) Chin
Round V-shaped slightly thick chins. Posterior inclined chins (run-away chin).
13 Griqua (Northern and Eastern Cape)
This group is a result of intermixing of Khoisan, Tswana, Bantu origin
Africans and Europeans
a) Head shape
Oval and wide centrally.
b) Temple
Flat with posterior inclination
c) Zygomas/Cheek bones
Relatively high.
d) Nose
Moderate, short, wide nostrils and flat.
e) Lips
Moderate thickness to fairly thick showing moderate degree of protrusion.
f) Mandible
Round. Smooth contours on mandible angle..
g) Chin
Round and moderately thin. Posterior inclined chins (run-away chin)on some individuals
but most show protrusion.
15

16. 14. Pygmy/Baka/Mbuti (Central Africa along the equator region)
Mostly found in the rainforests. NB-Pygym is considered a
derogatory term
a) Head shape
Round and short.
b) Temple
Short protruding.
c) Zygomas/Cheek bones
Relatively high.
d) Nose
Small, wide nostrils, relatively wide nose and low degree of flatness.
e) Lips
Moderately thick showing moderate degree of protrusion.
f) Mandible
Thin V-shaped. Very clear contours on mandible angle.
g) Chin
Thin V-shaped. Flat to slightly posteriorly inclined.
15. Massai (Mid East Africa-Kenya)
16

17. a) Head shape
Long oval.
b) Temple
Long with posterior inclination.
c) Zygomas/Cheek bones
Relatively high.
d) Nose
Moderately wide and low degree of flatness.
e) Lips
Moderately thick showing moderate degree of protrusion.
f) Mandible
Rounded V-shaped. Clear contours on mandible angle.
g) Chin
U-shaped. Protrude.
MIXING BETWEEN EUROPEANS, ARABS AND AFRICAN ETHNIC GROUPS
Below are examples of the appearance of mixed ethnic groups from migrant/settler
groups. These are just examples and do not represent all groups of mixed ethnicity.
Mixed people or groups are extremely vast and comparison somewhat difficult unless
only specific groups are related to Facial Morphology.
European
Mijertein
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18. Arab
Tezzarese
Telu
Tuareg
DISCUSSION
1. Specific region
Head
Most groups showed and long oval to short oval faces where the Pondo and River San had
the shortest faces.
Temple
Generally the temple areas were similar in shape amongst most groups which showed flat
with a sharp posterior inclination and rounding off towards the hair-line with the exception
of the Zulu which is flat and having steep curve before the beginning of the hair line. The
Pygmies had very short protruding temples an opposite of the Massai who showed long
posterior inclined temples.
Zygomas
significant differences were observed on this area amongst almost every group, with the
San having very high, the Zulu, Sotho, Swazi, Fingo, River San, !Ung, Fingo and
Tswana showed moderately high zygomas and the Xhosa, Pedi, Pondo and SahnganaThonga showing Moderately low zygoma, however within these groups with low
zygomas the extreme opposite was true.
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19. Nose
Nose shape showed the greatest differences, although many showed a degree of being
wide and moderately flat, the Pondo were extremely flat and wide, the San and Pygmies
had thin, small noses. This feature differed greatly amongst people of the same group.
Lips
Almost all gropus showed similarities in that the lips showed moderate thickness to fairly
thick with a high degree of protrusion. Exception to this were the Pondo with extremely
wide and think lips and the San showing thinner narrower. All groups showed a high
degree of protrusion of the lips.
Mandible
Most groups showed a fairly round shaped mandible of a more V-shape than U-shape,
mandibular angle contour was fairly clear and evident amongst all groups except the
Fingo and Tswana where the contour were not as clear, the mandibles were wide and
thick amongst the Pondo, !Ung and River San bein relatively narrow in other groups.
Chin
All groups showed posterior inclined chins with the exception of the !Ung which
protruded and Pondo wich were relatively flat on profile. Frontal views showed thin,
smooth V to U-shaped chins on all groups, the male !Ung, Pedi, Swazi and some Fingo
showed thicker rounder chins.
2. General features
Although these groups have been identified as Southern African groups this is not to say
that these are all groups and that they represent every ethnicity in Southern Africa, as from
the trading era there has been mixing, movement and intra cultural activities which are
much broader than the groups presented here.
From the above evidence it is clear that within the same ethnic group some variants of other
groups are evident, which shows a correlation with mixing between groups. It is therefore
still difficult to clearly distinguish certain individuals within a cultural group.
Certain groups showed vast differences from others, the San and Pygmies where
generally smaller on every facial area with also vast differences especially on the eyes
being very small and exceptionally high zygomas, the Pondo have a general thicker frame
with very thick lips, wide and very flat noses which is distinct in this single ethnicity.
Almost all groups with the exception of the !Ung and Massai showed similar
characteristic on the chin where the chins tend to be posteriorly inclined in contrast to
the !Ung and Massai where chins protrude. Similarities between all groups were also on
protrusion of the oral region where in almost all case the naso-labial angle was less than
90 degrees and in many cases reached and angle of 45 degrees. In all groups the females
presented a general small frames compared with their male counterparts.
The Eastern groups show greater difference, they are almost all long oval heads, thinner
noses and comparatively thinner and relatively narrower lips compared with their
Southern counter parts. They show some Arabic features. The chins in many cases
protrude, contrary to posterior inclination on the Southern ethnic groups. The zygomas
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20. are also much more prominent on the East and Central (West) African groups.
CONCLUSION
Within different and same cultural groups significant differences and great similarities in
facial morphology were identified on various areas of the face. Certain areas of the face
have shown dramatic similarities in most groups, these being the mouth/lip area while
great variations were prevalent on the nose. General all groups showed ethnic
distinguishing differences which can be correlated to that specific group, however there is
still much obscurity in terms of putting a distinct difference of most groups, the only 3
groups which were able to be very distinctly differentiated were the San, the Pondo and
to a certain extent the Zulu. The rest of the groups showed numerous similarities on
individuals.
No measurements were made, limited number of casts used; only basic areas of the face
were selected. It is the author‟s opinion that De Villiers‟1968 belief which states that
“tribal subdivisions be discarded, the South African negroes be regarded as a single
population.” DeVilliers which was agreed by Harpending and Jenkins in 1972
Briedenhann SJ should be revised as although recently there has been an increase in
intra-tribal mixing, presently there are still exists great differences between each Southern
African ethnic group, DeVilliers‟ statement may be regarded in the far future as it is
expected that with time through tribal mixing these distinctions may be eliminated into
mixed features and obliteration of distinct facial features.
In order to achieve more precise results anthropometric and/or cephalometric in
conjunction with craniofacial skeletal and soft tissue morphological studies must be
carries out, these with a reasonable number of participants would guarantee an accurate
conclusion of the differences between Southern African ethnic groups.
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Rightmire GP. Evidence from facial morphology for similarity of Asian and African
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21. alcohol teratogenesis. Envir Health Perspectives 2000;108(3):421-428.
Sokol RJ, Chik L, Martier SS, Salari V. Morphometry of the neonatal fetal alcohol
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External Sites and figures
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HistoryWorld. History of Sub-Saharan Africa
http://www.historyworld.net/wrldhis/PlainTextHistories.asp?groupid=1874&HistoryID=a
b65
Wikipedia. History of Sub-Saharan Africa until 1880 AD.
History of South Africa
http://wikipedia.org/wiki/Africa
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