The document discusses the religious beliefs and practices in Scandinavia from 600-900 AD. It describes the principal deities belonging to the Æsir and Vanir groups, which were sometimes in conflict but later reconciled. The Æsir such as Odin and Thor were more popular in western Scandinavia, while the Vanir like Njord and Freyr were predominant in the east. Lesser spiritual entities also played roles in rituals and beliefs. The text examines the distribution of cults across regions and outlines some of the major deities and myths from Old Norse sources.
The document provides summaries of several important Greek and Roman gods. It describes Zeus/Jupiter as the king of the gods who had magical powers like shape shifting and throwing lightning bolts. It also summarizes Hera/Juno as Zeus' sister and wife who was the goddess of marriage. Additionally, it summarizes Poseidon/Neptune as the god of the sea who was happy with his domain and not jealous of his brothers Zeus and Hades.
Stalin imposed totalitarianism on the USSR through several key methods:
1) The Great Purges eliminated Stalin's political opponents through executions and imprisonments, instilling fear in the population.
2) Stalin cultivated a cult of personality through propaganda and censorship that portrayed him as the hero and guide of the nation.
3) Stalin had complete control over the Soviet economy through five-year plans that dictated industrial and agricultural production.
Kristallnacht, also known as the Night of Broken Glass, was a massive, coordinated attack on Jews and Jewish shops throughout Nazi Germany and parts of Austria on November 9, 1938. Nazi stormtroopers, SS members, and Hitler Youth destroyed hundreds of synagogues, vandalized Jewish homes and businesses, and murdered Jews in the streets. The violence was incited after the assassination of a German diplomat by a Jewish teenager, which the Nazis used as a pretext to launch wider attacks against the Jewish community. Over 7,500 Jewish businesses were destroyed, 267 synagogues were burned, and 91 Jews were killed in the attacks.
This document summarizes some of the key gods and figures in Norse mythology. It describes Odin as the ruler of Asgard and the god of war, magic, poetry, wisdom, and victory. It notes that Thor, Odin's favorite son and god of thunder, is one of the most well known figures. It also discusses Loki, the trickster god and brother of Thor, and other gods like Heimdall, Freya, Baldur, and Hel. The document provides information on how some of these figures, like Thor and Loki, have been portrayed in modern Marvel comics and films.
This document summarizes Norse/Germanic mythology, including its poetic and prose sources like the Poetic Edda and Prose Edda. It outlines the nine worlds in Norse cosmology like Asgard, Vanaheim, and Midgard. Key gods and goddesses are described, such as Odin the chief god, Thor god of thunder, and Loki the trickster. Important locations in mythology are also mentioned, such as Valhalla, home of slain warriors, and Yggdrasil the world tree.
The document summarizes the 12 major Greek gods that reside on Mount Olympus. It provides details on each god, including their parentage, domains of power, symbols or weapons, titles, and notable offspring. The gods discussed are Zeus, Poseidon, Apollo, Hephaestus, Ares, Hermes, Dionysus, Hera, Athena, Artemis, Demeter, Aphrodite, Hestia, and Hades.
The document provides an analysis of Homer's epic poem "The Odyssey". It begins by summarizing the opening lines, noting that the poet asks the Muse for guidance in telling the story of Odysseus, "the man of twists and turns" who has experienced many hardships, including plundering the heights of Troy. It then analyzes Odysseus' experiences traveling to many lands and suffering pains at sea in his attempt to return home with his comrades.
The document provides summaries of several important Greek and Roman gods. It describes Zeus/Jupiter as the king of the gods who had magical powers like shape shifting and throwing lightning bolts. It also summarizes Hera/Juno as Zeus' sister and wife who was the goddess of marriage. Additionally, it summarizes Poseidon/Neptune as the god of the sea who was happy with his domain and not jealous of his brothers Zeus and Hades.
Stalin imposed totalitarianism on the USSR through several key methods:
1) The Great Purges eliminated Stalin's political opponents through executions and imprisonments, instilling fear in the population.
2) Stalin cultivated a cult of personality through propaganda and censorship that portrayed him as the hero and guide of the nation.
3) Stalin had complete control over the Soviet economy through five-year plans that dictated industrial and agricultural production.
Kristallnacht, also known as the Night of Broken Glass, was a massive, coordinated attack on Jews and Jewish shops throughout Nazi Germany and parts of Austria on November 9, 1938. Nazi stormtroopers, SS members, and Hitler Youth destroyed hundreds of synagogues, vandalized Jewish homes and businesses, and murdered Jews in the streets. The violence was incited after the assassination of a German diplomat by a Jewish teenager, which the Nazis used as a pretext to launch wider attacks against the Jewish community. Over 7,500 Jewish businesses were destroyed, 267 synagogues were burned, and 91 Jews were killed in the attacks.
This document summarizes some of the key gods and figures in Norse mythology. It describes Odin as the ruler of Asgard and the god of war, magic, poetry, wisdom, and victory. It notes that Thor, Odin's favorite son and god of thunder, is one of the most well known figures. It also discusses Loki, the trickster god and brother of Thor, and other gods like Heimdall, Freya, Baldur, and Hel. The document provides information on how some of these figures, like Thor and Loki, have been portrayed in modern Marvel comics and films.
This document summarizes Norse/Germanic mythology, including its poetic and prose sources like the Poetic Edda and Prose Edda. It outlines the nine worlds in Norse cosmology like Asgard, Vanaheim, and Midgard. Key gods and goddesses are described, such as Odin the chief god, Thor god of thunder, and Loki the trickster. Important locations in mythology are also mentioned, such as Valhalla, home of slain warriors, and Yggdrasil the world tree.
The document summarizes the 12 major Greek gods that reside on Mount Olympus. It provides details on each god, including their parentage, domains of power, symbols or weapons, titles, and notable offspring. The gods discussed are Zeus, Poseidon, Apollo, Hephaestus, Ares, Hermes, Dionysus, Hera, Athena, Artemis, Demeter, Aphrodite, Hestia, and Hades.
The document provides an analysis of Homer's epic poem "The Odyssey". It begins by summarizing the opening lines, noting that the poet asks the Muse for guidance in telling the story of Odysseus, "the man of twists and turns" who has experienced many hardships, including plundering the heights of Troy. It then analyzes Odysseus' experiences traveling to many lands and suffering pains at sea in his attempt to return home with his comrades.
The document introduces American imperialism between 1867 and 1898. It discusses how stronger nations extended political and economic control over weaker territories through colonialism. In the late 19th century, European powers scrambled to claim territory in Africa and Asia. The US began pursuing imperialism for economic, military, and cultural reasons, including the belief in white racial superiority. The US expanded from its longstanding isolationist foreign policy by acquiring Alaska, Midway Islands, and Hawaii in this period. The Spanish-American War of 1898 allowed the US to gain control of Guam, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines, cementing its status as an emerging world power by the early 20th century.
CAMBRIDGE A2 HISTORY: HITLER AIMS IN GOVERNMENT AND ADMINISTRATIONGeorge Dumitrache
CAMBRIDGE A2 HISTORY: HITLER AIMS IN GOVERNMENT AND ADMINISTRATION. Contains: Hitler's aims: administrative chaos, Hitler and his power, a culture of competition, Nazi state departments, Reich Chancellery, Reich Interior Ministry, Reich Ministry for Propaganda, the Reich Office of the four-year plan, German Labour Front.
CAMBRIDGE A2 HISTORY: THE MAIN INTERPRETATIONS OF THE COLD WAR AND A LITERATU...George Dumitrache
The document discusses various interpretations of the origins of the Cold War between the United States and Soviet Union. It outlines the orthodox traditional interpretation which attributes responsibility to Soviet aggression, the revisionist interpretation which places more blame on American policies and imperialism, and the post-revisionist interpretation which concludes that both superpowers shared responsibility due to misunderstandings and pursuing their own interests. Historians discussed include Gaddis, Bailey, Feis, Kennan, Williams, LaFeber, Alperovitz, and Kolko.
The Holocaust was the systematic mass murder of European Jews and other groups by Nazi Germany between 1933-1945. Adolf Hitler rose to power in Germany and became dictator in 1933, at which point he began enacting anti-Semitic laws to persecute Jews. Eventually, concentration camps were established where prisoners were forced into hard labor and many were killed. The largest camp was Auschwitz, where over 1 million people were murdered. In total, approximately 11 million innocent people were killed in the Holocaust before Allied forces began liberating the camps in 1944-1945.
CAMBRIDGE A2 HISTORY: HITLER'S TOTALITARIAN REGIME. Suitable for Year 13 History students in Cambridge. It contains: overview, totalitarian regimes, Hitler in Vienna, etc.
Hermes was the son of Zeus and Maia in Greek mythology. He served as the messenger between gods and humans and guided souls to the underworld. He was also known as the god of thieves, heralds, athletes, literature, and a friend of mankind. According to the story, after Hermes was born he stole Apollo's cattle and used their guts to create the first lyre, which amazed the other gods with its beautiful sound.
The document summarizes the Berlin Blockade and Airlift that occurred in 1948. It describes how the Soviets cut off access by road and rail to West Berlin in response to the western allies introducing a new currency. In response, the US initiated an massive airlift to supply West Berlin by plane. Over 15 months, planes delivered necessities to the city's 2.5 million residents every 2 minutes. This airlift showed Soviet attempts to isolate West Berlin would not work, and they eventually backed down and lifted the blockade. The blockade and airlift demonstrated the need for a unified western military alliance, leading to the formation of NATO in 1949.
The poem describes a shepherd urging his love to come live with him. He promises they will experience pleasures in the countryside, such as watching shepherds by rivers and listening to birds singing. The shepherd also offers his love gifts of clothing and decorations made from natural materials like roses, flowers, wool, and ivy. He hopes these promises will convince her to accept his invitation to come live with him and be his love.
This document provides biographical information about Adolf Hitler. It describes that he was born in Austria and wanted to be an artist but was rejected from art school. During WWI he fought for Germany and was inspired by nationalist ideas. After the war he joined the Nazi party which he transformed into a mass movement. The Nazi party gained popularity by blaming Jews and others for Germany's defeat in WWI and economic problems. Hitler led the failed Munich Putsch in 1923 but used the time in prison to write Mein Kampf outlining his ideology. The Nazis continued to grow in the late 1920s gaining more support as Germany struggled with high unemployment and inflation during the Great Depression.
The document summarizes the oppression and human rights violations faced by Native Americans throughout history. It describes how they were robbed of their lands and resources, forcibly removed from their homes, subjected to slavery, violence, massacres and diseases introduced by European settlers. It discusses various laws and acts such as the Major Crimes Act, Indian Removal Act, and Allotment Act that undermined Native American self-governance and cultural identities. Specific tragic events like the Trail of Tears, Sand Creek Massacre and Wounded Knee are also mentioned. It outlines the ongoing issues Native Americans face such as poverty, lack of healthcare, substance abuse, and cultural oppression.
CAMBRIDGE A2 HISTORY: THE ORIGINS OF THE COLD WAR AFTER 1917 AND BEFORE 1940George Dumitrache
The second presentation for Paper 3, "The origins of the Cold War after 1917 and before 1940". Suitable for Cambridge Examination starting May/June and November 2016. It contains: the start of the hostility in 1917; the Cossacks; Lenin and the Great War; USA, Wilson and Germany; a synthesis of the American perspective; World War 1, the Great Depression and the World War 2; from wartime allies to Cold War enemies.
During the McCarthy Era of the 1950s in America, Senator Joseph McCarthy exploited fears about communism for political gain. He claimed to have a list of government employees who were communists and launched accusations with little evidence. McCarthyism led to widespread paranoia where Americans were denounced as communist sympathizers. It influenced society through restrictions on education, censorship of media, and promotion of pro-American ideals. McCarthy's accusations eventually lost credibility and he was censured after televised hearings showed his bullying behavior, marking the end of the McCarthy Era.
The document discusses the naval arms race between Germany and Britain from 1900-1914 and the concurrent land arms race in Europe. Germany's Kaiser Wilhelm II ordered a massive increase in the German navy because he hated that Britain had a stronger navy. This began a naval arms race, with both countries rapidly building more and more battleships. In 1906 Britain launched the Dreadnought, and Germany began building its own Dreadnought-type battleships. At the same time, the major European powers on land were also increasing the size of their armies despite the financial burden, as they believed war was inevitable.
Hermes was the son of Zeus and Maia. He had many divine half-siblings from Zeus and no direct siblings from his mother Maia. Hermes was a messenger of the gods and protector of travelers, thieves, and shepherds. He was known for his winged hat and sandals. Hermes invented the lyre on his first day and became a clever trickster. He led souls to the underworld and brought dreams to mortals at night.
WWII was the largest war in human history from 1939 to 1945. It involved countries around the world and resulted in over 70 million deaths. Major events included Germany invading Poland and the Soviet Union, the Holocaust, Japan's imperialism leading to the attack on Pearl Harbor, the Normandy landings in Europe, and the dropping of atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki which led to Japan's surrender. The war was caused in part by the rise of totalitarian regimes like Nazi Germany and fascist Italy as well as Japan's military dictatorship.
HISTORY IGCSE CONTENT - 20TH CENTURY OPTION - DEPTH STUDY GERMANY: THE NAZI R...George Dumitrache
HISTORY IGCSE CONTENT - 20TH CENTURY OPTION - DEPTH STUDY GERMANY: THE NAZI REGIME - HOW EFFECTIVELY DID THE NAZIS DEAL WITH THEIR POLITICAL OPPONENTS.
The Judgment of Paris began an important chain of events that led to the Trojan War. At a feast on Mount Olympus, Eris tossed a golden apple meant for the "fairest," sparking a dispute between Hera, Athena, and Aphrodite. They asked Paris to judge, and each goddess offered him a bribe. Aphrodite promised Paris the most beautiful woman, Helen, so he awarded her the apple. Paris later traveled to Sparta and seduced Helen away from her husband Menelaus. In retaliation, Menelaus rallied the Greeks to launch an attack on Troy to retrieve Helen, beginning the famed Trojan War that lasted 10 years.
Dionysus was the Greek god of wine, fertility, theater, and religious ecstasy. According to mythology, he was the son of Zeus and the mortal woman Semele. As a child, he wandered Asia and Egypt before returning to Greece. Dionysus had many powers including control over madness, vegetation, plays, winemaking, and reincarnation. He introduced wine and the cultivation of grapes to humans. Dionysus should be remembered as one of the few gods born of a human and one of the only ones who could bring someone back from the underworld.
The Treaty of Versailles, signed in June 1919, imposed harsh terms on Germany following World War 1. It required Germany to accept responsibility for starting the war, reduce its armed forces, pay extensive reparations, and cede territory. While Woodrow Wilson wanted a just peace, the other Allied leaders sought to punish and weaken Germany to prevent future aggression. Most Germans bitterly opposed the treaty, seeing it as an unjust dictate that humiliated their country and could destabilize Europe.
The document discusses the origins of Viking culture in Scandinavia during the Bronze Age and Iron Age. It describes how aspects of culture developed over this period, including ship building, domestic architecture like longhouses, religious practices, and economic activities like agriculture, fishing, and trade. Society was stratified with evidence of wealthier individuals. Overall, the foundations for the expansion of the Viking Age were established through cultural developments spanning many centuries prior.
This document provides an overview of a course on the Vikings between AD 700-1100. It discusses the sources used to study the Vikings, including historical accounts, sagas, runic inscriptions and place names. It also outlines advances in archaeological techniques that have improved understanding of Viking sites, settlements, trade and environment. Interpretive paradigms have shifted from seeing Vikings as pirates to appreciating their social structure and role in state formation, trade and assimilation into other cultures.
The document introduces American imperialism between 1867 and 1898. It discusses how stronger nations extended political and economic control over weaker territories through colonialism. In the late 19th century, European powers scrambled to claim territory in Africa and Asia. The US began pursuing imperialism for economic, military, and cultural reasons, including the belief in white racial superiority. The US expanded from its longstanding isolationist foreign policy by acquiring Alaska, Midway Islands, and Hawaii in this period. The Spanish-American War of 1898 allowed the US to gain control of Guam, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines, cementing its status as an emerging world power by the early 20th century.
CAMBRIDGE A2 HISTORY: HITLER AIMS IN GOVERNMENT AND ADMINISTRATIONGeorge Dumitrache
CAMBRIDGE A2 HISTORY: HITLER AIMS IN GOVERNMENT AND ADMINISTRATION. Contains: Hitler's aims: administrative chaos, Hitler and his power, a culture of competition, Nazi state departments, Reich Chancellery, Reich Interior Ministry, Reich Ministry for Propaganda, the Reich Office of the four-year plan, German Labour Front.
CAMBRIDGE A2 HISTORY: THE MAIN INTERPRETATIONS OF THE COLD WAR AND A LITERATU...George Dumitrache
The document discusses various interpretations of the origins of the Cold War between the United States and Soviet Union. It outlines the orthodox traditional interpretation which attributes responsibility to Soviet aggression, the revisionist interpretation which places more blame on American policies and imperialism, and the post-revisionist interpretation which concludes that both superpowers shared responsibility due to misunderstandings and pursuing their own interests. Historians discussed include Gaddis, Bailey, Feis, Kennan, Williams, LaFeber, Alperovitz, and Kolko.
The Holocaust was the systematic mass murder of European Jews and other groups by Nazi Germany between 1933-1945. Adolf Hitler rose to power in Germany and became dictator in 1933, at which point he began enacting anti-Semitic laws to persecute Jews. Eventually, concentration camps were established where prisoners were forced into hard labor and many were killed. The largest camp was Auschwitz, where over 1 million people were murdered. In total, approximately 11 million innocent people were killed in the Holocaust before Allied forces began liberating the camps in 1944-1945.
CAMBRIDGE A2 HISTORY: HITLER'S TOTALITARIAN REGIME. Suitable for Year 13 History students in Cambridge. It contains: overview, totalitarian regimes, Hitler in Vienna, etc.
Hermes was the son of Zeus and Maia in Greek mythology. He served as the messenger between gods and humans and guided souls to the underworld. He was also known as the god of thieves, heralds, athletes, literature, and a friend of mankind. According to the story, after Hermes was born he stole Apollo's cattle and used their guts to create the first lyre, which amazed the other gods with its beautiful sound.
The document summarizes the Berlin Blockade and Airlift that occurred in 1948. It describes how the Soviets cut off access by road and rail to West Berlin in response to the western allies introducing a new currency. In response, the US initiated an massive airlift to supply West Berlin by plane. Over 15 months, planes delivered necessities to the city's 2.5 million residents every 2 minutes. This airlift showed Soviet attempts to isolate West Berlin would not work, and they eventually backed down and lifted the blockade. The blockade and airlift demonstrated the need for a unified western military alliance, leading to the formation of NATO in 1949.
The poem describes a shepherd urging his love to come live with him. He promises they will experience pleasures in the countryside, such as watching shepherds by rivers and listening to birds singing. The shepherd also offers his love gifts of clothing and decorations made from natural materials like roses, flowers, wool, and ivy. He hopes these promises will convince her to accept his invitation to come live with him and be his love.
This document provides biographical information about Adolf Hitler. It describes that he was born in Austria and wanted to be an artist but was rejected from art school. During WWI he fought for Germany and was inspired by nationalist ideas. After the war he joined the Nazi party which he transformed into a mass movement. The Nazi party gained popularity by blaming Jews and others for Germany's defeat in WWI and economic problems. Hitler led the failed Munich Putsch in 1923 but used the time in prison to write Mein Kampf outlining his ideology. The Nazis continued to grow in the late 1920s gaining more support as Germany struggled with high unemployment and inflation during the Great Depression.
The document summarizes the oppression and human rights violations faced by Native Americans throughout history. It describes how they were robbed of their lands and resources, forcibly removed from their homes, subjected to slavery, violence, massacres and diseases introduced by European settlers. It discusses various laws and acts such as the Major Crimes Act, Indian Removal Act, and Allotment Act that undermined Native American self-governance and cultural identities. Specific tragic events like the Trail of Tears, Sand Creek Massacre and Wounded Knee are also mentioned. It outlines the ongoing issues Native Americans face such as poverty, lack of healthcare, substance abuse, and cultural oppression.
CAMBRIDGE A2 HISTORY: THE ORIGINS OF THE COLD WAR AFTER 1917 AND BEFORE 1940George Dumitrache
The second presentation for Paper 3, "The origins of the Cold War after 1917 and before 1940". Suitable for Cambridge Examination starting May/June and November 2016. It contains: the start of the hostility in 1917; the Cossacks; Lenin and the Great War; USA, Wilson and Germany; a synthesis of the American perspective; World War 1, the Great Depression and the World War 2; from wartime allies to Cold War enemies.
During the McCarthy Era of the 1950s in America, Senator Joseph McCarthy exploited fears about communism for political gain. He claimed to have a list of government employees who were communists and launched accusations with little evidence. McCarthyism led to widespread paranoia where Americans were denounced as communist sympathizers. It influenced society through restrictions on education, censorship of media, and promotion of pro-American ideals. McCarthy's accusations eventually lost credibility and he was censured after televised hearings showed his bullying behavior, marking the end of the McCarthy Era.
The document discusses the naval arms race between Germany and Britain from 1900-1914 and the concurrent land arms race in Europe. Germany's Kaiser Wilhelm II ordered a massive increase in the German navy because he hated that Britain had a stronger navy. This began a naval arms race, with both countries rapidly building more and more battleships. In 1906 Britain launched the Dreadnought, and Germany began building its own Dreadnought-type battleships. At the same time, the major European powers on land were also increasing the size of their armies despite the financial burden, as they believed war was inevitable.
Hermes was the son of Zeus and Maia. He had many divine half-siblings from Zeus and no direct siblings from his mother Maia. Hermes was a messenger of the gods and protector of travelers, thieves, and shepherds. He was known for his winged hat and sandals. Hermes invented the lyre on his first day and became a clever trickster. He led souls to the underworld and brought dreams to mortals at night.
WWII was the largest war in human history from 1939 to 1945. It involved countries around the world and resulted in over 70 million deaths. Major events included Germany invading Poland and the Soviet Union, the Holocaust, Japan's imperialism leading to the attack on Pearl Harbor, the Normandy landings in Europe, and the dropping of atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki which led to Japan's surrender. The war was caused in part by the rise of totalitarian regimes like Nazi Germany and fascist Italy as well as Japan's military dictatorship.
HISTORY IGCSE CONTENT - 20TH CENTURY OPTION - DEPTH STUDY GERMANY: THE NAZI R...George Dumitrache
HISTORY IGCSE CONTENT - 20TH CENTURY OPTION - DEPTH STUDY GERMANY: THE NAZI REGIME - HOW EFFECTIVELY DID THE NAZIS DEAL WITH THEIR POLITICAL OPPONENTS.
The Judgment of Paris began an important chain of events that led to the Trojan War. At a feast on Mount Olympus, Eris tossed a golden apple meant for the "fairest," sparking a dispute between Hera, Athena, and Aphrodite. They asked Paris to judge, and each goddess offered him a bribe. Aphrodite promised Paris the most beautiful woman, Helen, so he awarded her the apple. Paris later traveled to Sparta and seduced Helen away from her husband Menelaus. In retaliation, Menelaus rallied the Greeks to launch an attack on Troy to retrieve Helen, beginning the famed Trojan War that lasted 10 years.
Dionysus was the Greek god of wine, fertility, theater, and religious ecstasy. According to mythology, he was the son of Zeus and the mortal woman Semele. As a child, he wandered Asia and Egypt before returning to Greece. Dionysus had many powers including control over madness, vegetation, plays, winemaking, and reincarnation. He introduced wine and the cultivation of grapes to humans. Dionysus should be remembered as one of the few gods born of a human and one of the only ones who could bring someone back from the underworld.
The Treaty of Versailles, signed in June 1919, imposed harsh terms on Germany following World War 1. It required Germany to accept responsibility for starting the war, reduce its armed forces, pay extensive reparations, and cede territory. While Woodrow Wilson wanted a just peace, the other Allied leaders sought to punish and weaken Germany to prevent future aggression. Most Germans bitterly opposed the treaty, seeing it as an unjust dictate that humiliated their country and could destabilize Europe.
The document discusses the origins of Viking culture in Scandinavia during the Bronze Age and Iron Age. It describes how aspects of culture developed over this period, including ship building, domestic architecture like longhouses, religious practices, and economic activities like agriculture, fishing, and trade. Society was stratified with evidence of wealthier individuals. Overall, the foundations for the expansion of the Viking Age were established through cultural developments spanning many centuries prior.
This document provides an overview of a course on the Vikings between AD 700-1100. It discusses the sources used to study the Vikings, including historical accounts, sagas, runic inscriptions and place names. It also outlines advances in archaeological techniques that have improved understanding of Viking sites, settlements, trade and environment. Interpretive paradigms have shifted from seeing Vikings as pirates to appreciating their social structure and role in state formation, trade and assimilation into other cultures.
This document provides instructions for a test on Unit 1 and encourages students to prepare by completing lessons, checkpoints, and quizzes. It outlines the two parts of the test - a multiple choice section and an essay. For the essay, students must write a two paragraph response using the essay guide on the topic of the Catholic Counter-Reformation. The document emphasizes completing both parts of the test and asks students to submit any questions. It concludes by wishing students good luck on the test and providing a secret phrase related to the test deadline.
This document provides an introduction to Norse Mythology by Peter Andreas Munch. It discusses how Norse mythology has been preserved through later sources after the original pagan religion began to decline. It also notes that while the mythology was shared among Germanic tribes, the specific beliefs took on distinct characteristics as the tribes diverged in language, customs, and way of life. The introduction provides context on how and when Christianity replaced paganism among different Germanic peoples, with Scandinavian regions converting later in the 11th-12th centuries.
CAPE HISTORY UNIT ONE Evidence of nordic movements in precapesociology
There is evidence from several sources that Norse people from Scandinavia reached the Americas before Christopher Columbus. Oral histories and written sagas from Iceland describe Norse explorers reaching lands that archaeologists have identified as Baffin Island, Labrador, and Newfoundland between the 10th-11th centuries. Artifacts excavated at L'Anse aux Meadows in Newfoundland, including iron nails, butternut shells, and woodworking tools, indicate the Norse established a small settlement there. Maps from the 15th century also depict an area of North America called Vinland. Together, the archaeological, botanical, written, and cartographic evidence suggests the Norse had contact with the pre-Columbian Americas.
The document provides a review for a World History final exam, including:
- The exam will be 69 multiple choice questions worth 1 point each, with a deadline of June 3rd to be exempt.
- Topics covered on the exam include European exploration, the Columbian Exchange, the Protestant Reformation, absolutism, the French Revolution, imperialism, World War 1, World War 2, and the Cold War.
- The review provides study questions, matching, and multiple choice questions on these topics to help students prepare.
West africa and_the_portuguese_up_to_____capesociology
The document discusses Portuguese contact with West Africa up to 1492. It summarizes that Portugal was the first European country to extensively explore and trade along the coast of West Africa, motivated by desires for gold, slaves and new trade routes to Asia. Their presence disrupted existing trans-Saharan trade routes and introduced new diseases, but direct control of the African interior was limited due to geographic and health barriers. While contact increased trade of goods like gold and slaves, it also had cultural, religious and social impacts through the spread of Christianity, emergence of mixed-race populations, and disruption of African traditions.
This document provides guidance for students on essay writing skills. It emphasizes preparing and planning essays by choosing interesting topics, doing thorough research beyond assigned readings, and developing clear outlines. When writing, students are advised to introduce their topic and argument, support points with examples and analysis, and conclude by summarizing without introducing new ideas. Proper referencing and proofreading are also stressed. Students are reminded not to procrastinate and should seek feedback from mentors and tutors.
The document discusses the social structure and political institutions of Scandinavian communities during the Viking Age from 700-900 AD. It analyzes the social hierarchy and divisions based on sex, age, and status using archaeological evidence, textual sources, mythical tales, and literary accounts. Women generally had high social status and equal rights to men. The sources describe distinct social classes of slaves, freemen, and rulers. Archaeological evidence like the rich Oseberg ship burial shows some women held elite aristocratic roles. Overall, the document aims to understand Viking society by examining evidence from multiple genres of sources.
This document discusses the colonial history of Africa and how it led to the current political boundaries on the continent. It describes how European powers colonized Africa in the late 19th century, dividing it up without regard for ethnic or linguistic groups. This caused issues after independence as new countries contained diverse populations. Properly redrawing the map of Africa would require considering the thousands of languages and ethnicities rather than arbitrary colonial borders.
This study guide provides an overview of topics to review for the Unit 2 exam. It lists characteristics of classical civilizations and empires. Key areas about Rome are outlined, including its geography, law, and transition from kingdom to republic. Greece is discussed in terms of Athens, democracy, city-states, and philosophers. Buddhism, Hinduism, Chinese dynasties, the Silk Road, and cultural diffusion from 200 BC to 1450 AD are briefly introduced. The student is directed to use this guide to research topics further and ask questions if needed.
A research conducted by Tashieka King on the role women played in resisting enslavement. The research shows that women has contributed significantly to make their life of enslavement better.
The document provides a detailed overview of apartheid in South Africa and the development and eventual dismantling of the system of racial segregation. It describes how apartheid was implemented through legislation in the late 1940s and 1950s that separated residential areas and prohibited interracial relationships. The system aimed to deny economic and political rights to non-whites. It faced increasing resistance through the 1980s from groups like the ANC and Nelson Mandela, culminating in democratic elections and the end of apartheid in 1994.
1) In the late 1800s, most immigrants to the United States came from southern and eastern Europe rather than northern Europe. They entered through ports like New York and were inspected at Ellis Island.
2) Millions of immigrants came for economic opportunities and freedom from persecution, pushed by factors like poor farming conditions and pulled by plentiful jobs. They settled in ethnic neighborhoods in large cities.
3) Immigrant workers faced poor living and working conditions, such as overcrowded tenement housing and unsafe factories with long hours and low pay, including child labor. Events like the Triangle Shirtwaist Factory fire led to reforms for worker protections.
CAPE HISTORY Unit One Multiple choice indigenous societiescapesociology
This document contains 60 multiple choice questions about the history of the Caribbean. The questions cover a range of topics including the indigenous peoples of the Caribbean like the Taino, European colonization of the region beginning with Columbus, the establishment of plantation economies based on slavery, abolition of slavery and emancipation, the post-emancipation period, rise of nationalism and independence movements, and United States involvement in the region. The document provides answers to each of the 60 multiple choice questions.
The document discusses the growth of nationalism in India through various movements between World War 1 and the early 1930s. It highlights how the First World War, Khilafat movement, and Non-Cooperation Movement helped unite social groups under the banner of independence. Gandhi emerged as a leader advocating non-violent civil disobedience. His Salt Satyagraha and the Civil Disobedience Movement in the 1930s mobilized large sections of society. However, differing groups had their own aspirations, and some movements turned violent as peasants pursued land reforms. The British responded with brutal repression and arrests of leaders.
Mohandas Gandhi was born in 1869 in western India and went to London to study law, experiencing discrimination which influenced his later activism. In South Africa from 1893-1915, he faced racism and was a leader for Indian civil rights, employing non-violence. He returned to India in 1915 and took a leadership role in the independence movement, advocating non-cooperation and non-violence against British rule through campaigns like salt marches and hunger strikes. Though sometimes imprisoned, he helped unite Hindus and Muslims and worked with leaders like Nehru and Jinnah for independence, which was achieved in 1947 though Gandhi was not present on the day.
Mohandas Gandhi was born in 1869 in Gujarat, India. He faced racism as a lawyer in South Africa, which turned him toward non-violent activism. He led non-violent campaigns for Indian rights in South Africa and then India that weakened British control and ultimately led to India's independence, though the country was partitioned, leading to violence. Gandhi continued non-violent campaigns and fasts to reduce tensions until his assassination in 1948.
A life of inspiration - Mahatma Gandhi 1869-1948Shivam Dhawan
Mahatma Gandhi, Father of our nation, whose profound spirituality and belief in justice inspired the world. In remembrance of his life of inspiration on his birth anniversary.
The quest for valhalla norse mythology & legendProfWillAdams
The document provides an overview of Norse mythology based on stories from the Icelandic Eddas. It describes the creation story where the gods Odin, Vili and Ve formed the world from the giant Ymir's body. It details the nine worlds of Norse cosmology centered around the world tree Yggdrasil. The document also profiles important gods like Odin, king of the Aesir gods, the thunder god Thor, and fertility deities Freyr and Freya. It discusses the afterlife realm of Valhalla that welcomed slain warriors chosen by the Valkyrie maidens.
The document summarizes the gods of the Norse religion known as Ásatrú. It divides the gods into two categories: the Æsir and the Vanir. The Æsir include chief god Odin, wife of Odin Frigg, thunder god Thor, fertility god Balder, and law god Tyr. The Vanir consist of sea and fertility god Njörðr, fertility god Frey, and love and fertility goddess Freyja.
The document summarizes the gods of the Norse religion known as Ásatrú. It divides the gods into two categories: the Æsir and the Vanir. The Æsir include chief god Odin, wife of Odin Frigg, thunder god Thor, fertility god Balder, and law god Tyr. The Vanir consist of sea and fertility god Njörðr, fertility god Frey, and love and fertility goddess Freyja.
The document summarizes the gods of the Norse religion known as Ásatrú. It divides the gods into two categories: the Æsir and the Vanir. The Æsir include chief god Odin, wife of Odin Frigg, thunder god Thor, fertility god Balder, and law god Tyr. The Vanir consist of sea and fertility god Njörðr, fertility god Frey, and love and fertility goddess Freyja.
The document summarizes the gods of the Norse religion known as Ásatrú. It divides the gods into two categories: the Æsir and the Vanir. The Æsir include chief god Odin, wife of Odin Frigg, thunder god Thor, fertility god Balder, and law god Tyr. The Vanir consist of sea and fertility god Njörðr, fertility god Frey, and love and fertility goddess Freyja.
The document summarizes Norse mythology, including the major gods and other figures. It describes the two clans of gods, the Aesir and Vanir, and names some of the most important gods from each, including Odin, Thor, Loki, Balder, and Freyja. It also discusses the creation myth of Norse mythology, in which the gods formed the world from the corpse of the giant Ymir, and the role of Yggdrasil, the world tree that connects the nine realms.
Lecture 17 Barbarians the Germanic tribes and the Norseme.docxsmile790243
Lecture 17 Barbarians: the Germanic tribes and the Norsemen
The Germanic and the Norse mythologies are very similar and they reflect the harsh
environment and the fierce fighters that these people were. These are the people that the Romans
called barbarians; that’s where the word comes from. The very sophisticated Romans feared the
barbarians, who were actually able to bring down the entire Roman Empire. These are the Vikings, a
different group, because they not only were able to trade and went from Scandinavian countries all the
way down to North Africa and had trading ventures with the Muslim states, but at the same time they
were pillaging the coastlines of Europe and the Brit ish Isles. They had settled Iceland. You talk about
global warming. At the time that the Vikings were heading out, Greenland was actually green and for 75
years, the Vikings had established a community there in this very rich environment until the ice
returned. An entire village is caught under 20, 30, 40, 50 feet of snow and is now being excavated. The
Vikings even went further on, using Greenland as a base probably, and went to Nova Scotia or in that
area and established communities there. These wer e a wide ranging people who believed that the gods
were there as protectors and the gods were there as helpers, but when it came down to brass tacks,
these people believed that a person controlled his own destiny. You tried to do your best, you asked for
help, but then you play the cards, the hand, that you are dealt.
Another interesting side note about Viking culture is that generally in all the Germanic tribes,
and they were mostly tribes and clans, the succession of leader went to the strongest, the f ittest, and
the bravest. But, when some of the Vikings became extremely wealthy with their trading particularly
with the Muslims in North Africa, they wanted to keep that money within their own families, so they
changed the succession so that it went from father to son, rather than strongest to strongest. It is
interesting to note that in some of these clans where the succession had changed, the entire culture fell
apart within a couple of generations.
Even our days of the week remind us of the Norse go ds. For instance, Thor’s Day, Thursday.
Thor was the god of thunder, and the most powerful god. It is interesting that he was not the leader of
the family of gods, but by far the most powerful one. He had a magic hammer, Mjollnir, that every time
he threw it, it would return to him. Freya’s Day, Friday. Freya being the goddess of fertility and love ,
the most beautiful of all the goddesses. And Wodin’s Day, Wednesday. Wodin is also known as Odin,
depending on the pronunciation and spelling of the lo cality where it comes from. Odin was actually the
leader of the gods, the one who was able to keep the family, the loose confederation, of the gods
together. He was a one-eyed god and it is not often that we hav ...
This document discusses similarities between ancient Celtic and Hindu spiritual concepts, mythology, social structures, and language. It provides examples of uncanny parallels between Druid and Brahmin priestly castes, words for concepts like "knowledge" and "planet Mercury" that are similar in Celtic and Sanskrit, parallel creation myths involving dismembered bodies, and depictions of horned gods like Cernunnos and Shiva Pashupati. The document speculates that these similarities may indicate a shared spiritual origin stemming from migrations of Indo-Aryan peoples who dispersed both west to Europe and south to India during the Iron Ages.
This document provides an overview of mythology and folklore. It defines key terms like myth, fairy tale, folklore, and legend. It describes the main types and sources of myths. The great themes in mythology are outlined, including creation, gods/goddesses, heroes, monsters, animals, the underworld, journeys, the afterlife, and destroyed worlds. An overview is given of the mythologies of different world regions and cultures. Finally, the major Greek and Roman gods are defined.
The document summarizes the Birkat Kohanim, or Priestly Blessing, in Judaism. It is an ancient Jewish custom where members of the Kohanim, or priestly class, administer a blessing on holidays with their hands in the shape of the Hebrew letter Shin. The blessing comes directly from Numbers 6:24-26. The gesture was the inspiration for Spock's "Live long and prosper" salute on Star Trek due to actor Leonard Nimoy's Jewish heritage.
This document provides a summary of the Book of Revelation chapter 3 verses 1-6, which describes Jesus' message to the church in Sardis. The key points are:
1) Sardis was once a wealthy city but had become spiritually complacent, resembling the "dead" bodies in its famous necropolis. Jesus tells them they have a reputation for being alive but are actually dead.
2) A few members of the church remained faithful and avoided defiling their garments. Jesus promises these overcomers will walk with him in white garments.
3) All who overcome will have their names preserved in the Book of Life, and Jesus will confess their names before God. Failure
Ancient Tree Of Life Irish Fireside 2007kbehling1211
The document summarizes Celtic tree symbolism and folklore. It discusses how the oak, apple, alder, birch, hazel, holly and willow trees each had spiritual meanings for ancient Celts. It provides examples of Irish folktales and superstitions associated with trees, especially oak which was considered most sacred. The document also lists the traditional spiritual meanings that various trees held for ancient Celts.
A myth is a symbolic story that conveys truths about culture and origins, rather than recording true events, while legends are semi-true stories passed down over time with meaning or symbolism. Myths often involve supernatural beings and explain beginnings. The centaur is a mythological creature that is half-human and half-horse, seen as both embodiments of untamed nature and as teachers. According to Greek tradition, centaurs were born from the union of a king and a cloud disguised as the king's wife. Myths continue to be read and studied today as they help humans understand the world and their place in it by responding to eternal questions and providing guidance.
The Barbarians were groups located in Europe and Asia that were not part of Greek or Roman culture. There were many Barbarian groups such as the Visigoths, Gauls, Norse, Huns, Teutons, Anglo-Saxons, Vikings, Allans, Germans, Celts, Franks, and Jutes. They had various forms of political organization including kings and clan heads. Their religions included gods from the Ases and Vanes families. The Barbarians practiced monogamy, farming, hunting, and some used runes for writing and magic. Their culture included festivals like Yule and Ostara as well as literary works such as Beowulf and tales of King Arthur.
This document provides information about various mythical creatures from Greek mythology including centaurs, cerberus, cyclops, gorgons like Medusa, pegasus, scylla, sirens, and sphinx. It describes their physical characteristics and origins in myths. For example, it notes that centaurs had the torso of a human and body of a horse, cerberus was the three-headed hound guarding the underworld, and Medusa was a gorgon with snakes for hair who could turn people to stone with her gaze. The document also explains that the purpose of learning about these myths is to understand historical figures and events as well as ancient cultures better.
The document summarizes legends and myths about twins from various cultures including:
- Ainu folktales from Japan about twin sons born from eggs descended from a divine deity.
- Udege myths from Northeast Asia about twin brothers who became ancestors of two clans, resembling Ainu origins myths.
- Greek myths about the twin brothers Castor and Pollux, who were fathered by different parents (Zeus and Tyndareus) but given partial immortality by Zeus so they could alternate between Olympus and Hades. They became the Gemini constellation.
The document discusses ancient Greek oracles and methods of divination. It describes several major oracles including Delphi (associated with Apollo), Dodona (associated with Zeus), and Epidaurus (associated with Asclepius the god of healing). The oracle priests and priestesses would use various techniques like inhaling vapors, dreaming, or interpreting natural phenomena to transmit prophecies. While oracles' messages were often vague, they were widely trusted and consulted about important matters like war, marriage, and medicine. Famous myths and figures like Oedipus and Croesus illustrate oracles' predictions coming true.
The document appears to be a quiz on Hindu mythology containing 14 multiple choice questions. The questions cover a range of topics including divine figures like Kapila, the founder of Sankhya yoga, animals with religious significance like Hamsa, and ceremonies or rituals like Yajna. Correct answers to the questions are provided at the end and are worth varying point values as part of what appears to be a learning game or exercise.
Dna sequence of the mitochondrial hypervariable region ii (krings et al.)Kristian Pedersen
1) The authors determined the DNA sequence of the second hypervariable region (HVRII) of mitochondrial DNA from the Neandertal type specimen.
2) When combined with the previously published HVR1 sequence, phylogenetic analysis found the Neandertal mtDNA to fall outside the variation of contemporary human mtDNA sequences.
3) The estimated date of divergence between Neandertal and modern human mtDNA sequences was 465,000 years before present, with a confidence interval of 317,000 to 741,000 years. This supports the Neandertals having a separate evolutionary history from modern humans.
Detecting ancient admixture in humans using sequence polymorphism data (wall)Kristian Pedersen
This document summarizes a study that examines how much genetic data would be needed to determine if archaic human populations like Neanderthals interbred with and contributed to the modern human gene pool. The study introduces a model of ancient population structure involving mixing between groups. It then determines how many unlinked nuclear loci from sequencing data would be required to distinguish between scenarios of single origin vs. multiregional origin of modern humans. The study finds that 50-100 loci would be needed if plausible parameter estimates are used, and that the amount of available data is not yet sufficient to support one model over the other. However, with more sequencing in coming years, the required data should become available to help resolve the debate.
Close correspondence between quantitative and molecular-genetic divergence t...Kristian Pedersen
This document presents a new method for estimating divergence times between populations based on quantitative traits like cranial measurements. The authors develop a phenotypic divergence time (PTD) estimator modeled after genetic divergence time estimators. They apply their PTD estimator to cranial measurements from over 2,500 modern humans and 20 Neandertals. Their analysis estimates the Neandertal-modern human divergence at either 311,000 years ago or 435,000 years ago, depending on assumptions. These dates are similar to estimates from ancient DNA, implying cranial and genetic divergence largely track population history through neutral evolution.
This document reanalyzes ancient mitochondrial DNA sequences recovered from Neandertal bones. Previous studies placed Neandertals at the base of the modern human phylogenetic tree, suggesting they did not contribute to the modern human gene pool. However, these analyses did not account for high substitution rate variation among sites in the human mitochondrial D-loop region or estimate nucleotide substitution model parameters. The authors reanalyze the Neandertal sequences using maximum likelihood methods that account for these factors to provide a more accurate phylogenetic reconstruction.
Anterior tooth growth periods in neandertals were comparable to those of mode...Kristian Pedersen
This document analyzes the duration of enamel formation in anterior teeth of Neanderthals compared to three modern human groups. It finds that while Neanderthal formation times were likely faster than Inuit, they were not faster than those of an English sample and were clearly slower than a southern African sample. This suggests Neanderthal tooth growth, and by extension somatic growth, falls within the range of modern human variation.
Ancient dna. would the real neandertal please stand up (cooper et al.)Kristian Pedersen
This document summarizes a study that analyzed mitochondrial DNA sequences recovered from Neandertal specimens and early modern human fossils. The study found:
1) Neandertal mtDNA sequences were not present in early modern humans or contemporary humans, suggesting a limited genetic contribution from Neandertals to modern humans.
2) However, the results depend on assumptions like the fossils actually containing ancient DNA, and more data is needed to definitively resolve the genetic relationship between Neandertals and modern humans.
3) Future studies using more specimens and nuclear DNA may provide more powerful tests of the extent of genetic exchange between Neandertals and early modern humans.
A re appraisal of ceprano calvaria affinities (ascenzi et al.)Kristian Pedersen
The document discusses new modifications made to the reconstruction of the Ceprano calvaria based on additional examination. It provides a reassessment of the morphology and measurements of the calvaria and evaluates its affinities to Homo erectus. New geological data from the Priverno Basin suggests an age of 800-900 thousand years for the calvaria. While showing some similarities, the calvaria exhibits significant morphological variation compared to typical H. erectus specimens.
A modern human pattern of dental development in lower pleistocene hominids fr...Kristian Pedersen
This document summarizes a study of dental development patterns in hominid fossils from the Gran Dolina site in Spain. The fossils are dated to around 0.8 million years ago. Three individuals provided information about their dental development:
1) Hominid 1 showed signs of stress during childhood in dental enamel and dentine.
2) Hominid 2 and 3 died during early childhood before their third molars erupted.
3) Analysis of tooth mineralization stages in the fossils showed more similarity to patterns in modern humans than chimpanzees. This supports the view that by 0.8 million years ago, Homo species had a prolonged developmental pattern like humans.
A cranium for the earliest europeans: phylogenetic position of the hominid fr...Kristian Pedersen
The document summarizes a study analyzing the cranium of a hominid fossil discovered near Ceprano, Italy in 1994. Researchers estimated its age to be between 800-900 thousand years old based on dating of surrounding rock layers. The cranium was reconstructed and compared morphologically to other early European and Asian hominin fossils. Results found it displayed a unique blend of traits linking early Homo erectus to later specimens referred to Homo heidelbergensis. The researchers concluded the Ceprano cranium represents an important transitional form between early hominin groups, filling a gap in the human fossil record in Europe between 1-0.5 million years ago.
A calvarium of late homo erectus from ceprano, italy (ascenzi et al.)Kristian Pedersen
The document summarizes the discovery and context of a late Homo erectus calvarium found in Ceprano, Italy. Key points:
- The calvarium was discovered in 1994 during highway construction in a clay layer dated to around 700,000 years ago.
- The shape and size of the calvarium (capacity of 1185 ml) show it possesses some, but not all, features of Homo erectus.
- A geological survey found the remains in a colluvial-alluvial paleosol originating from an ancient slope, indicating the site was a marshy pool within the Ceprano basin.
The feeding biomechanics and dietary ecology of australopithecus africanus (s...Kristian Pedersen
1) The feeding biomechanics and craniofacial morphology of Australopithecus africanus were analyzed using finite element analysis informed by comparative data.
2) The results suggest that the facial skeleton of A. africanus was well-adapted to withstand loads applied during premolar biting, including stresses along the nasal margins and zygomatic root.
3) However, neither the mastication of small hard objects nor large volumes of food alone can fully explain the evolution of the robust facial features in A. africanus. Rather, key aspects are more likely related to ingesting and processing large mechanically protected foods like nuts and seeds.
The carbon isotope ecology and diet of australopithecus africanus at sterkfon...Kristian Pedersen
The document summarizes a study that analyzed the carbon isotope ratios in tooth enamel from 10 specimens of Australopithecus africanus from Sterkfontein in South Africa, dating to between 2.5-2.0 million years ago. The results show that A. africanus had a varied diet incorporating both C3 forest foods and C4 savanna foods to a greater degree than other early hominins. This suggests A. africanus was a highly adaptable and opportunistic feeder. The isotope data also indicates the individuals exhibited more dietary variation than other early hominin species, arguing against suggestions that multiple species are represented in the A. africanus taxon.
Ontogeny of australopithecines and early homo: evidence from carnial capacity...Kristian Pedersen
The document discusses the benefits of exercise for mental health. Regular physical activity can help reduce anxiety and depression and improve mood and cognitive function. Exercise causes chemical changes in the brain that may help protect against mental illness and improve symptoms.
Cosmogenic Nuclide Dating Of Sahelanthropus Tchadensis And Australopiethcus B...Kristian Pedersen
This study used cosmogenic nuclide dating to determine the ages of sedimentary units containing hominid remains at two localities in Chad - KT 12 locality in Koro Toro and TM 266 locality in Toros-Menalla. At KT 12, which contained Australopithecus bahrelghazali, authigenic 10Be/9Be dating of the sedimentary level yielded an age of 3.58 ± 0.27 Ma, consistent with an early Pliocene age estimation. At TM 266, where Sahelanthropus tchadensis was found, 28 10Be/9Be ages from the anthracotheriid unit containing the hominid remains bracketed its age between 6.8
The document discusses the emergence and characteristics of Neanderthals. Some key points:
- Neanderthals first emerged in Europe and the Middle East between 150,000-200,000 years ago as a distinct species from Homo heidelbergensis.
- They were restricted to Europe and Western Asia, with no evidence found in Africa or East Asia.
- Anatomically, Neanderthals had stockier builds than modern humans and more robust skeletons, especially in the cranium.
- Genetic evidence shows Neanderthals diverged from the modern human line well before 300,000 years ago, with a substantial genetic distance between the two groups.
-
Homo erectus expanded out of Africa into Eurasia around 1.6 million years ago. Some of the earliest sites outside of Africa are found in East Asia, particularly China and Java, dating back to around 1.9-1.7 million years ago. Homo erectus inhabited sites across Asia utilizing chopper tool industries rather than hand-axes. Some of the most important early Asian sites include Longgupo Cave in China dating to 1.7-1.9 million years ago, and Sangiran in Java dating to around 1.6 million years ago. Homo erectus expanded into Europe around 1 million years ago, with some of the earliest securely dated sites found in Spain and Italy.
Homo ergaster was an early form of Homo that expanded out of Africa between 2-1.6 million years ago. Evidence from the Dmanisi site in Georgia dates Homo ergaster occupation there to 1.88 million years ago, indicating they dispersed earlier in Africa. Homo ergaster displayed increased brain size and cranial capacity compared to Homo habilis, and were taller yet more gracile. They controlled fire, made Acheulean stone tools like handaxes, and were the first hominins to colonize areas outside of Africa, suggesting increased social complexity and technological adaptation.
This document discusses early hominin species including Australopithecus garhi, Homo habilis, and Homo rudolfensis. A. garhi, found in Ethiopia in 1996, was the earliest known tool-producing hominin dating to between 2.6-2.5 million years ago. H. habilis produced basic stone tools and expanded out of Africa between 2.4-1.5 million years ago. H. rudolfensis, found in Kenya, may be a separate species from H. habilis based on cranial differences. The document also examines the physical characteristics, fossil evidence, locomotion, diet, and basic stone tool production of these early hominins.
The document summarizes key australopithecine species and their evolution. It discusses Australopithecus anamensis, A. afarensis, A. africanus, Paranthropus aethiopicus, P. boisei, P. robustus, and A. garhi. It describes their fossil records, anatomies, habitats, locomotion, and relationships. A. garhi is significant as the earliest known tool-making hominin. Debate continues regarding the lineages and relationships between the gracile and robust australopithecine forms.
The document discusses evidence from genetics, anatomy, and behavior that traces the evolutionary path from early primates to Homo sapiens. It describes several early primate species such as Proconsul and Sivapithecus found in Africa and Asia dating back millions of years. Genetic evidence shows humans share over 99% of DNA with chimpanzees and diverged from them around 5-6 million years ago. Anatomical similarities and differences in the pelvis, feet and locomotion provide insights into the emergence of bipedalism. Higher primates display sophisticated communication including gestures, facial expressions, and tool usage, providing clues about early human behavior.
2. The Principal Deities
The pagan pantheon in the Nordic
lands during the Viking Age
contained many deities, but not all
of them were the object of devotion
The principal deities belonged to
two one of two groups: Æsir and
Vanir
These groups were at war with one
another but had reconciled and
lived together
Some of the deities were popular
throughout Scandinavia, whereas
the popularity of others were
restricted to only certain areas or
indeed even certain social classes
or professions
3. Distribution of Different Cults
The popularity of different cults varied from
region to region
It is assumed—because of mythical
allusions, royalty lists that trace their
descent from deities, place-name evidence
and archaeological finds—that the Æsir
were worshipped in the west and the Vanir
in the east of Scandinavia
A distribution map representing the
prevalence of the different cults, based
chiefly on place-name analysis and runic
inscriptions where these occur in significant
numbers, does tend to corroborate this
assumption
Nevertheless, we must bear in mind that
some cults seem to be primarily associated
The red indicates those regions where the with certain social classes or professions
worship of the Æsir was most prevalent, and therefore their distribution might
whereas the blue indicates those regions where
the worship of the Vanir was predominant. The
represent the consolidation of political
purple signifies those regions were both the power or specialist economic pursuits
Æsir and Vanir were popular
4. The Æsir
The 'Æsir' are a group of deities
which contain some of the most
prominent gods of the Nordic
pantheon such as Odin, Frigg,
Thor, Baldur and Tyr
In the Old Norse language, the
singular of a member of the Æsir is
áss (feminine singular ásynja,
feminine plural ásynjur)
Some linguistic scholars associate
this word with the names of wooden
beams and the concept of World
Pillars holding the world aloft and
thus with celestial or sky deities
This has parallels with the A depiction of sacrifices hanging
Hellenistic pantheon and others of from a tree, perhaps evoking the deity
the Indo-European tradition Odin hanging on Yggdrasil in his
quest for wisdom
5. Gylfaginning
The Gylfaginning comprises the
first section of Snorri Sturluson's
Prose Edda, following the
prologue
It means 'The Tricking of Gylfi',
where Gylfi is a Swedish king that
is tricked by a goddess and
brought to a palace where he is
asked questions and is told a
series of tales which he relates
upon his arrival home
Many translations of the Prose
Edda are available, some very
good examples being online and
therefore free to access
Here we will summarise the myths
The tricking of Gylfi, depicted in an and statements concerning the
Icelandic manuscript Æsir
6. The Members of the Æsir
The members of the Æsir
enumerated in Gylfaginning are the
following:
Odin, Thor, Baldur, Freyr, Freya,
Njord, Tyr, Bragi, Heimdall, Hoder,
Vidar, Ale, Ullr, Forseti, Frigg, Saga,
Eir, Gefjon, Fulla, Sjöfn, Lofn, Var,
Vör, Syn, Hlin, Snotra, Gna
Some of these are known only as
names, being poorly developed in
any of the mythical cycles that
remain to us
This does not necessarily mean that
they were insignificant: the majority
of what we know about the Nordic
pantheon derives from West Norse
sources and this may indicate the
unimportance of these deities in this
part of Scandinavia A figurine of the deity Odin, found
at Lindby in southern Sweden
7. The Vanir
In Nordic myth, the Vanir (singular Vanr) are
a group of gods associated with fertility,
wisdom, and the ability to see the future
The Vanir are one of two groups of gods
(the other being the Æsir) and are
associated with the location Vanaheimr
After the Æsir–Vanir War, the Vanir became
a subgroup of the Æsir and subsequently,
while the Vanir retain original group
association in the myth, they are also
referred to as Æsir
The Vanir are attested in the Poetic Edda,
the Prose Edda and Heimskringla
The Vanir are only attested in these Old
The ship figured prominently in the
myths of the Vanir and was Norse sources, unlike the Æsir, who are
associated with mortuary ritual. This attested widely in among the Germanic
example from Ladby in Denmark peoples
might reflect the cult of Freyr
8. The Members of the Vanir
All sources describe the deities Njörðr,
Freyr, and Freyja as members of the
Vanir
An Euhemerized prose account in
Heimskringla adds that Njörðr's sister—
whose name is not provided—and
Kvasir were Vanir
In addition, Heimskringla reports a tale
involving king Sveigðir's visit to
Vanaheimr, where he meets a woman
names Vana and the two produce a
child named Vanlandi, meaning 'Man
from the Land of the Vanir'
While not attested as Vanir, the gods
Heimdallr and Ullr have also been
theorized as potential members of the
group. In the Prose Edda, a name listed
for boars is 'Van-child'
A figurine of Freyr from Rällinge,
Lunda in Södermanland
9. Lesser Entities
In addition to the deities described in
the mythical cycles, there were
lesser spiritual entities
Some of these were malevolent,
whereas others could be helpful if
propitiated through ritual
Examples of some of these lesser
entities are the Valkyries, trolls,
ghosts, giants, elves, faeries, and
spirits inhabiting mounds, wetlands,
etc.
All of these figured in the ritual and
religious life of those residing in
Scandinavia through the pagan era
but also well into the Medieval era
Some practices could still be
An amulet depicting a Valkyri, found encountered in relatively modern
at Birka, Björkö, Sweden folk beliefs
10. Studying the Religious Beliefs of the Viking
Age
Archaeological, Literary, Mythical and Place-Name
Research
11. The Icelandic Sagas
As mentioned earlier, most of our
information concerning the religion of
the Viking Age is afforded by the
Icelandic sagas
All of these were composed between
the twelfth and fourteenth centuries by
Christian clerics or scribes, and
therefore introduce biases into the
writings
Moreover, some of the traditions must
have only been vaguely recalled and
most probably elements of the myths
were misunderstood and subject to
rationalisation or revision to render them
more intelligible
Finally, there is the West Norse bias in
the mythical cycles and these myths
and their structure might not have been
shared throughout Scandinavia
12. The Principal Sources
The principal sources
concerning religion are found
in the Poetic Edda, the Prose
Edda, Völuspá and
Heimskringla
All of these are compositions
of roughly the thirteenth
century, but they undoubtedly
preserve older passages
Incidental remarks to religious
practices and beliefs are found
in other sagas, such as Egil's
Saga and Gísli's Saga, but
these are woven into
Odin holds bracelets and leans on his narratives for dramatic effect
spear while looking towards the völva in so it is difficult to assess how
Völuspá. Engraving by Frølich in the genuine these accounts might
transcription of the poem Völuspá are or if they are merely literary
embellishments
13. Heimskringla
Heimskringla consists of several
chapters, each one individually
called a saga, which can be
literally translated as 'tale'
The first of these is the most
relevant to a study of myth, for it
traces the prehistory of the
Norwegian royal dynasty, tracing
Odin, described here as a mortal
man, and his followers from the
East, from Asaland and Asgard,
its chief city, to their settlement in
Scandinavia
The subsequent sagas are (with
few exceptions) devoted to
individual rulers, starting with
Halfdan the Black, and ending
with Magnus Erlingsson
14. Gesta Danorum
Gesta Danorum is a work of Danish
history, by the 12th century author
Saxo Grammaticus ('Saxo the
Literate')
It is the most ambitious literary
undertaking of medieval Denmark and
is an essential source for the nation's
early history. It is also one of the
oldest known written documents about
the history of Estonia and Livonia
The work incorporates myths
concerning the origins of the Danish
kings and traces their descent to
deities such as Odin
Many myths are presented as history
and there are suggestions of ritual in
many stories, often referring to battle
cults and so forth
15. The Prose Edda (or Younger Edda)
The Prose Edda begins with a
Euhemerised Prologue followed by
three distinct books: Gylfaginning
(consisting of around 20,000 words),
Skáldskaparmál (around 50,000
words) and Háttatal (around 20,000
words)
Seven manuscripts, dating from
around AD 1300 to around AD 1600,
have independent textual value
The purpose of the collection was to
enable Icelandic poets and readers
to understand the subtleties of
alliterative verse, and to grasp the
meaning behind the many kennings
that were used in skaldic poetry, but
much of the subject matter concerns
myth
16. The Poetic Edda (or Older Edda)
The following poems are in the
Poetic Edda:
Völuspá
Hávamál
Vafþrúðnismál
Grímnismál
Skírnismál
Hárbarðsljóð
Hymiskviða
Lokasenna
Þrymskviða
Völundarkviða
Alvíssmál
17. Völuspá
The poem starts with the völva requesting
silence from 'the sons of Heimdallr' (human
beings) and asking Odin whether he wants
her to recite ancient lore. She says she
remembers giants born in antiquity who
reared her.
She then goes on to relate a creation myth;
the world was empty until the sons of Burr
lifted the earth out of the sea
The Æsir then established order in the
cosmos by finding places for the sun, the
moon and the stars, thereby starting the
cycle of day and night
A golden age ensued where the Æsir had
plenty of gold and happily constructed
temples and made tools. But then three
mighty giant maidens came from
Jötunheimar and the golden age came to
an end
The Æsir then created the dwarves, of
whom Mótsognir and Durinn are the
mightiest
18. Ragnarök
The seeress then reveals to Odin that she knows
some of his own secrets, of what he sacrificed of
himself in pursuit of knowledge. She tells him she
knows where his eye is hidden and how he gave it
up in exchange for knowledge. She asks him in
several refrains if he understands, or if he would
like to hear more
The seeress goes on to describe the slaying of
Baldr, best and fairest of the gods and the enmity
of Loki, and of others. Then she prophesies the
destruction of the gods where fire and flood
overwhelm heaven and earth as the gods fight
their final battles with their enemies. This is the
'fate of the gods': Ragnarök. She describes the
summons to battle, the deaths of many of the gods
and how Odin, himself, is slain
Finally a beautiful reborn world will rise from the
ashes of death and destruction where Baldr will
live again in a new world where the earth sprouts
Carvings of snakes and dragons abundance without sowing seed. A final stanza
destroying the world at Ragnarök, describes the sudden appearance of Nidhogg the
north panel of Urnes Church dragon, bearing corpses in his wings, before the
seeress emerges from her trance
20. Rune Stones
Rune stones add valuable
information concerning myth
through their dedications to
deities, which offer independent
confirmation of the traditions that
we know through the literary
sources
Moreover, in Sweden, many are
richly decorated and some of
these panels depict mythical
scenes
Although some are certainly
obscure, others are clearly
intelligible through the traditions
recorded in the sagas
In addition to traditions regarding
deities, heroic myths are also
common
21. Altuna, Uppland
A good example of a mythical
scene depicted on a rune stone is
afforded by the specimen from
Altuna, in Uppland
This records what is most likely
the myth of Thor fishing, when he
catches the Miðgarð serpent and
nearly kills the beast with his
hammer, before it escapes
Again, this provides independent
confirmation of the traditions
recorded in the sagas and
therefore underscores how widely
dispersed some of these tales
were and how they the principal
ones were most likely similar
across Scandinavia
22. Tjängvide, Gotland
An especially vivid mythical depiction
occurs on the rune stone from
Tjängvide in Gotland, which is now at
the National Museum of Sweden in
Stockholm
This series of scenes seems to show
a ship heading off to battle, with a
panel above it showing slain men and
a man riding an eight-legged horse
being greeted by maidens carrying
flasks of drink
The eight-legged horse is undoubtedly
Odin's steed Sleipnir and this scene
represents a warrior being received in
Valhöll after his death in battle
The corpse in the scene likely
represents the warrior slain in battle,
which is situated above the painting of
Sleipnir
23. Ornaments
In the latter half of the Viking Age,
when Christianity was asserting
itself, it became common for
Scandinavians to begin wearing
amulets depicting Thor's hammer
This was probably an imitation of
the Christian custom of wearing a
cross
Numerous moulds have been
found in Scandinavia and in
places of Scandinavian settlement
for the hammers, and some of
them were also used to produce
Christian crosses
No other symbol from the pagan
tradition was worn like this, and
this possibly represents the
popularity of the cult of Thor
24. Priests & Ritual Centres
The Structure of Worship and Cult Centres
25. Common Worship
Periodic sacrifices and communal
worship occurred throughout the
landscape
Sometimes these were dedicated
to lesser deities or tutelary spirits
associated with families, districts
or perhaps even an individual
These lesser deities or spirits
were known as dísir (singular dís)
and their festivals and sacrifices
were called dísablót
This was probably the most
common form of worship, which is
notoriously difficult to detect
through the archaeological record
as it leaves little unequivocal trace
except when votive offerings
occur
26. Natural Features
Some of the worship probably
focused on statuettes or figurines
standing outside
Examples of these may have
been recovered by archaeologists
near bog deposits, thus showing a
continuity in some ritual practice
over the late Iron Age-Viking Age
Especially significant locations in
the landscape were groves
(lundr), cultivated ground (akr),
mounds (haugr), islands (ey),
ridges (áss) and prominent rocks
(berg)
Those presiding over these rituals
were probably headmen and
women of the community
27. Relationship to Settlement
The local religious sites must
have been situated in the
immediate vicinity of the
settlements
Examples of this have been
encountered at places such as
Tissø on the island of Sjælland in
Denmark
This site was a rich trading
settlement with large long houses,
but there was an associated ritual
structure adjacent to the biggest
structure and nearby lay the lake
of Tissø, which derives its name
from the deity Tyr and has also
afforded quantities of votive
deposits from the Iron Age and
the Viking Age
28. Priests and Priestesses
Most of the rites, as mentioned
already, were probably carried out
by the chieftain of the settlement
These have been described as
secular priests described in
Iceland as goði (the feminine is
gyði)
The main rite was blot and was
usually sacrificial, involving the
killing of an animal (sometimes
even humans) and the destruction
of artefacts
Reconstruction of the ritual
Usually they were followed by
structure found at Uppåkra in communal feasts of eating and
Sweden. Rites and rituals officiated drinking, but those pertaining to
over here must have been done by fertility sometimes were
professional priests or priestesses accompanied by sexual
rather than by local chieftains licentitiousness
29. Convivial Meals
It appears that the animals
sacrificed in such a fashion were
cooked in pits lined with hot
stones, which are not common
outside of sites that we associate
with ritual activity
In addition to this, there are
buildings that may have ritual
significance such as that found at
Tissø that were known as hof
Many of these, such as the
Icelandic examples of Hofstadir
and Mýrvatn, contain such
cooking pits
This may permit us to infer that
Figure of the deity Odin from
meat was cooked in a special way Uppåkra in Sweden
for cult meals
30. Hörgr
An older and more widespread
name associated with ritual
practises is hörgr, which has a
primary meaning of a pile of
stones
These stone piles were chiefly
cairns and the significance of
them extends back into the Iron
Age and even the Bronze Age
Another sacred site is denoted by
the word vé, and it appears that
this also indicates a site in the
open rather than an enclosed
building represented by hof
Large temples are known from
only an handful of sites, usually
associated with royal centres
31. Temples
We know little about the temples
in Scandinavia, but there are
suggestions that they were
associated with royal sites and
therefore often gave prominence
to certain deities that were widely
worshipped by the aristocracy
In Denmark and southern
Sweden, the main cult centres
appear to have been dedicated to
Odin
This is deduced through place-
names and suggestions from the
mortuary record which suggest
that there was a mortuary rite
associated with an equestrian
warrior class