Perception refers to how sensory information is organized, interpreted, and consciously experienced. It involves both bottom-up and top-down processing. Bottom-up processing builds perceptions from sensory input, while top-down processing is influenced by knowledge, experiences, and thoughts. Perception is subjective, active, and creative as we assign meaning to sensory information to understand ourselves and others. It creates our experience of the world and allows us to act within our environment.

1. PERCEPTION

4. • PERCEPTION REFERS TO THE WAY SENSORY INFORMATION IS ORGANIZED,
INTERPRETED, AND CONSCIOUSLY EXPERIENCED. PERCEPTION INVOLVES
BOTH BOTTOM-UP AND TOP-DOWN PROCESSING.
• BOTTOM-UP PROCESSING REFERS TO THE FACT THAT PERCEPTIONS ARE
BUILT FROM SENSORY INPUT.
• ON THE OTHER HAND, HOW WE INTERPRET THOSE SENSATIONS IS
INFLUENCED BY OUR AVAILABLE KNOWLEDGE, OUR EXPERIENCES, AND OUR
THOUGHTS. THIS IS CALLED TOP-DOWN PROCESSING.

5. • PERCEPTION IS A SUBJECTIVE, ACTIVE AND CREATIVE PROCESS THROUGH
WHICH WE ASSIGN MEANING TO SENSORY INFORMATION TO UNDERSTAND
OURSELVES AND OTHERS.
• IT CAN BE DEFINED AS OUR RECOGNITION AND INTERPRETATION OF SENSORY
INFORMATION.
• IT ALSO INCLUDES HOW WE RESPOND TO THE INFORMATION.

6. • PERCEPTION NOT ONLY CREATES OUR EXPERIENCE OF THE WORLD AROUND
US; IT ALLOWS US TO ACT WITHIN OUR ENVIRONMENT.
1.PERCEPTION IS VERY IMPORTANT IN UNDERSTANDING HUMAN
BEHAVIOR BECAUSE EVERY PERSON PERCEIVES THE WORLD AND
APPROACHES LIFE PROBLEMS DIFFERENTLY. WHATEVER WE SEE OR FEEL IS
NOT NECESSARILY THE SAME AS IT REALLY IS. WHEN WE BUY SOMETHING, IT
IS NOT BECAUSE IT IS THE BEST, BUT BECAUSE WE TAKE IT TO BE THE BEST.
2.IF PEOPLE BEHAVE ON THE BASIS OF THEIR PERCEPTION, WE CAN PREDICT
THEIR BEHAVIOR IN THE CHANGED CIRCUMSTANCES BY UNDERSTANDING
THEIR PRESENT PERCEPTION OF THE ENVIRONMENT. ONE PERSON MAY BE
VIEWING THE FACTS IN ONE WAY WHICH MAY BE DIFFERENT FROM THE FACTS
AS SEEN BY ANOTHER VIEWER.
3.WITH THE HELP OF PERCEPTION, THE NEEDS OF VARIOUS PEOPLE CAN BE
DETERMINED, BECAUSE PEOPLE’S PERCEPTION IS INFLUENCED BY THEIR
NEEDS.

7. 4. PERCEPTION IS VERY IMPORTANT FOR THE MANAGER WHO WANTS TO AVOID
MAKING ERRORS WHEN DEALING WITH PEOPLE AND EVENTS IN THE WORK
SETTING. THIS PROBLEM IS MADE MORE COMPLICATED BY THE FACT THAT
DIFFERENT PEOPLE PERCEIVE THE SAME SITUATION DIFFERENTLY. IN ORDER TO
DEAL WITH THE SUBORDINATES EFFECTIVELY, THE MANAGERS MUST UNDERSTAND
THEIR PERCEPTIONS PROPERLY.
5. PERCEPTION CAN BE IMPORTANT BECAUSE IT OFFERS MORE THAN OBJECTIVE
OUTPUT; IT INGESTS AN OBSERVATION AND MANUFACTURES AN ALTERED
REALITY ENRICHED WITH PREVIOUS EXPERIENCES.

8. • ACCORDING TO JOSEPH REITZ; “PERCEPTION INCLUDES ALL THOSE
PROCESSES BY WHICH AN INDIVIDUAL RECEIVES INFORMATION ABOUT HIS
ENVIRONMENT—SEEING, HEARING, FEELING, TASTING AND SMELLING.”
• ACCORDING TO B. V. H. GILMER, “PERCEPTION IS THE PROCESS OF BECOMING
AWARE OF SITUATIONS, OF ADDING MEANINGFUL ASSOCIATIONS TO
SENSATIONS.”
• UDAY PAREEK SAID PERCEPTION CAN BE DEFINED AS “THE PROCESS OF
RECEIVING, SELECTING, ORGANIZING, INTERPRETING, CHECKING, AND
REACTING TO SENSORY STIMULI OR DATA.”
• ACCORDING TO S. P. ROBBINS, PERCEPTION CAN BE DEFINED AS “THE
PROCESS BY WHICH INDIVIDUALS ORGANIZE AND INTERPRET THEIR SENSORY
IMPRESSIONS IN ORDER TO GIVE MEANING TO THEIR ENVIRONMENTS.”

9. FACTOR INFLUENCING PERCEPTION

10. FACTORS AFFECTING PERCEPTION
• PERCEPTION IS THE PROCESS BY WHICH AN INDIVIDUAL SELECTS, ORGANIZES,
AND INTERPRETS INFORMATION TO CREATE A MEANINGFUL PICTURE.
• PERCEPTION DEPENDS NOT ONLY ON THE PHYSICAL STIMULI BUT ALSO ON THE
STIMULI’S RELATION TO THE SURROUNDING FIELD AND ON CONDITIONS WITHIN
THE INDIVIDUAL.
• PERCEPTION IS A PROCESS BY WHICH INDIVIDUALS ORGANIZE AND INTERPRET
THEIR SENSORY PERCEIVES IN ORDER TO GIVE MEANING TO THEIR
ENVIRONMENT.
• HOWEVER, WHAT ONE PERCEIVES CAN BE SUBSTANTIALLY DIFFERENT FROM
OBJECTIVE REALITY.
• IT IS THE PROCESS THROUGH WHICH THE INFORMATION FROM THE OUTSIDE
ENVIRONMENT IS SELECTED, RECEIVED, ORGANIZED AND INTERPRETED TO
MAKE IT MEANINGFUL.

11. SELECTIVE PERCEPTION
 SELECTIVE PERCEPTION IS THE PROCESS BY WHICH INDIVIDUALS PERCEIVE WHAT THEY WANT
TO HEAR IN A MESSAGE WHILE IGNORING OPPOSING VIEWPOINTS.
 IT IS A BROAD TERM TO IDENTIFY THE BEHAVIOR ALL PEOPLE EXHIBIT AS WE ALL TEND TO “SEE
THINGS” BASED ON OUR PERSONAL FRAME OF REFERENCE.
 USING SELECTIVE PERCEPTION PEOPLE TEND TO OVERLOOK OR FORGET INFORMATION THAT
CONTRADICTS THEIR BELIEFS OR EXPECTATIONS.
 THERE ARE TWO TYPES OF SELECTIVE PERCEPTION. PERCEPTUAL VIGILANCE REFERS TO PEOPLE
NOTICING STIMULI SUCH AS ADVERTISING OR NEWS REPORTS THAT ARE SIGNIFICANT TO THEM.
 FOR EXAMPLE, SOMEONE CONSIDERING BUYING A CERTAIN BRAND OF CAR IS MORE LIKELY TO
NOTICE ADS ABOUT THE CAR THAN SOMEONE WHO IS NEUTRAL TO THE BRAND.
 IN CONTRAST, PERCEPTUAL DEFENSE REFERS TO PEOPLE CREATING A BARRIER TO SCREEN OUT
STIMULI THEY FIND THREATENING OR UNPLEASANT.
 FOR EXAMPLE A SMOKER MIGHT FILTER OUT A PHOTO OF A DISEASED LUNG.

12. ATTRIBUTION THEORY
• ATTRIBUTION - TO EXPLAIN BY INDICATING A CAUSE
• ATTRIBUTION THEORY - MOTIVATIONAL THEORY LOOKING AT HOW THE AVERAGE
PERSON CONSTRUCTS THE MEANING OF AN EVENT BASED ON HIS /HER MOTIVES TO
FIND A CAUSE AND HIS/HER KNOWLEDGE OF THE ENVIRONMENT.
• ATT. THEORY BASICALLY LOOKS AT HOW PEOPLE MAKE SENSE OF THEIR WORLD;
WHAT CAUSE AND EFFECT INFERENCES THEY MAKE ABOUT THE BEHAVIORS OF
OTHERS AND OF THEMSELVES.
• HEIDER STATES THAT THERE IS A STRONG NEED IN INDIVIDUALS TO UNDERSTAND
TRANSIENT EVENTS BY ATTRIBUTING THEM TO THE ACTOR'S DISPOSITION OR TO
STABLE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE ENVIRONMENT.
• THE PURPOSE BEHIND MAKING ATTRIBUTIONS IS TO ACHIEVE COGNITIVE CONTROL
OVER ONE'S ENVIRONMENT BY EXPLAINING AND UNDERSTANDING THE CAUSES
BEHIND BEHAVIORS AND ENVIRONMENTAL OCCURRENCES.

13. • TWO BASIC KINDS OF ATTRIBUTIONS MADE: INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL
• INTERNAL - DISPOSITIONAL
• EXTERNAL - SITUATIONAL
CONSEQUENCES OF MAKING INFERENCES:
• 1) GIVES ORDER AND PREDICTABILITY;
• 2) INFERENCES LEAD TO BEHAVIOR - YOU WILL OR WILL NOT BEHAVE IN
CERTAIN WAYS TOWARD THE ACTOR BASED ON YOUR INFERENCES AND YOU
WILL FORM EXPECTATIONS AS TO HOW THE ACTOR WILL BEHAVE.
• THE MEANING OF A BEHAVIOR DEPENDS ON THE CAUSE TO WHICH IT IS
ATTRIBUTED (E.G. BYSTANDER STUDIES - IF WE DON'T PERCEIVE THE SITUATION
IS CAUSED BY AN EMERGENCY THEN WE DON'T ACT LIKE IT IS AN EMERGENCY).
• INACCURACIES IN ATTRIBUTION: 1) MISPLACED BLAME (TRIALS, EYEWITNESS
STUDIES, WHITES VS. BLACKS); 2) BLINDS PEOPLE TO OTHER CAUSES

14. ATTRIBUTION THEORY VIDEO
• HTTPS://WWW.YOUTUBE.COM/WATCH?V=-OI10FQY9YE

15. PERCEPTUAL PROCESS
• THE PERCEPTUAL PROCESS IS THE SEQUENCE OF PSYCHOLOGICAL STEPS
THAT A PERSON USES TO ORGANIZE AND INTERPRET INFORMATION FROM THE
OUTSIDE WORLD.
THE STEPS ARE:
• OBJECTS ARE PRESENT IN THE WORLD.
• A PERSON OBSERVES.
• THE PERSON USES PERCEPTION TO SELECT OBJECTS.
• THE PERSON ORGANIZES THE PERCEPTION OF OBJECTS.
• THE PERSON INTERPRETS THE PERCEPTIONS.
• THE PERSON RESPONDS

16. • THE SELECTION, ORGANIZATION, AND INTERPRETATION OF PERCEPTIONS CAN
DIFFER AMONG DIFFERENT PEOPLE. THEREFORE, WHEN PEOPLE REACT
DIFFERENTLY IN A SITUATION, PART OF THEIR BEHAVIOR CAN BE EXPLAINED
BY EXAMINING THEIR PERCEPTUAL PROCESS, AND HOW THEIR PERCEPTIONS
ARE LEADING TO THEIR RESPONSES.

17. PERCEPTUAL SELECTION
• PERCEPTUAL SELECTION IS DRIVEN BY INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL FACTORS.
• INTERNAL FACTORS INCLUDE:
• PERSONALITY – PERSONALITY TRAITS INFLUENCE HOW A PERSON SELECTS
PERCEPTIONS. FOR INSTANCE, CONSCIENTIOUS PEOPLE TEND TO SELECT
DETAILS AND EXTERNAL STIMULI TO A GREATER DEGREE.
• MOTIVATION – PEOPLE WILL SELECT PERCEPTIONS ACCORDING TO WHAT
THEY NEED IN THE MOMENT. THEY WILL FAVOR SELECTIONS THAT THEY THINK
WILL HELP THEM WITH THEIR CURRENT NEEDS, AND BE MORE LIKELY TO
IGNORE WHAT IS IRRELEVANT TO THEIR NEEDS.
• EXPERIENCE – THE PATTERNS OF OCCURRENCES OR ASSOCIATIONS ONE HAS
LEARNED IN THE PAST AFFECT CURRENT PERCEPTIONS. THE PERSON WILL
SELECT PERCEPTIONS IN A WAY THAT FITS WITH WHAT THEY FOUND IN THE
PAST.

18. • EXTERNAL FACTORS INCLUDE:
• SIZE – A LARGER SIZE MAKES IT MORE LIKELY AN OBJECT WILL BE SELECTED.
• INTENSITY – GREATER INTENSITY, IN BRIGHTNESS, FOR EXAMPLE, ALSO
INCREASES PERCEPTUAL SELECTION.
• CONTRAST – WHEN A PERCEPTION STANDS CLEARLY OUT AGAINST A
BACKGROUND, THERE IS A GREATER LIKELIHOOD OF SELECTION.
• MOTION – A MOVING PERCEPTION IS MORE LIKELY TO BE SELECTED.
• REPETITION – REPETITION INCREASES PERCEPTUAL SELECTION.
• NOVELTY AND FAMILIARITY – BOTH OF THESE INCREASE SELECTION. WHEN A
PERCEPTION IS NEW, IT STANDS OUT IN A PERSON’S EXPERIENCE. WHEN IT IS
FAMILIAR, IT IS LIKELY TO BE SELECTED BECAUSE OF THIS FAMILIARITY.

19. WHAT IS SOCIAL PERCEPTION?
• SOCIAL PERCEPTION REFERS TO THE ABILITY TO MAKE ACCURATE
INTERPRETATIONS AND INFERENCES ABOUT OTHER PEOPLE FROM THEIR
GENERAL PHYSICAL APPEARANCE, VERBAL, AND NONVERBAL PATTERNS OF
COMMUNICATION.
• THINGS LIKE FACIAL EXPRESSIONS, TONE OF VOICE, HAND GESTURES, AND
BODY POSITION OR MOVEMENT ARE ALL QUES PEOPLE WITH HIGHER LEVELS
OF SOCIAL PERCEPTION PICK UP ON TO WORK OUT WHAT OTHER PEOPLE ARE
THINKING, FEELING OR ARE LIKELY TO DO NEXT.

20. WHAT IS THE HALO EFFECT?
• THE HALO EFFECT IS ALSO SOMETHING REFERRED TO AS THE "PHYSICAL
ATTRACTIVENESS STEREOTYPE" AND THE "WHAT IS BEAUTIFUL IS ALSO
GOOD" PRINCIPLE.
• PHYSICAL APPEARANCE IS OFTEN A MAJOR PART OF THE HALO EFFECT.
PEOPLE WHO ARE CONSIDERED ATTRACTIVE TEND TO BE RATED HIGHER ON
OTHER POSITIVE TRAITS AS WELL.
• WHEN YOU SEE SOMEONE THROUGH THE LENS OF THE HALO EFFECT, YOU
ARE SEEING THEM CAST IN A SIMILAR LIGHT. THAT "HALO" CREATED BY YOUR
PERCEPTION OF ONE CHARACTERISTIC COVERS THEM IN THE SAME WAY.

21. IMPACT OF THE HALO EFFECT
• IN EDUCATION
• TEACHERS MAY INTERACT WITH STUDENTS DIFFERENTLY BASED ON
PERCEPTIONS OF ATTRACTIVENESS.
• FOR EXAMPLE, FOUND THAT TEACHERS HAD BETTER EXPECTATIONS OF KIDS
THAT THEY RATED AS BEING MORE ATTRACTIVE.
• THE HALO EFFECT CAN INFLUENCE HOW TEACHERS TREAT STUDENTS, BUT IT
CAN ALSO IMPACT HOW STUDENTS PERCEIVE TEACHERS. IN ONE STUDY,
RESEARCHERS FOUND THAT WHEN AN INSTRUCTOR WAS VIEWED AS WARM
AND FRIENDLY, STUDENTS ALSO RATED THEM AS MORE ATTRACTIVE,
APPEALING, AND LIKABLE.

22. IN THE WORKPLACE
• THERE ARE A NUMBER OF WAYS THAT THE HALO EFFECT CAN INFLUENCE
PERCEPTIONS OF OTHERS IN WORK SETTINGS.
• FOR EXAMPLE, EXPERTS SUGGEST THAT THE HALO EFFECT IS ONE OF THE
MOST COMMON BIASES AFFECTING PERFORMANCE APPRAISALS AND
REVIEWS.
• SUPERVISORS MAY RATE SUBORDINATES BASED ON THE PERCEPTION OF A
SINGLE CHARACTERISTIC RATHER THAN THE WHOLE OF THEIR
PERFORMANCE AND CONTRIBUTION.
• FOR EXAMPLE, A WORKER'S ENTHUSIASM OR POSITIVE ATTITUDE MAY
OVERSHADOW THEIR LACK OF KNOWLEDGE OR SKILL, CAUSING CO-WORKERS
TO RATE THEM MORE HIGHLY THAN THEIR ACTUAL PERFORMANCE JUSTIFIES.

23. WHAT IS MOTIVATION?
• MOTIVATION IS THE PROCESS THAT INITIATES, GUIDES, AND MAINTAINS GOAL-
ORIENTED BEHAVIORS.
• IT IS WHAT CAUSES YOU TO ACT, WHETHER IT IS GETTING A GLASS OF WATER
TO REDUCE THIRST OR READING A BOOK TO GAIN KNOWLEDGE.
• MOTIVATION INVOLVES THE BIOLOGICAL, EMOTIONAL, SOCIAL, AND COGNITIVE
FORCES THAT ACTIVATE BEHAVIOR.
• IN EVERYDAY USAGE, THE TERM "MOTIVATION" IS FREQUENTLY USED TO
DESCRIBE WHY A PERSON DOES SOMETHING. IT IS THE DRIVING FORCE
BEHIND HUMAN ACTIONS.

26. TYPES OF MOTIVATION
• DIFFERENT TYPES OF MOTIVATION ARE FREQUENTLY DESCRIBED AS BEING
EITHER EXTRINSIC OR INTRINSIC:
• EXTRINSIC MOTIVATIONS
• ARE THOSE THAT ARISE FROM OUTSIDE OF THE INDIVIDUAL AND OFTEN
INVOLVE REWARDS SUCH AS TROPHIES, MONEY, SOCIAL RECOGNITION, OR
PRAISE.
• INTRINSIC MOTIVATIONS
• ARE THOSE THAT ARISE FROM WITHIN THE INDIVIDUAL, SUCH AS DOING A
COMPLICATED CROSSWORD PUZZLE PURELY FOR THE PERSONAL
GRATIFICATION OF SOLVING A PROBLEM

27. CONCEPT OF MOTIVATION:
• THE TERM MOTIVATION IS DERIVED FROM THE WORD ‘MOTIVE”.
• THE WORD ‘MOTIVE’ AS A NOUN MEANS AN OBJECTIVE, AS A VERB THIS WORD
MEANS MOVING INTO ACTION.
• THEREFORE, MOTIVES ARE FORCES WHICH INDUCE PEOPLE TO ACT IN A WAY,
SO AS TO ENSURE THE FULFILLMENT OF A PARTICULAR HUMAN NEED AT A
TIME.
• BEHIND EVERY HUMAN ACTION THERE IS A MOTIVE. THEREFORE,
MANAGEMENT MUST PROVIDE MOTIVES TO PEOPLE TO MAKE THEM WORK FOR
THE ORGANIZATION.

28. • MOTIVATION MAY BE DEFINED AS A PLANNED MANAGERIAL PROCESS, WHICH
STIMULATES PEOPLE TO WORK TO THE BEST OF THEIR CAPABILITIES, BY
PROVIDING THEM WITH MOTIVES, WHICH ARE BASED ON THEIR
UNFULFILLED NEEDS.
• “MOTIVATION MEANS A PROCESS OF STIMULATING PEOPLE TO ACTION TO
ACCOMPLISH DESIRED GOODS.” —WILLIAM G. SCOTT
• “MOTIVATION IS THE PROCESS OF ATTEMPTING TO INFLUENCE OTHERS TO DO
YOUR WILL THROUGH THE POSSIBILITY OF GAIN OR REWARD.” — FLIPPO
• MOTIVATION IS, IN FACT, PRESSING THE RIGHT BUTTON TO GET THE DESIRED
HUMAN BEHAVIOUR.

29. THE PROCESS OF MOTIVATION IS ILLUSTRATED IN THE FIGURE GIVEN
BELOW:
• AN EMPLOYEE HAS A NEED OR URGE FOR PROMOTION TO A HIGHER
POSITION.
• IF THIS NEED IS STRONG, THE EMPLOYEE WILL FIX HIS GOAL AND FIND
ALTERNATIVES TO REACH THE GOAL.
• THE MIGHT HAVE TWO ALTERNATIVES, NAMELY, (I) HARD WORK AND (II)
ENHANCEMENT OF QUALIFICATION (E.G., GETTING MBA) AND HARD WORK.

30. THE CONTENT THEORIES OF MOTIVATION
• IN A HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE, THE CONTENT THEORIES TEND TO BE THE EARLIEST THEORIES OF
MOTIVATION OR LATER MODIFICATIONS OF EARLY THEORIES. WITHIN THE WORK ENVIRONMENT
THEY HAVE HAD THE GREATEST IMPACT ON MANAGEMENT PRACTICE AND POLICY, WHILST
WITHIN ACADEMIC CIRCLES THEY ARE THE LEAST ACCEPTED.
• CONTENT THEORIES ARE ALSO CALLED NEEDS THEORIES, BECAUSE THEY ARE GENERALLY
ASSOCIATED WITH A VIEW THAT CONCENTRATES ON THE IMPORTANCE OF DETERMINING 'WHAT'
MOTIVATES US. IN OTHER WORDS THEY TRY TO IDENTIFY WHAT OUR 'NEEDS' ARE AND RELATE
MOTIVATION TO THE FULFILLING OF THESE NEEDS.
• MASLOWS HIERARCHY OF NEEDS
• "MANAGEMENT ASSUMPTIONS" (THEORY X AND THEORY Y)
• ERG THEORY
• MCCLELLANDS NEED FOR ACHIEVEMENT, AFFILIATION AND POWER
• HERZBERGS' TWO FACTOR THEORY

31. MASLOWS HIERARCHY OF NEEDS
• THIS IS THE MOST WIDELY KNOWN THEORY OF MOTIVATION AND WAS HYPOTHESISED BY AMERICAN
PSYCHOLOGIST ABRAHAM MASLOW IN THE 1940S AND 1950S.
• MASLOW PUT FORWARD THE IDEA THAT THERE EXISTED A HIERARCHY OF NEEDS CONSISTING OF FIVE
LEVELS IN THE HIERARCHY. THESE NEEDS PROGRESSED FROM LOWER ORDER NEEDS THROUGH TO
HIGHER LEVEL NEEDS.

32. • THE BASIC PREMISE OF THE THEORY IS THAT WE ALL HAVE THESE FIVE LEVELS OF NEEDS AND THAT STARTING AT THE
LOWEST LEVEL WE ARE MOTIVATED TO SATISFY EACH LEVEL IN ASCENDING ORDER. AS EACH LEVEL IS SUFFICIENTLY
SATISFIED WE ARE THEN MOTIVATED TO SATISFY THE NEXT LEVEL IN THE HIERARCHY.
• THE FIVE DIFFERENT LEVELS WERE FURTHER SUB-CATEGORISED INTO TWO MAIN GROUPS, THESE BEING:
• DEFICIENCY NEEDS - MASLOW CONSIDERED THESE THE VERY BASIC NEEDS REQUIRED FOR SURVIVAL AND SECURITY.
THESE NEEDS INCLUDE:
• PHYSIOLOGICAL NEEDS
• SAFETY NEEDS
• SOCIAL NEEDS
• GROWTH NEEDS - THESE ARE NEEDS ASSOCIATED WITH PERSONAL GROWTH AND FULLFILMENT OF PERSONAL
POTENTIAL.
• ESTEEM NEEDS
• SELF-ACTUALISATION NEEDS
• IN MASLOW'S THEORY WE CAN NEVER RUN OUT OF MOTIVATION BECAUSE THE VERY TOP LEVEL, SELF-ACTUALISATION,
WHICH RELATES TO THE ACHIEVEMENT OF OUR FULL POTENTIAL, CAN NEVER BE FULLY MET.
• MASLOWS THEORY HAS BEEN WIDELY EMBRACED AND TAUGHT WITHIN THE BUSINESS WORLD AND FEW PEOPLE WHO
HAVE ATTENDED A COMPANY SUPERVISION OR BASIC MANAGEMENT TRAINING COURSE ARE UNLIKELY NOT TO BE
FAMILIAR WITH THIS THEORY.

33. HERZBERG’S MOTIVATION THEORY – TWO FACTOR
THEORY
• HERZBERG’S MOTIVATION THEORY MODEL, OR TWO FACTOR THEORY, ARGUES
THAT THERE ARE TWO FACTORS THAT AN ORGANIZATION CAN ADJUST TO
INFLUENCE MOTIVATION IN THE WORKPLACE.
• THESE FACTORS ARE:
• MOTIVATORS: WHICH CAN ENCOURAGE EMPLOYEES TO WORK HARDER.
• HYGIENE FACTORS: THESE WON’T ENCOURAGE EMPLOYEES TO WORK
HARDER BUT THEY WILL CAUSE THEM TO BECOME UNMOTIVATED IF THEY ARE
NOT PRESENT.

34. WHAT IS TWO FACTOR THEORY?
• HERZBERG’S THEORY OF MOTIVATION TRIES TO GET TO THE ROOT OF MOTIVATION IN THE
WORKPLACE. YOU CAN LEVERAGE THIS THEORY TO HELP YOU GET THE BEST
PERFORMANCE FROM YOUR TEAM.
• THE TWO FACTORS IDENTIFIED BY HERZBERG ARE MOTIVATORS AND HYGIENE FACTORS.
• 1. MOTIVATING FACTORS
• THE PRESENCE OF MOTIVATORS CAUSES EMPLOYEES TO WORK HARDER. THEY ARE FOUND
WITHIN THE ACTUAL JOB ITSELF.
• 2. HYGIENE FACTORS
• THE ABSENCE OF HYGIENE FACTORS WILL CAUSE EMPLOYEES TO WORK LESS HARD.
HYGIENE FACTORS ARE NOT PRESENT IN THE ACTUAL JOB ITSELF BUT SURROUND THE JOB.
• THE IMPACT OF MOTIVATING AND HYGIENE FACTORS IS SUMMARIZED IN THE FOLLOWING
DIAGRAM. NOTE THAT YOU WILL OFTEN SEE MOTIVATORS REFERRED TO AS FACTORS FOR
SATISFACTION, AND HYGIENE FACTORS REFERRED TO AS FACTORS FOR DISSATISFACTION.

37. • MOTIVATING FACTORS INCLUDE:
• ACHIEVEMENT: A JOB MUST GIVE AN EMPLOYEE A SENSE OF ACHIEVEMENT. THIS
WILL PROVIDE A PROUD FEELING OF HAVING DONE SOMETHING DIFFICULT BUT
WORTHWHILE.
• RECOGNITION: A JOB MUST PROVIDE AN EMPLOYEE WITH PRAISE AND
RECOGNITION OF THEIR SUCCESSES. THIS RECOGNITION SHOULD COME FROM
BOTH THEIR SUPERIORS AND THEIR PEERS.
• THE WORK ITSELF: THE JOB ITSELF MUST BE INTERESTING, VARIED, AND PROVIDE
ENOUGH OF A CHALLENGE TO KEEP EMPLOYEES MOTIVATED.
• RESPONSIBILITY: EMPLOYEES SHOULD “OWN” THEIR WORK. THEY SHOULD HOLD
THEMSELVES RESPONSIBLE FOR THIS COMPLETION AND NOT FEEL AS THOUGH
THEY ARE BEING MICROMANAGED.
• ADVANCEMENT: PROMOTION OPPORTUNITIES SHOULD EXIST FOR THE EMPLOYEE.
• GROWTH: THE JOB SHOULD GIVE EMPLOYEES THE OPPORTUNITY TO LEARN NEW
SKILLS. THIS CAN HAPPEN EITHER ON THE JOB OR THROUGH MORE FORMAL
TRAINING.

38. • HYGIENE FACTORS INCLUDE:
• COMPANY POLICIES: THESE SHOULD BE FAIR AND CLEAR TO EVERY EMPLOYEE. THEY MUST
ALSO BE EQUIVALENT TO THOSE OF COMPETITORS.
• SUPERVISION: SUPERVISION MUST BE FAIR AND APPROPRIATE. THE EMPLOYEE SHOULD BE
GIVEN AS MUCH AUTONOMY AS IS REASONABLE.
• RELATIONSHIPS: THERE SHOULD BE NO TOLERANCE FOR BULLYING OR CLIQUES. A
HEALTHY, AMIABLE, AND APPROPRIATE RELATIONSHIP SHOULD EXIST BETWEEN PEERS,
SUPERIORS, AND SUBORDINATES.
• WORK CONDITIONS: EQUIPMENT AND THE WORKING ENVIRONMENT SHOULD BE SAFE, FIT
FOR PURPOSE, AND HYGIENIC.
• SALARY: THE PAY STRUCTURE SHOULD BE FAIR AND REASONABLE. IT SHOULD ALSO BE
COMPETITIVE WITH OTHER ORGANIZATIONS IN THE SAME INDUSTRY.
• STATUS: THE ORGANIZATION SHOULD MAINTAIN THE STATUS OF ALL EMPLOYEES WITHIN
THE ORGANIZATION. PERFORMING MEANINGFUL WORK CAN PROVIDE A SENSE OF STATUS.
• SECURITY: IT IS IMPORTANT THAT EMPLOYEES FEEL THAT THEIR JOB IS SECURE AND THEY
ARE NOT UNDER THE CONSTANT THREAT OF BEING LAID-OFF.

39. THE FOUR STATS
1. HIGH HYGIENE AND HIGH MOTIVATION
THIS IS THE IDEAL SITUATION AND THE ONE WHICH EVERY MANAGER SHOULD STRIVE FOR. HERE,
ALL EMPLOYEES ARE MOTIVATED AND HAVE VERY FEW GRIEVANCES.
2. HIGH HYGIENE AND LOW MOTIVATION
IN THIS SITUATION, EMPLOYEES HAVE FEW GRIEVANCES BUT THEY ARE NOT HIGHLY MOTIVATED.
AN EXAMPLE OF THIS SITUATION IS WHERE PAY AND WORKING CONDITIONS ARE COMPETITIVE
BUT THE WORK ISN’T VERY INTERESTING. EMPLOYEES ARE SIMPLY THERE TO COLLECT THEIR
SALARY.
3. LOW HYGIENE AND HIGH MOTIVATION
IN THIS SITUATION, EMPLOYEES ARE HIGHLY MOTIVATED BUT THEY HAVE A LOT OF GRIEVANCES. A
TYPICAL EXAMPLE OF THIS SITUATION IS WHERE THE WORK IS EXCITING AND REALLY
INTERESTING BUT THE PAY AND CONDITIONS ARE BEHIND COMPETITORS IN THE SAME INDUSTRY.
4. LOW HYGIENE AND LOW MOTIVATION
THIS IS OBVIOUSLY A BAD SITUATION FOR AN ORGANIZATION OR TEAM TO FIND ITSELF IN. HERE,
EMPLOYEES AREN’T MOTIVATED AND THE HYGIENE FACTORS ARE NOT UP TO SCRATCH.

40. THE PROCESS THEORIES OF MOTIVATION
• WHEREAS THE CONTENT THEORIES CONCENTRATE ON THE QUESTION OF 'WHAT'
MOTIVATES, THE PROCESS THEORIES ADDRESS MORE THE ISSUES RELATING TO
HOW THE PROCESS WORKS AND SUSTAINS ITSELF OVER TIME, SUCH AS FACTORS
THAT DETERMINE THE DEGREE OF EFFORT, THE CONTINUATION OF EFFORT, THE
MODIFICATION OF EFFORT, ETC.
• AS WITH CONTENT THEORY, THERE ARE A NUMBER OF PROCESS THEORIES. THESE
INCLUDE:
• EQUITY THEORY
• EXPECTANCY THEORY
• THE PORTER-LAWLER MODEL

41. VROOM EXPECTANCY MOTIVATION THEORY
• WHEREAS MASLOW AND HERZBERG LOOK AT THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN
INTERNAL NEEDS AND THE RESULTING EFFORT EXPENDED TO FULFIL THEM,
VROOM'S EXPECTANCY THEORY SEPARATES EFFORT (WHICH ARISES FROM
MOTIVATION), PERFORMANCE, AND OUTCOMES.
• VROOM'S EXPECTANCY THEORY ASSUMES THAT BEHAVIOR RESULTS FROM
CONSCIOUS CHOICES AMONG ALTERNATIVES WHOSE PURPOSE IT IS TO
MAXIMIZE PLEASURE AND TO MINIMIZE PAIN.
• VROOM REALIZED THAT AN EMPLOYEE'S PERFORMANCE IS BASED ON
INDIVIDUAL FACTORS SUCH AS PERSONALITY, SKILLS, KNOWLEDGE,
EXPERIENCE AND ABILITIES.
• HE STATED THAT EFFORT, PERFORMANCE AND MOTIVATION ARE LINKED IN A
PERSON'S MOTIVATION.
• HE USES THE VARIABLES EXPECTANCY, INSTRUMENTALITY AND VALENCE TO
ACCOUNT FOR THIS.

43. • EXPECTANCY IS THE BELIEF THAT INCREASED EFFORT WILL LEAD TO INCREASED
PERFORMANCE I.E. IF I WORK HARDER THEN THIS WILL BE BETTER. THIS IS
AFFECTED BY SUCH THINGS AS:
1.HAVING THE RIGHT RESOURCES AVAILABLE (E.G. RAW MATERIALS, TIME)
2.HAVING THE RIGHT SKILLS TO DO THE JOB
3.HAVING THE NECESSARY SUPPORT TO GET THE JOB DONE (E.G. SUPERVISOR
SUPPORT, OR CORRECT INFORMATION ON THE JOB)
• INSTRUMENTALITY IS THE BELIEF THAT IF YOU PERFORM WELL THAT A VALUED
OUTCOME WILL BE RECEIVED. THE DEGREE TO WHICH A FIRST LEVEL OUTCOME
WILL LEAD TO THE SECOND LEVEL OUTCOME. I.E. IF I DO A GOOD JOB, THERE IS
SOMETHING IN IT FOR ME. THIS IS AFFECTED BY SUCH THINGS AS:
1.CLEAR UNDERSTANDING OF THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PERFORMANCE AND
OUTCOMES – E.G. THE RULES OF THE REWARD 'GAME'
2.TRUST IN THE PEOPLE WHO WILL TAKE THE DECISIONS ON WHO GETS WHAT
OUTCOME
3.TRANSPARENCY OF THE PROCESS THAT DECIDES WHO GETS WHAT OUTCOME

44. • VALENCE IS THE IMPORTANCE THAT THE INDIVIDUAL PLACES UPON THE
EXPECTED OUTCOME.
• FOR THE VALENCE TO BE POSITIVE, THE PERSON MUST PREFER ATTAINING THE
OUTCOME TO NOT ATTAINING IT.
• FOR EXAMPLE, IF SOMEONE IS MAINLY MOTIVATED BY MONEY, HE OR SHE
MIGHT NOT VALUE OFFERS OF ADDITIONAL TIME OFF.
• THE THREE ELEMENTS ARE IMPORTANT BEHIND CHOOSING ONE ELEMENT OVER
ANOTHER BECAUSE THEY ARE CLEARLY DEFINED: EFFORT-PERFORMANCE
EXPECTANCY (E>P EXPECTANCY) AND PERFORMANCE-OUTCOME EXPECTANCY
(P>O EXPECTANCY).
• E>P EXPECTANCY: OUR ASSESSMENT OF THE PROBABILITY THAT OUR
EFFORTS WILL LEAD TO THE REQUIRED PERFORMANCE LEVEL.
• P>O EXPECTANCY: OUR ASSESSMENT OF THE PROBABILITY THAT OUR
SUCCESSFUL PERFORMANCE WILL LEAD TO CERTAIN OUTCOMES.

45. • CRUCIALLY, VROOM'S EXPECTANCY THEORY WORKS ON PERCEPTIONS – SO EVEN IF AN
EMPLOYER THINKS THEY HAVE PROVIDED EVERYTHING APPROPRIATE FOR MOTIVATION,
AND EVEN IF THIS WORKS WITH MOST PEOPLE IN THAT ORGANISATION, IT DOESN'T
MEAN THAT SOMEONE WON'T PERCEIVE THAT IT DOESN'T WORK FOR THEM.
• AT FIRST GLANCE EXPECTANCY THEORY WOULD SEEM MOST APPLICABLE TO A
TRADITIONAL-ATTITUDE WORK SITUATION WHERE HOW MOTIVATED THE EMPLOYEE IS
DEPENDS ON WHETHER THEY WANT THE REWARD ON OFFER FOR DOING A GOOD JOB
AND WHETHER THEY BELIEVE MORE EFFORT WILL LEAD TO THAT REWARD.
• HOWEVER, IT COULD EQUALLY APPLY TO ANY SITUATION WHERE SOMEONE DOES
SOMETHING BECAUSE THEY EXPECT A CERTAIN OUTCOME.
• FOR EXAMPLE, I RECYCLE PAPER BECAUSE I THINK IT'S IMPORTANT TO CONSERVE
RESOURCES AND TAKE A STAND ON ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES (VALENCE);
• I THINK THAT THE MORE EFFORT I PUT INTO RECYCLING THE MORE PAPER I WILL
RECYCLE (EXPECTANCY); AND I THINK THAT THE MORE PAPER I RECYCLE THEN LESS
RESOURCES WILL BE USED (INSTRUMENTALITY)
• THUS, VROOM'S EXPECTANCY THEORY OF MOTIVATION IS NOT ABOUT SELF-INTEREST IN
REWARDS BUT ABOUT THE ASSOCIATIONS PEOPLE MAKE TOWARDS EXPECTED
OUTCOMES AND THE CONTRIBUTION THEY FEEL THEY CAN MAKE TOWARDS THOSE
OUTCOMES.

47. THE VARIOUS ELEMENTS OF THIS MODEL ARE EXPLAINED IN THE FOLLOWING FIGURE:

48. 1. EFFORT:
Effort Refers To The Amount Of Energy Which A Person Exerts On A Job.
2. VALUE OF REWARD:
First Of All People Try To Figure Out Whether The Rewards That Are Likely To Be Received
From Doing A Job Will Be Attractive To Them. This Is Referred To As Valence In Vroom’s
Theory. A Person Who Is Looking For More Money, For Example, Extra Vacation Time May
Not Be An Attractive Reward. If The Reward To Be Obtained Is Attractive Or Valent Then The
Individual Will Put Extra Efforts To Perform The Job. Otherwise He Will Lower His Effort.
3. PERCEIVED EFFORT REWARD PROBABILITY:
In Addition, Before People Put Forth Any Effort, They Will Also Try To Assess The Probability
Of A Certain Level Of Effort Leading To A Desired Level Of Performance And The Possibility Of
That Performance Leading To Certain Kinds Of Rewards. Based On The Valence Of The Reward
And The Effort Reward Probability, People Can Decide To Put In Certain Level Of Work Effort.

49. 4. PERFORMANCE:
Effort Leads To Performance. The Expected Level Of Performance Will Depend Upon The Amount Of Effort,
The Abilities And Traits Of The Individual And His Role Perceptions. Abilities Include Knowledge, Skills And
Intellectual Capacity To Perform The Job. Traits Which Are Important For Many Jobs Are Endurance, Pre-
servance, And Goal Directedness. Thus, Abilities And Traits Will Moderate The Effort- Performance
Relationship.
In Addition, People Performing The Jobs Should Have Accurate Role Perception Which Refers To The Wav In
Which People Define For The Jobs. People May Perceive Their Roles Differently. Only Those, Who Perceive
Their Roles As Is Defined By The Organization, Will Be Able To Perform Well When They Put Forth The
Requisite Effort.
5. REWARDS:
Performance Leads To Certain Outcomes In The Shape Of Two Types Of Rewards Namely Extrinsic Rewards
And Intrinsic Rewards. Extrinsic Rewards Are The External Rewards Given By Others In The Organization In
The Form Of Money, Recognition Or Praise. Intrinsic Rewards Are Internal Feelings Of Job Sell Esteem And
Sense Of Competence That Individuals Feel When They Do A Good Job.
6. SATISFACTION:
Satisfaction Will Result From Both Extrinsic And Intrinsic Rewards. However, For Being Satisfied, An
Individual Will Compare His Actual Rewards With The Perceived Rewards If Actual Rewards Meet Or Exceed
Perceived Equitable Rewards, The Individual Will Feel Satisfied And If These Are Less Than The Equitable
Rewards, The Individual Will Feel Dissatisfied.

51. THE PORTER AND LAWLER THEORY OF
MOTIVATION
• THE PORTER AND LAWLER THEORY OF MOTIVATION IS BASED ON THE ASSUMPTION THAT
REWARDS CAUSE SATISFACTION AND THAT SOMETIMES PERFORMANCE PRODUCES
REWARD.
• THEY HYPOTHESIZE THAT THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SATISFACTION AND PERFORMANCE
IS LINKED BY ANOTHER VARIABLE REWARDS. THEY SEE GOOD- PERFORMANCE LEADING TO
REWARD WHICH LEAD TO SATISFACTION.
• IT IS A MULTI-VARIABLE MODEL AND EXPLAINS THE COMPLEX OF RELATIONSHIP AMONG
MOTIVATION, PERFORMANCE AND SATISFACTION.
• THEY ARGUE THAT SATISFACTION DOES NOT ALWAYS LEAD TO PERFORMANCE. RATHER IS
REVERSE IS TRUE, BECAUSE PEOPLE CAN BECOME COMPLACENT AFTER HAVING ACHIEVED
SATISFACTION ONCE.
• ON THE OTHER HAND, PERFORMANCE CAN LEAD TO SATISFACTION IF THE REWARD
SYSTEMS ARE EFFECTIVE
•

52. PORTER AND LAWLER THEORY OF
MOTIVATION – REWARDS
• THE THEORY PROPOSED TWO TYPES OF REWARD:
1.INTRINSIC REWARDS: INTRINSIC REWARDS ARE GIVEN TO AN INDIVIDUAL BY
HIMSELF FOR GOOD PERFORMANCE. THEY INCLUDE FEELINGS OF
ACCOMPLISHMENT AND SATISFACTION OF HIGHER-LEVEL NEEDS AS DEFINED
BY MASLOW. INTRINSIC REWARD ARE DIRECTLY RELATED TO GOOD
PERFORMANCE ONLY IF THE JOB STRUCTURE IS VARIED AND CHALLENGING
SO AN INDIVIDUAL CAN REWARD HIMSELF IF HE FEELS HE HAS PERFORMED
WELL
2.EXTRINSIC REWARDS: EXTRINSIC REWARDS ARE GIVEN BY THE
ORGANIZATION AND SATISFY MAINLY LOWER-LEVEL NEEDS. THEY INCLUDE
SUCH THINGS AS PAY, PROMOTION, STATUS, AND JOB SECURITY. EXTRINSIC
REWARDS ARE WEEKLY CONNECTION TO PERFORMANCE

53. EQUITY THEORY OF WORK MOTIVATION
• Adam’s Equity Theory, Also Known As The Equity Theory Of Motivation, Was Developed In
1963 By John Stacey Adams, A Workplace Behavioral Psychologist.
• Equity Theory Is Based On The Idea That Individuals Are Motivated By Fairness. In Simple
Terms, Equity Theory States That If An Individual Identifies An Inequity Between
Themselves And A Peer, They Will Adjust The Work They Do To Make The Situation Fair In
Their Eyes.
• As An Example Of Equity Theory, If An Employee Learns That A Peer Doing Exactly The
Same Job As Them Is Earning More Money, Then They May Choose To Do Less Work,
Thus Creating Fairness In Their Eyes.
• Extrapolating From This, Adam’s Equity Theory Tells Us That The Higher An Individual’s
Perception Of Equity (Fairness), Then The More Motivated They Will Be. Conversely, An
Individual Will Be Demotivated If They Perceive Unfairness.

54. UNDERSTANDING EQUITY
• TO UNDERSTAND ADAM’S EQUITY THEORY IN FULL, WE NEED TO FIRST DEFINE INPUTS AND
OUTPUTS. INPUTS ARE DEFINED AS THOSE THINGS THAT AN INDIVIDUAL DOES IN ORDER TO
RECEIVE AN OUTPUT. THEY ARE THE CONTRIBUTION THE INDIVIDUAL MAKES TO THE
ORGANIZATION.
• COMMON INPUTS INCLUDE:
• THE NUMBER OF HOURS WORKED (EFFORT).
• THE COMMITMENT SHOWN.
• THE ENTHUSIASM SHOWN.
• THE EXPERIENCE BROUGHT TO THE ROLE.
• ANY PERSONAL SACRIFICES MADE.
• THE RESPONSIBILITIES AND DUTIES OF THE INDIVIDUAL IN THE ROLE.
• THE LOYALTY THE INDIVIDUAL HAS DEMONSTRATED TO SUPERIORS OR THE ORGANIZATION.
• THE FLEXIBILITY SHOWN BY THE INDIVIDUAL, FOR EXAMPLE, BY ACCEPTING ASSIGNMENTS AT
VERY SHORT NOTICE OR WITH VERY TIGHT DEADLINES.

55. • OUTPUTS (SOMETIMES REFERRED TO AS
OUTCOMES) ARE THE RESULT AN
INDIVIDUAL RECEIVES AS A RESULT OF
THEIR INPUTS TO THE ORGANIZATION.
SOME OF THESE BENEFITS WILL BE
TANGIBLE, SUCH AS SALARY, BUT
OTHERS WILL BE INTANGIBLE, SUCH AS
RECOGNITION.
• COMMON OUTPUTS INCLUDE:
• SALARY
• BONUS
• PENSION
• ANNUAL HOLIDAY ALLOWANCE
• COMPANY CAR
• STOCK OPTIONS
• RECOGNITION
• PROMOTION
• PERFORMANCE APPRAISALS
• FLEXIBILITY OF WORK ARRANGEMENTS
• SENSE OF ACHIEVEMENT
• LEARNING

57. • A REFERENT GROUP IS SIMPLY A COLLECTION OF PEOPLE A PERSON USES FOR THE
PURPOSES OF COMPARISON. FOR ADAM’S EQUITY THEORY OF MOTIVATION, THERE
ARE FOUR REFERENT GROUPS PEOPLE COMPARE THEMSELVES WITH:
1.SELF-INSIDE: THE INDIVIDUAL’S EXPERIENCE WITHIN THEIR CURRENT
ORGANIZATION.
2.SELF-OUTSIDE: THE INDIVIDUAL’S EXPERIENCE WITH OTHER ORGANIZATIONS.
3.OTHERS-INSIDE: OTHERS WITHIN THE INDIVIDUAL’S CURRENT ORGANIZATION.
4.OTHERS-OUTSIDE: OTHERS OUTSIDE OF THE INDIVIDUAL ORGANIZATION.

58. TEST 1: THE EQUITY OF REWARD AND INPUT

59. TEST 2: THE EQUITY OF REWARD AND PEER
REWARD

60. THANK YOU