DNA is the largest molecule known. A single, unbroken strand of it can contain many millions of atoms. When released from a cell, DNA typically breaks up into countless fragments. In solutions, these strands have a slight negative electric charge, a fact that makes for some fascinating chemistry.
The genetic material of a cell or an organism refers to those materials found in the nucleus, mitochondria and cytoplasm, which play a fundamental role in determining the structure and nature of cell substances, and capable of self-propagating and variation.
The genetic material of a cell or an organism refers to those materials found in the nucleus, mitochondria and cytoplasm, which play a fundamental role in determining the structure and nature of cell substances, and capable of self-propagating and variation.
I AM 4 VHO: New Approach to improve Seamless Vertical Handover in Heterogeneo...IJCNCJournal
Two mechanisms have been proposed independently by IEEE and 3GPP; namely, Media Independent
Handover (MIH) and Access Network Discovery and Selection Function (ANDSF), respectively. These
mechanisms enable a seamless Vertical Handover (VHO) between the different types of technologies
(3GPP and non-3GPP), such as GSM (Global System for Mobile Communication), Wireless Fidelity (Wi-
Fi), Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access (WiMAX), Universal Mobile Telecommunications
System (UMTS) and Long Term Evolution (LTE). In this paper, we overview these mechanisms and show
their components, benefits and drawbacks. Then we present our Imperative Alternative MIH for Vertical
Handover (I AM 4 VHO) approach based on the approaches that have been studied in the literature with
better performance (packet loss and latency), less connection failure (probability of reject sessions), less
complexity and more exhaustive for enhancing VHO heterogeneous wireless networks environment
Es una manera fácil de Ganar Dinero utilizando ingenio y habilidad El incremento del negocio de manicura en nuestro país ha generado tanto interés que hoy hasta podemos hablar de competitividad en esta clase de negocio, aquí se ha generado mucho en el mercado.
Analysis of Phenols in Whisky by HPLC with FL DetectionPerkinElmer, Inc.
One of the world’s most popular spirits is whisky and it comes in many different classes and types. The character and flavor of these differing types vary widely due to their varied chemical composition. Whisky contains a multitude of compounds, which can be influenced by the variety of grain, the distillation process, and the wood used in the barrels for the aging process. Phenolic compounds contribute bitterness and smokiness to a whisky’s flavor. They are more distinct in whiskies produced in Scottish distilleries where barley is dried using peat fires. During the drying process, the phenolic compounds in the peat smoke are absorbed by the barley and the flavors are later transferred to the whisky during the malting process. Additionally, during the maturation of the whisky in charred barrels, phenolic compounds may be produced in the spirit. The most important flavor-contributing phenolic compounds in whisky are phenol, cresols, xyenol and guaiacol. Cresols, particularly m-cresol, are compounds responsible for the
somewhat medicinal aroma in both Scotch whiskies and adhesive bandages. Guaiacol imparts a slight smoky aroma and eugenol, more commonly found in cloves, is found in
many whiskies and is partly responsible for their spicy aroma. This application focuses on the HPLC separation and quantitation of ten phenols in three store-bought Scotch whiskies.
Dhruti Shah, UGC producer at BBC News, shared tips on finding and verifying stories on social media at the recent news:rewired digital journalism conference.
Visit www.newsrewired.com to see more speakers and an accompanying audio track.
World War One Interactive Touch Table - Parramatta Discovery Centre ProjectGeoff Barker
The Research team here at the Parramatta Heritage Centre has been produced this interactive touch table containing over 1500 soldiers from the local Parramatta district in Sydney, Australia.
The table is not a static display as it allows users to enter any stories they may have into the table and this is directed to a CMS in the cloud which we use to feed information back into the table.
For the full video of this presentation, please visit:
http://www.embedded-vision.com/platinum-members/altera/embedded-vision-training/videos/pages/may-2015-embedded-vision-summit
For more information about embedded vision, please visit:
http://www.embedded-vision.com
Deshanand Singh, Director of Software Engineering at Altera, presents the "Efficient Implementation of Convolutional Neural Networks using OpenCL on FPGAs" tutorial at the May 2015 Embedded Vision Summit.
Convolutional neural networks (CNN) are becoming increasingly popular in embedded applications such as vision processing and automotive driver assistance systems. The structure of CNN systems is characterized by cascades of FIR filters and transcendental functions. FPGA technology offers a very efficient way of implementing these structures by allowing designers to build custom hardware datapaths that implement the CNN structure. One challenge of using FPGAs revolves around the design flow that has been traditionally centered around tedious hardware description languages.
In this talk, Deshanand gives a detailed explanation of how CNN algorithms can be expressed in OpenCL and compiled directly to FPGA hardware. He gives detail on code optimizations and provides comparisons with the efficiency of hand-coded implementations.
I AM 4 VHO: New Approach to improve Seamless Vertical Handover in Heterogeneo...IJCNCJournal
Two mechanisms have been proposed independently by IEEE and 3GPP; namely, Media Independent
Handover (MIH) and Access Network Discovery and Selection Function (ANDSF), respectively. These
mechanisms enable a seamless Vertical Handover (VHO) between the different types of technologies
(3GPP and non-3GPP), such as GSM (Global System for Mobile Communication), Wireless Fidelity (Wi-
Fi), Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access (WiMAX), Universal Mobile Telecommunications
System (UMTS) and Long Term Evolution (LTE). In this paper, we overview these mechanisms and show
their components, benefits and drawbacks. Then we present our Imperative Alternative MIH for Vertical
Handover (I AM 4 VHO) approach based on the approaches that have been studied in the literature with
better performance (packet loss and latency), less connection failure (probability of reject sessions), less
complexity and more exhaustive for enhancing VHO heterogeneous wireless networks environment
Es una manera fácil de Ganar Dinero utilizando ingenio y habilidad El incremento del negocio de manicura en nuestro país ha generado tanto interés que hoy hasta podemos hablar de competitividad en esta clase de negocio, aquí se ha generado mucho en el mercado.
Analysis of Phenols in Whisky by HPLC with FL DetectionPerkinElmer, Inc.
One of the world’s most popular spirits is whisky and it comes in many different classes and types. The character and flavor of these differing types vary widely due to their varied chemical composition. Whisky contains a multitude of compounds, which can be influenced by the variety of grain, the distillation process, and the wood used in the barrels for the aging process. Phenolic compounds contribute bitterness and smokiness to a whisky’s flavor. They are more distinct in whiskies produced in Scottish distilleries where barley is dried using peat fires. During the drying process, the phenolic compounds in the peat smoke are absorbed by the barley and the flavors are later transferred to the whisky during the malting process. Additionally, during the maturation of the whisky in charred barrels, phenolic compounds may be produced in the spirit. The most important flavor-contributing phenolic compounds in whisky are phenol, cresols, xyenol and guaiacol. Cresols, particularly m-cresol, are compounds responsible for the
somewhat medicinal aroma in both Scotch whiskies and adhesive bandages. Guaiacol imparts a slight smoky aroma and eugenol, more commonly found in cloves, is found in
many whiskies and is partly responsible for their spicy aroma. This application focuses on the HPLC separation and quantitation of ten phenols in three store-bought Scotch whiskies.
Dhruti Shah, UGC producer at BBC News, shared tips on finding and verifying stories on social media at the recent news:rewired digital journalism conference.
Visit www.newsrewired.com to see more speakers and an accompanying audio track.
World War One Interactive Touch Table - Parramatta Discovery Centre ProjectGeoff Barker
The Research team here at the Parramatta Heritage Centre has been produced this interactive touch table containing over 1500 soldiers from the local Parramatta district in Sydney, Australia.
The table is not a static display as it allows users to enter any stories they may have into the table and this is directed to a CMS in the cloud which we use to feed information back into the table.
For the full video of this presentation, please visit:
http://www.embedded-vision.com/platinum-members/altera/embedded-vision-training/videos/pages/may-2015-embedded-vision-summit
For more information about embedded vision, please visit:
http://www.embedded-vision.com
Deshanand Singh, Director of Software Engineering at Altera, presents the "Efficient Implementation of Convolutional Neural Networks using OpenCL on FPGAs" tutorial at the May 2015 Embedded Vision Summit.
Convolutional neural networks (CNN) are becoming increasingly popular in embedded applications such as vision processing and automotive driver assistance systems. The structure of CNN systems is characterized by cascades of FIR filters and transcendental functions. FPGA technology offers a very efficient way of implementing these structures by allowing designers to build custom hardware datapaths that implement the CNN structure. One challenge of using FPGAs revolves around the design flow that has been traditionally centered around tedious hardware description languages.
In this talk, Deshanand gives a detailed explanation of how CNN algorithms can be expressed in OpenCL and compiled directly to FPGA hardware. He gives detail on code optimizations and provides comparisons with the efficiency of hand-coded implementations.
nucleic acid
history
central dogma of life
types of nucleic acid
functions of DNA
Replication
encoding information
mutation and recombination
gene expression
Smart TV Buyer Insights Survey 2024 by 91mobiles.pdf91mobiles
91mobiles recently conducted a Smart TV Buyer Insights Survey in which we asked over 3,000 respondents about the TV they own, aspects they look at on a new TV, and their TV buying preferences.
LF Energy Webinar: Electrical Grid Modelling and Simulation Through PowSyBl -...DanBrown980551
Do you want to learn how to model and simulate an electrical network from scratch in under an hour?
Then welcome to this PowSyBl workshop, hosted by Rte, the French Transmission System Operator (TSO)!
During the webinar, you will discover the PowSyBl ecosystem as well as handle and study an electrical network through an interactive Python notebook.
PowSyBl is an open source project hosted by LF Energy, which offers a comprehensive set of features for electrical grid modelling and simulation. Among other advanced features, PowSyBl provides:
- A fully editable and extendable library for grid component modelling;
- Visualization tools to display your network;
- Grid simulation tools, such as power flows, security analyses (with or without remedial actions) and sensitivity analyses;
The framework is mostly written in Java, with a Python binding so that Python developers can access PowSyBl functionalities as well.
What you will learn during the webinar:
- For beginners: discover PowSyBl's functionalities through a quick general presentation and the notebook, without needing any expert coding skills;
- For advanced developers: master the skills to efficiently apply PowSyBl functionalities to your real-world scenarios.
Slack (or Teams) Automation for Bonterra Impact Management (fka Social Soluti...Jeffrey Haguewood
Sidekick Solutions uses Bonterra Impact Management (fka Social Solutions Apricot) and automation solutions to integrate data for business workflows.
We believe integration and automation are essential to user experience and the promise of efficient work through technology. Automation is the critical ingredient to realizing that full vision. We develop integration products and services for Bonterra Case Management software to support the deployment of automations for a variety of use cases.
This video focuses on the notifications, alerts, and approval requests using Slack for Bonterra Impact Management. The solutions covered in this webinar can also be deployed for Microsoft Teams.
Interested in deploying notification automations for Bonterra Impact Management? Contact us at sales@sidekicksolutionsllc.com to discuss next steps.
Kubernetes & AI - Beauty and the Beast !?! @KCD Istanbul 2024Tobias Schneck
As AI technology is pushing into IT I was wondering myself, as an “infrastructure container kubernetes guy”, how get this fancy AI technology get managed from an infrastructure operational view? Is it possible to apply our lovely cloud native principals as well? What benefit’s both technologies could bring to each other?
Let me take this questions and provide you a short journey through existing deployment models and use cases for AI software. On practical examples, we discuss what cloud/on-premise strategy we may need for applying it to our own infrastructure to get it to work from an enterprise perspective. I want to give an overview about infrastructure requirements and technologies, what could be beneficial or limiting your AI use cases in an enterprise environment. An interactive Demo will give you some insides, what approaches I got already working for real.
Key Trends Shaping the Future of Infrastructure.pdfCheryl Hung
Keynote at DIGIT West Expo, Glasgow on 29 May 2024.
Cheryl Hung, ochery.com
Sr Director, Infrastructure Ecosystem, Arm.
The key trends across hardware, cloud and open-source; exploring how these areas are likely to mature and develop over the short and long-term, and then considering how organisations can position themselves to adapt and thrive.
Accelerate your Kubernetes clusters with Varnish CachingThijs Feryn
A presentation about the usage and availability of Varnish on Kubernetes. This talk explores the capabilities of Varnish caching and shows how to use the Varnish Helm chart to deploy it to Kubernetes.
This presentation was delivered at K8SUG Singapore. See https://feryn.eu/presentations/accelerate-your-kubernetes-clusters-with-varnish-caching-k8sug-singapore-28-2024 for more details.
Search and Society: Reimagining Information Access for Radical FuturesBhaskar Mitra
The field of Information retrieval (IR) is currently undergoing a transformative shift, at least partly due to the emerging applications of generative AI to information access. In this talk, we will deliberate on the sociotechnical implications of generative AI for information access. We will argue that there is both a critical necessity and an exciting opportunity for the IR community to re-center our research agendas on societal needs while dismantling the artificial separation between the work on fairness, accountability, transparency, and ethics in IR and the rest of IR research. Instead of adopting a reactionary strategy of trying to mitigate potential social harms from emerging technologies, the community should aim to proactively set the research agenda for the kinds of systems we should build inspired by diverse explicitly stated sociotechnical imaginaries. The sociotechnical imaginaries that underpin the design and development of information access technologies needs to be explicitly articulated, and we need to develop theories of change in context of these diverse perspectives. Our guiding future imaginaries must be informed by other academic fields, such as democratic theory and critical theory, and should be co-developed with social science scholars, legal scholars, civil rights and social justice activists, and artists, among others.
DevOps and Testing slides at DASA ConnectKari Kakkonen
My and Rik Marselis slides at 30.5.2024 DASA Connect conference. We discuss about what is testing, then what is agile testing and finally what is Testing in DevOps. Finally we had lovely workshop with the participants trying to find out different ways to think about quality and testing in different parts of the DevOps infinity loop.
Dev Dives: Train smarter, not harder – active learning and UiPath LLMs for do...UiPathCommunity
💥 Speed, accuracy, and scaling – discover the superpowers of GenAI in action with UiPath Document Understanding and Communications Mining™:
See how to accelerate model training and optimize model performance with active learning
Learn about the latest enhancements to out-of-the-box document processing – with little to no training required
Get an exclusive demo of the new family of UiPath LLMs – GenAI models specialized for processing different types of documents and messages
This is a hands-on session specifically designed for automation developers and AI enthusiasts seeking to enhance their knowledge in leveraging the latest intelligent document processing capabilities offered by UiPath.
Speakers:
👨🏫 Andras Palfi, Senior Product Manager, UiPath
👩🏫 Lenka Dulovicova, Product Program Manager, UiPath
State of ICS and IoT Cyber Threat Landscape Report 2024 previewPrayukth K V
The IoT and OT threat landscape report has been prepared by the Threat Research Team at Sectrio using data from Sectrio, cyber threat intelligence farming facilities spread across over 85 cities around the world. In addition, Sectrio also runs AI-based advanced threat and payload engagement facilities that serve as sinks to attract and engage sophisticated threat actors, and newer malware including new variants and latent threats that are at an earlier stage of development.
The latest edition of the OT/ICS and IoT security Threat Landscape Report 2024 also covers:
State of global ICS asset and network exposure
Sectoral targets and attacks as well as the cost of ransom
Global APT activity, AI usage, actor and tactic profiles, and implications
Rise in volumes of AI-powered cyberattacks
Major cyber events in 2024
Malware and malicious payload trends
Cyberattack types and targets
Vulnerability exploit attempts on CVEs
Attacks on counties – USA
Expansion of bot farms – how, where, and why
In-depth analysis of the cyber threat landscape across North America, South America, Europe, APAC, and the Middle East
Why are attacks on smart factories rising?
Cyber risk predictions
Axis of attacks – Europe
Systemic attacks in the Middle East
Download the full report from here:
https://sectrio.com/resources/ot-threat-landscape-reports/sectrio-releases-ot-ics-and-iot-security-threat-landscape-report-2024/
Neuro-symbolic is not enough, we need neuro-*semantic*Frank van Harmelen
Neuro-symbolic (NeSy) AI is on the rise. However, simply machine learning on just any symbolic structure is not sufficient to really harvest the gains of NeSy. These will only be gained when the symbolic structures have an actual semantics. I give an operational definition of semantics as “predictable inference”.
All of this illustrated with link prediction over knowledge graphs, but the argument is general.
Epistemic Interaction - tuning interfaces to provide information for AI supportAlan Dix
Paper presented at SYNERGY workshop at AVI 2024, Genoa, Italy. 3rd June 2024
https://alandix.com/academic/papers/synergy2024-epistemic/
As machine learning integrates deeper into human-computer interactions, the concept of epistemic interaction emerges, aiming to refine these interactions to enhance system adaptability. This approach encourages minor, intentional adjustments in user behaviour to enrich the data available for system learning. This paper introduces epistemic interaction within the context of human-system communication, illustrating how deliberate interaction design can improve system understanding and adaptation. Through concrete examples, we demonstrate the potential of epistemic interaction to significantly advance human-computer interaction by leveraging intuitive human communication strategies to inform system design and functionality, offering a novel pathway for enriching user-system engagements.
Let's dive deeper into the world of ODC! Ricardo Alves (OutSystems) will join us to tell all about the new Data Fabric. After that, Sezen de Bruijn (OutSystems) will get into the details on how to best design a sturdy architecture within ODC.
2. LOCATION OF DNA IN
A CELL
• Chromatin is a complex of DNA and
protein, and is found in the nucleus of
eukaryotic cells.
• Histones are proteins that are
responsible for the first level of DNA
packing in chromatin
• The chromatin network in the nucleus of
a cell will coil up tightly during cell
division and form individual
chromosomes.
3. • Chromosomes are always duplicated
during this process (2 sets of identical
genetic information to ensure each cell
receives identical genetic info to the
parent cell during cell division).
• A duplicated chromosome consists of 2
chromatids attached to each other by a
centromere.
• Each chromatid consists of several genes.
• Genes consists of a long DNA strand.
• A string of DNA coiled around a few
histones is called a nucleosome.
4. LOCATION OF DNA IN
A CELL
Locus: Position of gene on chromosome
6. 2. DNA STRUCTURE
• DNA molecules are polymers called
polynucleotides.
• Each polynucleotide is made of
monomers called nucleotides.
• Each nucleotide consists of :
• a nitrogenous base (Adenine,
Thymine, Cytosine or Guanine)
• a pentose sugar (DNA =
Deoxyribose sugar),
• and a phosphate group.
7. • Nucleotide monomers are linked
together to build a polynucleotide.
• Adjacent nucleotides are joined by
covalent bonds that form between the –
OH group on the 3’ carbon of one
nucleotide and the phosphate on the 5’
carbon on the next nucleotide.
• These links create a backbone of sugar-
phosphate units with nitrogenous bases
as appendages.
• The sequence of bases along a DNA
polymer is unique for each gene.
10. • A DNA molecule has two polynucleo-
tides spiralling around an imaginary
axis, forming a double helix.
• In the DNA double helix, the two
backbones run in opposite 5’ → 3’
directions from each other, an
arrangement referred to as antiparallel.
• One DNA molecule includes many genes.
• The nitrogenous bases in DNA pair up
and form hydrogen bonds: adenine (A)
always with thymine (T), and guanine
(G) always with cytosine (C).
12. 3. DISCOVERY OF THE
DNA STRUCTURE
• Early in the 20th century, the identifi-
cation of the molecules of inheritance
loomed as a major challenge to biologists.
13. The Search for the Genetic
Material: Scientific Inquiry
• T. H. Morgan’s group showed that genes
are located on chromosomes, the 2
components of chromosomes are DNA &
protein which became the candidates for
the genetic material.
• Key factor in determining the genetic
material was choosing appropriate
experimental organisms - bacteria & the
viruses that infect them were chosen.
14. • Discovery of the genetic role of DNA began
with research by Frederick Griffith in 1928.
• Griffith worked with 2 strains of a
bacterium, 1 pathogenic (S cells) & 1
harmless (R cells)
• Heat-killed pathogenic strain were mixed
with living cells of harmless strain and the
result = some living cells became
pathogenic.
• This phenomenon was called
transformation, now defined as a change
in genotype & phenotype due to
assimilation of foreign DNA.
15.
16. • More evidence for DNA as the genetic
material came from studies of viruses that
infect bacteria.
• Such viruses, called bacteriophages (or
phages), are widely used in molecular
genetics research.
Bacterial cell
Phage head
Tail sheath
Tail fiber
DNA
17. • 1952: A. Hershey & M. Chase
experiments showing that DNA is
the genetic material of T2 phage.
• To determine the source of genetic
material in the phage, they designed
an experiment showing that only 1 /
2 components of T2 (DNA or
protein) enters an E. coli cell during
infection
• They concluded that the injected
DNA of the phage provides the
genetic information.
18.
19. • After most biologists became
convinced that DNA was the genetic
material, the challenge was to
determine how its structure accounts
for its role…
• M Wilkins & R Franklin used X-ray
crystallography to study molecular
structure.
• Franklin produced a picture of the DNA
molecule using this technique.
20. A picture of the DNA molecule using
crystallography by Franklin.
21. • Franklin’s X-ray crystallographic
images of DNA enabled Watson to
deduce:
• that DNA was helical
• the width of the helix
• the spacing of the nitrogenous
bases
• Width suggested that the DNA
molecule was made up of 2 strands,
forming a double helix
23. • Watson and Crick: built models of a
double helix to conform to the X-rays &
chemistry of DNA.
• Franklin concluded there were 2
antiparallel sugar-P backbones, with
the N bases paired in the molecule’s
interior.
• But: How did bases pair? A-A?/A-T?/
A-C?/A-G?......
24. • But: How did bases pair?
• They worked it out by using the
following image:
Purine + purine: too wide
Pyrimidine + pyrimidine:
too narrow
Purine + pyrimidine: width
consistent with X-ray data
25. • W & C noted that the pairing of the
Nitrogen bases was specific, dictated
by the base structures.
• Adenine (A) paired only with thymine
(T), & guanine (G) paired only with
cytosine (C)
• The W-C model explains Chargaff’s
rules which states that; in any
organism the amount of A = T, & the
amount of G = C
26.
27. 4. THE ROLE OF DNA
• DNA is vital for all living beings – even
plants.
• It is important for:
• inheritance,
• coding for proteins and
• the genetic instruction guide for
life and its processes.
DNA holds the instructions for an
organism's or each cell’s development
and reproduction and ultimately death.
DNA can replicate itself.
28. NON-CODING DNA
Multicellular eukaryotes have many
introns(non-coding DNA) within genes and
noncoding DNA between genes.
The bulk of most eukaryotic genomes
consists of noncoding DNA
sequences, often described in the past as
“junk DNA”
Much evidence indicates that noncoding
DNA plays important roles in the cell.
Sequencing of the human genome reveals
that 98.5% does not code for
proteins, rRNAs, or tRNAs.
29. About 24% of the human genome
codes for introns and gene-related
regulatory sequences.
Intergenic DNA is noncoding DNA
found between genes:
Pseudogenes are former genes that
have accumulated mutations and are
nonfunctional
Repetitive DNA is present in
multiple copies in the genome
30. 5. DNA REPLICATION
• Replication begins at special sites
called origins of replication, where
the 2 DNA strands separate, opening
up a replication “bubble” (eukaryotic
chromosome may have many origins
of replication.
• The enzyme helicase unwinds the
parental double helix.
• Single stranded binding protein
stabilizes the unwound template
strands.
31. • A replication fork forms.
• The enzyme: Topoisomerase breaks,
swivels and re-joins the parental DNA
ahead of the replication for, to
prevent over winding.
• The unwind complimentary strands
now act as individual template for 2
new strands.
• RNA nucleotides are added to each
DNA template by the enzyme RNA
primase to form RNA primers on both
templates
32.
33. • The enzyme DNA polymerase III add
free DNA nucleotides to the RNA
primer 3’ carbon.
• The free nucleotides bond with H-
bonds to their complimentary bases
on the DNA templates.
• Along one template strand of DNA,
the DNA polymerase synthesizes a
leading strand continuously, moving
toward the replication fork.
34.
35. • To elongate the other new strand,
called the lagging strand, DNA
polymerase must work in the
direction away from the replication
fork.
• The lagging strand is synthesized as a
series of segments called Okazaki
fragments.
• Each fragment has an RNA primer and
added DNA strand.
• All the fragments are then joined with
the help of the enzyme DNA ligase.
36. • DNA polymerase I then removes RNA
primers and replaces it with DNA
nucleotides.
37. 6. PROOFREADING AND
REPAIRING DNA
• DNA polymerases proofread newly made
DNA, replacing any incorrect nucleotides
• In mismatch repair of DNA, repair
enzymes correct errors in base pairing.
• DNA damaged by chemicals, radioactive
emissions, X-rays, UV light, & certain
molecules (in cigarette smoke for example)
• In nucleotide excision repair, a nuclease
cuts out & replaces damaged stretches of
DNA.
40. DNA CLONING
–Cloning is the reproduction of genetically
identical copies of DNA, cells or
organisms through some asexual means.
–DNA cloning can be done to produce
many identical copies of the same gene –
for the purpose of gene cloning.
–When cloned genes are used to modify a
human, the process is called gene
therapy.
41. –Otherwise, the organisms are called
transgenic organisms – these
organisms today are used to produce
products desired by humans.
–A. Recombinant DNA (rDNA) and B.
polymerase chain reaction (PCR) are
two procedures that scientists can use
to clone DNA
43. A. CLONING A HUMAN GENE
HOW IS INSULIN MADE BY DNA CLONING?
(A. RECOMBINANT DNA)
• A large quantity of insulin are being produced
by recombinant DNA technology.
• This process is as follows:
1. DNA that codes for the production of
insulin is removed from the chromosome of a
human pancreatic cell.
2. Restriction enzymes cut the gene from the
chromosome (isolating the gene for insulin)
I
44. Insulin gene – cut
out with restriction
enzyme
Isolated insulin gene
45. 3. A plasmid (acting as a vector/carrier of
new gene) is removed from the bacterium
and cut open with a restriction enzyme to
form sticky ends
Plasmid removed from
bacterium
Cut by restriction
enzyme
plasmid
Nucleus
BACTERIUM CELL
Sticky ends
46. • 4. Ligase (enzyme) is added to join the
insulin gene to the plasmid of the
bacterium cell - forming recombinant
DNA.
• 5. The recombinant DNA can then be
reinserted into the bacterium, the
bacterium will then produce more
insulin, therefore cloning the gene.
Insulin gene placed in plasmid
by enzyme Ligase ( attached
to sticky ends)
47. • 6. When the bacterium reproduces it makes
the insulin inserted into the plasmid.
• 7. The bacteria are kept in huge tenks with
optimum pH, temperature and nutrient
values, where they multiply rapidly, producing
enormous amounts of insulin, this is then
purified and sold.
Recombinant DNA placed into bacterium cell
48. B. POLYMERASE CHAIN REACTION
• PCR – Used in genetic profiling.
• To solve crimes – criminals usually leave DNA
evidence at the scene of the crime in the form
of saliva, blood, skin, semen and hair. These all
contain DNA. If only a little bit of DNA is found
or the DNA is old, we can make copies of the
available DNA by means of PCR.
• From the DNA produced through PCR, DNA
fingerprint can be generated.
49. PCR method
• 1. Sample containing DNA is heated in a
test tube to separate DNA into single
strands.
• 2. Free nucleotides are added to the test
tube with DNA polymerase (enzyme), to
allow DNA replication.
• 3. DNA is cooled to allow free nucleotides
to form a complementary strand along side
each single strand.
• 4. In this way the DNA is doubled giving
sufficient amount of DNA to work with.
50.
51.
52. DNA SCREENING AND FINGERPRINT
TECHNIQUE
• 1. Sample of DNA is cut into fragments by means of
restriction enzymes.
• 2. Negative charged electrode at one end of a
rectangular flat piece of gel and a positive
electrode is placed at the other end.
• 3. The DNA is placed at the negative end of the gel
and starts to move to the positive end. Smaller
fragments move faster than the larger ones.
Separation occurs on the basis of size. This process
is called gel electrophoresis.
53. • 4. DNA is then pressed flat against the gel and
transferred to filter paper.
• 5. Radioactive probes bind to special DNA
fragments.
• 6. X-rays are taken of the filter paper. The DNA
probes show up as dark bands on the film. The
pattern of these bands is the DNA fingerprint.
57. BIOTECHNOLOGY PRODUCTS
• Today transgenic bacteria, plants and animals
are called genetically modified organisms
(GMO’s).
• The products that GMO’s produce are called
biotechnology products.
58.
59. GENETICALLY MODIFIED BACTERIA
• Recombinant DNA is used to make transgenic
bacteria.
• They are used to make insulin, clotting factor
VIII, human growth hormone and hepatitis B
vaccine.
• Transgenic bacteria is used to protect the
roots of plants from insect attack, by
producing insect toxins.
60. GENETICALLY MODIFIED PLANTS
• Example = pomato
• Genetically modified to produce potato's
below the ground and tomato's above the
ground.
• Foreign genes transferred to cotton, corn, and
potato strains have made these plants
resistant to pests because their cells now
produce an insect toxin.
• Read p. 253 for more examples