2. History Of Polymers
Polymers are commonly referred to as “Plastics”
The first semi-synthetic polymer ever made was
Guncotton (cellulose nitrate)-by Christian F.Schonbein in
1845.
The manufacturing process for this polymer was
changed over the years due its poor solubility,
processability & explosivity resulting in a variety of
polymers such as celluloid(plasticized cellulose nitrate),
cellulose acetate & hydrolyzed cellulose acetate soluble
in acetone.
3. Contd…
In 1872, Bakelite, a strong &durable synthetic
polymer based on phenol & formaldehyde was
invented.
Other synthetic polymers were invented later
including Polyethylene-1933, Poly(vinyl
chloride)-1933, Polysterene-1933, Polyamide-
1933, Teflon-1938,& synthetic rubbers-1942.
4. Applications
They are used as wire insulation coating or as
insulating housings.
Conductive polymers are used as compact capacitors,
in antistatic coating, as electromagnetic shielding for
computers, transistors, light emitting diode, solar cells.
They are extensively used in automobile industry. The
major aim of the industry is to decrease the weight of
the automobile in order to reduce fuel consumption &
consequently emission of CO2.
Replacement of steel rods by polymeric fibers is very
effective to eliminate the problems of corrosion of
steel rods in concrete.
Footballs are made from polymethane.
5. PharmaceuticalApplication Of
Polymers
• Polymers are used in manufacturing of polyolefin
bottles, polystyrene vials, rubber closures, rubber
& plastic tubing for injection sets & flexible bags
of plasticized polyvinyl chloride to hold blood
&intravenous solutions.
• Unit –dose packaging make use of unplasticized
polyvinyl chloride for cups &trays
• Polyester film for strip-package or blister
package containers.
6. Contd..
• Water soluble polymers are used to coat tablets.
• Some polymers such as hydroxypropyl
methylcellulose(HPMC),& hydroxy
propylcellulose(HPC), NaCMC, are used as binders for
tableting granulation .
• Ethylcellulose(EC) being insoluble in water, is combined
with water soluble polymers to influence the dissolution
rate of the coating film.
• Synthetic &natural polymers are to thicken suspension
&ophthalmic solutions.
7. Contd..
• They are used to stabilize emulsion
&suspension.
• They are used to form water soluble jellies &
ointment bases.
• Polymers are employed in sustained release
dosage forms as shells for microencapsulated
drugs.
• Polymers used as coatings, binders, taste
maskers, protective agents, drug carriers
&release controlling agents.
8. DEFINITION: A polymer is a large molecule made up of
many repeating units.
The word “polymer” means “many parts.”
Monomers bond together to form polymers.
A monomer is a small molecule that combines with
other molecules of the same or different types to form
a polymer.
The structure of a polymer is displayed by showing the
“repeating unit”(monomer) or “mer” and an “n”
number that shows how many monomers are
participating in the reaction.
If two, three, four, or five monomers are attached to
each other, the product is known as a dimer, trimer,
tetramer, or pentamer, resp.
POLYMERS IN GENERAL
9.
10. An oligomer contains from 30 to 100 monomeric
units.
Product containing more than 200 monomers are
simply called a polymer.
The polymer formed by the long chain of covalent
bonded single atom such as carbon or silicon alone
that forms the backbone of the polymer are called
homochain polymers. Example: -S--S- , -Si--Si-
Heterochain polymers contain other atoms in the
backbone.
Example: -C--S- , -C—O-
11. Homopolymers: They consist of a single monomer.
Ex:Many naturally occurring polymers like cellulose and
natural rubber are homopolymers.
COPOLYMERS : These incorporate two monomers in
their structure.
Ex:Proteins are co-polymers of amino acids.
12. TYPES OF CO-POLYMERS
RANDOM CO-POLYMERS: The monomers attach
randomly and follow no particular sequence, there will
be no preference for which monomer is added next.
ALTERNATE CO-POLYMERS: In such type of polymers the
two mers alternate.
BLOCK CO-POLYMERS: These contain long sequences of
same mer.
13. GRAFT CO-POLYMERS: In this type the monomers attach to an
already existing polymer.
Example: grafting of various monomers such as acrylic acid,
acrylamide, etc. onto the cellulose backbone of carboxymethyl
cellulose(CMC).
14. TYPES OF POLYMERS
LINEAR POLYMERS: These consist of long and straight chains.
Example: PVC.
BRANCHED POLYMERS: They contain linear chains having some
branches.
Example: low density polymer.
CROSS LINKED POLYMERS: They are formed from bi-functional
or tri-functional monomers and contain strong covalent bonds.
Example: bakelite, melamine.
15. THERMOPLASTIC POLYMERS : These are linear or slightly
branched long chain polymers, which can be softened on heating
and reversibly hardened on cooling repeatedly. Their hardness is
a temporary property and varies with temperature.
Example: polyvinyl chloride, polyethylene, nylon, acrylic.
THERMOSETTING POLYMERS : A cross-linked or network polymer
that is insoluble and infusible.
Example: bakelite.
16. POLYMERISATION
• THE PROCESS BY WHICH MONOMERS BOND IS CALLED
POLYMERISATION.
• THE NUMBER “n” OF REPEAT UNITS OR MERS PER
MACROMOLECULE IS CALLED DEGREE OF
POLYMERISATION(DP).
TYPES:
CONDENSATION POLYMERISATION: It is also called step-wise
polymerisation.
Two or more monomers carrying different reactive functional
groups interact with each other. There are no radicals
involved in this polymerisation.
Example: Nylon is prepared via condensation polymerisation
of diamine and diacid chloride.
17. ADDITION POLYMERSIATION: The polymer is formed from the
monomer, without the loss of any material, and the product is
the exact multiple of the original monomeric molecule.
This process involves three steps:
A. CHAIN INITIATION STEP: A Free-radical attacks the double
bond of a monomer. In this way, the radical is transferred to
the monomer and the monomer radical is produced.
B. CHAIN PROPOGATION STEP: The monomer radical is also able
to attack another monomer and then another monomer. Thus
a macroradical is formed.
C. CHAIN TERMINATING STEP: Macroradicals prepared may
undergo reaction with another macroradical, thus terminating
the chain.
Example: styrene shows free-radical polymerisation to form
polystyrene.
18.
19.
20. MOLECULAR WEIGHT OF POLYMERS
• POLYMERS ARE HIGH MOLECULAR WEIGHT COMPOUNDS.
1. WEIGHT AVERAGE MOLECULAR WEIGHT
𝑀𝑤 =
𝑁𝑖𝑀𝑖𝑊𝑖
𝑁𝑖𝑀𝑖
• Mw – Weight average molecular weight.
• Mi – Total molecular weight of monomer.
• Ni – Number of monomer molecules.
• Wi – Weight fraction of each molecule.
2. NUMBER AVERAGE MOLECULAR WEIGHT
𝑀𝑛 =
𝑁𝑖𝑀𝑖
𝑁𝑖