This document defines key terms related to illumination and lighting. It explains that light is a form of radiant energy and the human eye is most sensitive to yellow-green wavelengths. Color is determined by the wavelength of light. Illumination is the result of light falling on a surface and makes it appear bright. Common light sources are incandescent, fluorescent and gas discharge lamps. Key terms defined include luminous flux, intensity, lumen, lux, candlepower, illumination, brightness and maintenance factor. Proper lighting design requires an understanding of these illumination fundamentals and metrics.
The document discusses different types of electrical insulators used in power transmission and distribution systems. It describes pin insulators, which are used for voltages up to 33kV and secure the conductor to cross-arms on poles. For higher voltages, suspension insulators are used, consisting of multiple porcelain discs connected in series. Strain insulators are used where there are sharp turns or high tension, using assemblies of suspension insulators or shackle insulators for lower voltages. Each type of insulator is designed to support and isolate electrical conductors without allowing current flow.
The document discusses protection schemes for transformers. It describes faults that can occur in transformers such as open circuits, overheating, and winding short circuits. It then discusses different protection systems for transformers including Buchholz relays, earth fault relays, overcurrent relays, and differential protection systems. Differential protection systems operate by comparing currents from current transformers on both sides of the transformer and tripping the circuit breaker if a difference is detected, indicating an internal fault. The combination of protection schemes provides comprehensive protection for transformers.
System protection is used to detect problems in power system components and isolate faulty equipment to maintain reliable power. The key elements of a protection system include differential relays to protect generators and transformers from internal faults, overcurrent and distance relays to protect transmission lines from external faults, and bus differential relays to protect distribution buses. Protective devices are needed to maintain acceptable operation, isolate damaged equipment, and minimize harm to personnel and property.
The document discusses electromagnetic relays used in power systems. It describes two main operating principles for electromagnetic relays: electromagnetic attraction and electromagnetic induction. Electromagnetic attraction relays operate using an armature attracted to magnet poles, and include attractor-armature, solenoid, and balanced beam types. Electromagnetic induction relays operate on induction motor principles using a pivoted disc and alternating magnetic fields, and include shaded-pole, watt-hour meter, and induction cup structures. The document also defines important relay terms like pick-up current, current setting, and time-setting multiplier.
This document discusses different methods of grounding electrical systems, including solid grounding, resistance grounding, reactance grounding, and resonant groundings using a Peterson coil. Solid grounding directly connects the neutral point to earth, holding it at earth potential but allowing high fault currents. Resistance grounding limits fault current by connecting through a resistor. Reactance grounding uses an inductor instead of resistor. Resonant grounding with a Peterson coil adjusts the inductance to balance capacitive currents and prevent arcing faults.
This document discusses insulation coordination, which involves selecting insulation levels for electrical system components and arranging them rationally. Proper insulation coordination ensures reliability by minimizing failures from overvoltages while reducing costs. Key aspects covered include determining line and equipment insulation levels, selecting surge arrestors, and the ideal characteristics of protective devices to coordinate insulation withstand. The relationship between insulation, protective device characteristics, and location of surge arrestors is also examined.
Power System Transient - Introduction.pptxssuser6453eb
This document provides an introduction to power system transients. It discusses the sources of transients, both internal like capacitor switching and external like lightning. It classifies transients into three categories based on speed: ultrafast surges, medium-fast short-circuit phenomena, and slow transient stability issues. The effects of transients are outlined, such as damage to insulation, semiconductors, and contacts. The importance of studying transients for insulation design is emphasized to prevent breakdown under overvoltage conditions.
The document discusses different types of electrical insulators used in power transmission and distribution systems. It describes pin insulators, which are used for voltages up to 33kV and secure the conductor to cross-arms on poles. For higher voltages, suspension insulators are used, consisting of multiple porcelain discs connected in series. Strain insulators are used where there are sharp turns or high tension, using assemblies of suspension insulators or shackle insulators for lower voltages. Each type of insulator is designed to support and isolate electrical conductors without allowing current flow.
The document discusses protection schemes for transformers. It describes faults that can occur in transformers such as open circuits, overheating, and winding short circuits. It then discusses different protection systems for transformers including Buchholz relays, earth fault relays, overcurrent relays, and differential protection systems. Differential protection systems operate by comparing currents from current transformers on both sides of the transformer and tripping the circuit breaker if a difference is detected, indicating an internal fault. The combination of protection schemes provides comprehensive protection for transformers.
System protection is used to detect problems in power system components and isolate faulty equipment to maintain reliable power. The key elements of a protection system include differential relays to protect generators and transformers from internal faults, overcurrent and distance relays to protect transmission lines from external faults, and bus differential relays to protect distribution buses. Protective devices are needed to maintain acceptable operation, isolate damaged equipment, and minimize harm to personnel and property.
The document discusses electromagnetic relays used in power systems. It describes two main operating principles for electromagnetic relays: electromagnetic attraction and electromagnetic induction. Electromagnetic attraction relays operate using an armature attracted to magnet poles, and include attractor-armature, solenoid, and balanced beam types. Electromagnetic induction relays operate on induction motor principles using a pivoted disc and alternating magnetic fields, and include shaded-pole, watt-hour meter, and induction cup structures. The document also defines important relay terms like pick-up current, current setting, and time-setting multiplier.
This document discusses different methods of grounding electrical systems, including solid grounding, resistance grounding, reactance grounding, and resonant groundings using a Peterson coil. Solid grounding directly connects the neutral point to earth, holding it at earth potential but allowing high fault currents. Resistance grounding limits fault current by connecting through a resistor. Reactance grounding uses an inductor instead of resistor. Resonant grounding with a Peterson coil adjusts the inductance to balance capacitive currents and prevent arcing faults.
This document discusses insulation coordination, which involves selecting insulation levels for electrical system components and arranging them rationally. Proper insulation coordination ensures reliability by minimizing failures from overvoltages while reducing costs. Key aspects covered include determining line and equipment insulation levels, selecting surge arrestors, and the ideal characteristics of protective devices to coordinate insulation withstand. The relationship between insulation, protective device characteristics, and location of surge arrestors is also examined.
Power System Transient - Introduction.pptxssuser6453eb
This document provides an introduction to power system transients. It discusses the sources of transients, both internal like capacitor switching and external like lightning. It classifies transients into three categories based on speed: ultrafast surges, medium-fast short-circuit phenomena, and slow transient stability issues. The effects of transients are outlined, such as damage to insulation, semiconductors, and contacts. The importance of studying transients for insulation design is emphasized to prevent breakdown under overvoltage conditions.
Liquids make excellent insulating materials due to their high density and heat transfer capabilities compared to gases. Common liquid insulators include transformer oils, silicone oils, and liquid nitrogen. While liquids can withstand very high dielectric strengths in theory, impurities like water, dust, ions, and dissolved gases reduce their actual breakdown strength. Liquids are useful as insulators in high voltage cables, capacitors, transformers, and circuit breakers, where they also act as coolants. The presence of even 0.01% water in oil can reduce its dielectric strength by 80%.
This document summarizes an electrical engineering student's report on Earth Leakage Circuit Breakers (ELCBs). It defines a circuit breaker and ELCB, explaining that an ELCB detects small stray voltages to prevent electric shock. The document discusses that ELCBs are used to protect against electrical leakage in a circuit, cutting off power within 0.1 seconds if leakage current exceeds a fixed value. Finally, it provides brief overviews of the construction, principle of operation, advantages, and disadvantages of ELCBs.
Protection against overvoltage
overvoltage
causes of overvoltage
lightning
types of lightning strokes
harmful effect of lightning
protection against lightning
The document discusses over current protection in electrical systems. It describes over current as a situation where excess current flows through a conductor, risking heat generation and equipment damage. Possible causes of over current include short circuits, excessive load, incorrect design, or ground faults. Over current relays protect systems by detecting excess current from current transformers and tripping circuit breakers. Relays are classified based on their time of operation as instantaneous, definite time, or inverse time relays. The document outlines various over current protection schemes used in electrical equipment like transformers and generators.
Representation of power system componentsPrasanna Rao
This document discusses the representation of power system components in circuit models for analysis. It introduces the key components of a power system, including generators, transmission lines, and distribution systems. It then covers circuit models for representing synchronous machines, transformers, transmission lines, and static and dynamic loads. The rest of the document discusses additional modeling techniques like one-line diagrams, impedance diagrams, per-unit systems, and calculating base values for analysis.
This PPT explains about the circuit breaker, and its types. Then about the need and purpose of the circuit breaker. And finally the testing and types of testing of circuit breakers.
The document discusses voltage tolerance guidelines published by the Information Technology Industry Council (ITIC). It provides a graph with three regions: 1) an area where equipment operates satisfactorily between ±10% of nominal voltage, 2) a prohibited area above 120% where damage may occur, and 3) a below area where equipment may malfunction but not be damaged. It describes different types of voltage variations like sags, swells, impulse rings waves, and their definitions and durations. The guidelines are applicable to 120V nominal systems.
This document discusses various causes of over voltages in electrical power systems, including both external and internal causes. External causes include lightning strikes, which can induce over voltages through direct strikes or electromagnetic induction. Lightning forms when charge accumulates between clouds or between clouds and the ground, with potentials reaching millions of volts. Internally, over voltages occur during switching operations due to phenomena like the Ferranti effect or transient voltages caused by energizing transformers or transmission lines. Protection methods aim to mitigate over voltage risks from both lightning and switching events.
This document discusses power system stability and microgrids. It defines power system stability and classifies it into several types including rotor angle stability, voltage stability, and frequency stability. It also discusses microgrids, their interconnection to main grids for availability and economic benefits, and methods for connecting microgrids using switchgear or static switches. In conclusion, it states that power system stability is important for normal operation and can be improved through devices like capacitors and FACTS controllers, and that microgrids satisfy local loads while reducing transmission losses through local renewable generation.
The document discusses power quality issues caused by harmonics from non-linear loads. It provides background on the increasing use of non-linear loads and effects of harmonics. Specific sources of harmonics are outlined along with their impact on power quality including overheating, failures, and interference. Mitigation techniques are reviewed such as passive and active filtering. Active power filters are highlighted as an effective solution, with shunt active power filters discussed in detail for compensating harmonic currents and reactive power. The document concludes that active power filtering is still developing and more research is needed on techniques like controls and artificial intelligence to further improve power quality.
This document provides an overview of transformer protection. It discusses the types of faults that can occur in transformers, including internal faults like winding faults and external faults. It describes Buchholz relays, which detect faults inside the transformer tank by sensing gas and oil movement. Differential protection is also covered, which can detect faults not caught by Buchholz relays. The document outlines considerations for transformer differential protection like current transformer ratings and connections. It provides examples of Merz-Price protection schemes for star-delta and star-star transformers.
This document summarizes solar power generation from solar energy. It discusses that solar energy comes from the nuclear fusion reaction in the sun. About 51% of the sun's energy reaches Earth's atmosphere. There are two main technologies for solar power generation: solar photovoltaics and solar chimney technologies. Solar photovoltaics convert sunlight directly into electricity via photovoltaic cells. They can be ground mounted or space based. Floating solar chimney technology uses the greenhouse effect to power turbines. The document discusses applications of solar technologies and the advantages of being renewable and non-polluting, though the disadvantages include high costs and reliance on sunny weather conditions.
Reactive power is necessary to maintain adequate voltage levels to transmit active power across transmission systems. It is required for system reliability and to prevent voltage collapse. Voltage is controlled by managing the production and absorption of reactive power on the system. Both insufficient reactive power and excessive reactive power can cause voltage issues and equipment problems if voltage is not properly regulated. Reactive power reserves are also required to maintain voltage stability under contingency events like generator or transmission line outages.
The document discusses different types of circuit breakers, including air blast, vacuum, oil, and SF6 circuit breakers. It explains that a circuit breaker can make, carry, and break currents under normal and abnormal circuit conditions. The operating mechanism involves using stored energy to move a moving contact to open or close the circuit. When contacts separate during a fault, an arc is formed that must be quickly quenched for circuit interruption. Each breaker type uses a different medium, such as air, vacuum, oil or SF6 gas, to rapidly cool and extinguish the arc. Modern systems commonly use vacuum or SF6 breakers for their fast, reliable performance.
The document discusses short circuit analysis and fault calculations. It describes the different types of faults including three phase, line to ground, and line to line faults. It also discusses the need for short circuit studies to select proper circuit breakers. The document explains how to calculate short circuit currents using the bus impedance matrix and the z-bus building algorithm through adding network elements one by one.
Flexible AC Transmission System (FACTS) controllers use power electronics to control parameters of AC transmission systems. This improves power transfer capability. The document discusses several types of FACTS controllers:
- Series controllers inject voltage in series with transmission lines. Examples are STATCOM, SSSC, TCSC.
- Shunt controllers inject current and supply/absorb reactive power. Examples are SVC, STATCOM.
- Combined series-shunt controllers like UPFC control both series line parameters and shunt reactive power.
The TCSC provides continuously variable series compensation of transmission lines. It consists of a thyristor-controlled reactor connected in parallel with a fixed capacitor. This allows tuning of the overall
This document discusses the different types of transformers used in power generating stations. It describes 7 main types: generator transformer, station transformer, distribution transformer, unit auxiliary transformer, auxiliary transformer, instrument transformer, and rectifier transformer. It provides details on the functions and purpose of each transformer type. The generator transformer steps up voltage from the generator, while station and auxiliary transformers provide power for starting units and station equipment. Instrument transformers are used for metering and protection.
measurement of high voltage and high currents mukund mukund.m
The document discusses various techniques for measuring high voltages and currents, including:
- Sphere gap voltmeters, which measure sparkover voltage between conducting spheres;
- Electrostatic voltmeters, which measure the attraction force between charged parallel plates;
- Generating voltmeters, which use a variable capacitor to generate a current proportional to input voltage.
Peak reading voltmeters are also summarized, which use a capacitor to measure the peak voltage of AC waveforms. The document provides details on the principles, construction, advantages, and limitations of these different high voltage and current measurement methods.
This document discusses generator protection techniques. It begins by explaining why protective systems are needed to protect expensive power system elements like generators. It then describes different types of generator faults and various protection schemes. These include stator protection using differential protection and its modifications. Rotor faults and their protections like rotor earth fault protection are also explained. The document provides details on other protections like overcurrent, overvoltage, vibration and overheating protections. It concludes by stating that protective devices help detect faults, notify maintenance, and disconnect faulty elements to ensure continuous and safe operation of power systems.
This document defines and explains various terms related to illumination. It begins by introducing light as the primary factor for human life and activities. It then defines key illumination terms such as light, luminous flux, luminous intensity, candela, plane angle, solid angle, lumen, candle power, illumination, lux, and brightness. The document also discusses related concepts like glare, space-to-height ratio, utilization factor, maintenance factor, depreciation factor, waste light factor, absorption factor, beam factor, and reflection factor. In total, it provides definitions and explanations for over 25 different illumination terms and concepts.
The document provides lecture notes on the utilization of electrical energy. It covers topics such as illumination, electric heating and welding, electric traction, and the economic aspects of utilizing electrical energy. For illumination, it defines key terms such as luminous flux, luminous intensity, lumen, and candlepower. It also discusses interior lighting, outdoor lighting, and the nature of light. The notes provide information on different light sources as well as factors involved in lighting design such as lamp efficiency and space-to-height ratio.
Liquids make excellent insulating materials due to their high density and heat transfer capabilities compared to gases. Common liquid insulators include transformer oils, silicone oils, and liquid nitrogen. While liquids can withstand very high dielectric strengths in theory, impurities like water, dust, ions, and dissolved gases reduce their actual breakdown strength. Liquids are useful as insulators in high voltage cables, capacitors, transformers, and circuit breakers, where they also act as coolants. The presence of even 0.01% water in oil can reduce its dielectric strength by 80%.
This document summarizes an electrical engineering student's report on Earth Leakage Circuit Breakers (ELCBs). It defines a circuit breaker and ELCB, explaining that an ELCB detects small stray voltages to prevent electric shock. The document discusses that ELCBs are used to protect against electrical leakage in a circuit, cutting off power within 0.1 seconds if leakage current exceeds a fixed value. Finally, it provides brief overviews of the construction, principle of operation, advantages, and disadvantages of ELCBs.
Protection against overvoltage
overvoltage
causes of overvoltage
lightning
types of lightning strokes
harmful effect of lightning
protection against lightning
The document discusses over current protection in electrical systems. It describes over current as a situation where excess current flows through a conductor, risking heat generation and equipment damage. Possible causes of over current include short circuits, excessive load, incorrect design, or ground faults. Over current relays protect systems by detecting excess current from current transformers and tripping circuit breakers. Relays are classified based on their time of operation as instantaneous, definite time, or inverse time relays. The document outlines various over current protection schemes used in electrical equipment like transformers and generators.
Representation of power system componentsPrasanna Rao
This document discusses the representation of power system components in circuit models for analysis. It introduces the key components of a power system, including generators, transmission lines, and distribution systems. It then covers circuit models for representing synchronous machines, transformers, transmission lines, and static and dynamic loads. The rest of the document discusses additional modeling techniques like one-line diagrams, impedance diagrams, per-unit systems, and calculating base values for analysis.
This PPT explains about the circuit breaker, and its types. Then about the need and purpose of the circuit breaker. And finally the testing and types of testing of circuit breakers.
The document discusses voltage tolerance guidelines published by the Information Technology Industry Council (ITIC). It provides a graph with three regions: 1) an area where equipment operates satisfactorily between ±10% of nominal voltage, 2) a prohibited area above 120% where damage may occur, and 3) a below area where equipment may malfunction but not be damaged. It describes different types of voltage variations like sags, swells, impulse rings waves, and their definitions and durations. The guidelines are applicable to 120V nominal systems.
This document discusses various causes of over voltages in electrical power systems, including both external and internal causes. External causes include lightning strikes, which can induce over voltages through direct strikes or electromagnetic induction. Lightning forms when charge accumulates between clouds or between clouds and the ground, with potentials reaching millions of volts. Internally, over voltages occur during switching operations due to phenomena like the Ferranti effect or transient voltages caused by energizing transformers or transmission lines. Protection methods aim to mitigate over voltage risks from both lightning and switching events.
This document discusses power system stability and microgrids. It defines power system stability and classifies it into several types including rotor angle stability, voltage stability, and frequency stability. It also discusses microgrids, their interconnection to main grids for availability and economic benefits, and methods for connecting microgrids using switchgear or static switches. In conclusion, it states that power system stability is important for normal operation and can be improved through devices like capacitors and FACTS controllers, and that microgrids satisfy local loads while reducing transmission losses through local renewable generation.
The document discusses power quality issues caused by harmonics from non-linear loads. It provides background on the increasing use of non-linear loads and effects of harmonics. Specific sources of harmonics are outlined along with their impact on power quality including overheating, failures, and interference. Mitigation techniques are reviewed such as passive and active filtering. Active power filters are highlighted as an effective solution, with shunt active power filters discussed in detail for compensating harmonic currents and reactive power. The document concludes that active power filtering is still developing and more research is needed on techniques like controls and artificial intelligence to further improve power quality.
This document provides an overview of transformer protection. It discusses the types of faults that can occur in transformers, including internal faults like winding faults and external faults. It describes Buchholz relays, which detect faults inside the transformer tank by sensing gas and oil movement. Differential protection is also covered, which can detect faults not caught by Buchholz relays. The document outlines considerations for transformer differential protection like current transformer ratings and connections. It provides examples of Merz-Price protection schemes for star-delta and star-star transformers.
This document summarizes solar power generation from solar energy. It discusses that solar energy comes from the nuclear fusion reaction in the sun. About 51% of the sun's energy reaches Earth's atmosphere. There are two main technologies for solar power generation: solar photovoltaics and solar chimney technologies. Solar photovoltaics convert sunlight directly into electricity via photovoltaic cells. They can be ground mounted or space based. Floating solar chimney technology uses the greenhouse effect to power turbines. The document discusses applications of solar technologies and the advantages of being renewable and non-polluting, though the disadvantages include high costs and reliance on sunny weather conditions.
Reactive power is necessary to maintain adequate voltage levels to transmit active power across transmission systems. It is required for system reliability and to prevent voltage collapse. Voltage is controlled by managing the production and absorption of reactive power on the system. Both insufficient reactive power and excessive reactive power can cause voltage issues and equipment problems if voltage is not properly regulated. Reactive power reserves are also required to maintain voltage stability under contingency events like generator or transmission line outages.
The document discusses different types of circuit breakers, including air blast, vacuum, oil, and SF6 circuit breakers. It explains that a circuit breaker can make, carry, and break currents under normal and abnormal circuit conditions. The operating mechanism involves using stored energy to move a moving contact to open or close the circuit. When contacts separate during a fault, an arc is formed that must be quickly quenched for circuit interruption. Each breaker type uses a different medium, such as air, vacuum, oil or SF6 gas, to rapidly cool and extinguish the arc. Modern systems commonly use vacuum or SF6 breakers for their fast, reliable performance.
The document discusses short circuit analysis and fault calculations. It describes the different types of faults including three phase, line to ground, and line to line faults. It also discusses the need for short circuit studies to select proper circuit breakers. The document explains how to calculate short circuit currents using the bus impedance matrix and the z-bus building algorithm through adding network elements one by one.
Flexible AC Transmission System (FACTS) controllers use power electronics to control parameters of AC transmission systems. This improves power transfer capability. The document discusses several types of FACTS controllers:
- Series controllers inject voltage in series with transmission lines. Examples are STATCOM, SSSC, TCSC.
- Shunt controllers inject current and supply/absorb reactive power. Examples are SVC, STATCOM.
- Combined series-shunt controllers like UPFC control both series line parameters and shunt reactive power.
The TCSC provides continuously variable series compensation of transmission lines. It consists of a thyristor-controlled reactor connected in parallel with a fixed capacitor. This allows tuning of the overall
This document discusses the different types of transformers used in power generating stations. It describes 7 main types: generator transformer, station transformer, distribution transformer, unit auxiliary transformer, auxiliary transformer, instrument transformer, and rectifier transformer. It provides details on the functions and purpose of each transformer type. The generator transformer steps up voltage from the generator, while station and auxiliary transformers provide power for starting units and station equipment. Instrument transformers are used for metering and protection.
measurement of high voltage and high currents mukund mukund.m
The document discusses various techniques for measuring high voltages and currents, including:
- Sphere gap voltmeters, which measure sparkover voltage between conducting spheres;
- Electrostatic voltmeters, which measure the attraction force between charged parallel plates;
- Generating voltmeters, which use a variable capacitor to generate a current proportional to input voltage.
Peak reading voltmeters are also summarized, which use a capacitor to measure the peak voltage of AC waveforms. The document provides details on the principles, construction, advantages, and limitations of these different high voltage and current measurement methods.
This document discusses generator protection techniques. It begins by explaining why protective systems are needed to protect expensive power system elements like generators. It then describes different types of generator faults and various protection schemes. These include stator protection using differential protection and its modifications. Rotor faults and their protections like rotor earth fault protection are also explained. The document provides details on other protections like overcurrent, overvoltage, vibration and overheating protections. It concludes by stating that protective devices help detect faults, notify maintenance, and disconnect faulty elements to ensure continuous and safe operation of power systems.
This document defines and explains various terms related to illumination. It begins by introducing light as the primary factor for human life and activities. It then defines key illumination terms such as light, luminous flux, luminous intensity, candela, plane angle, solid angle, lumen, candle power, illumination, lux, and brightness. The document also discusses related concepts like glare, space-to-height ratio, utilization factor, maintenance factor, depreciation factor, waste light factor, absorption factor, beam factor, and reflection factor. In total, it provides definitions and explanations for over 25 different illumination terms and concepts.
The document provides lecture notes on the utilization of electrical energy. It covers topics such as illumination, electric heating and welding, electric traction, and the economic aspects of utilizing electrical energy. For illumination, it defines key terms such as luminous flux, luminous intensity, lumen, and candlepower. It also discusses interior lighting, outdoor lighting, and the nature of light. The notes provide information on different light sources as well as factors involved in lighting design such as lamp efficiency and space-to-height ratio.
This document discusses electrical lighting and illumination. It begins by introducing different types of lighting schemes like direct, indirect, semi-direct, and general lighting. It then covers key concepts in illumination like luminous flux, lumen, candela, lux, and the inverse square and Lambert's cosine laws that govern illumination. The document also discusses factors to consider for lighting schemes like illumination level, quality of light, coefficient of utilization, depreciation factor, and space height ratio. Overall, the document provides an overview of electrical lighting and the principles of illumination.
This document provides an overview of various types of electrical lighting sources and illumination concepts. It discusses the basic terms used in illumination like luminous flux, lumen, candle power, and inverse square and Lambert's cosine laws. It then describes different electrical light sources including incandescent, fluorescent, mercury vapor, sodium vapor, neon and halogen lamps. For each light source, it explains the working principle, construction details, advantages and applications. The document serves as a useful reference for understanding various electrical lighting techniques and concepts of illumination.
The document provides an overview of illumination topics including the nature and production of light, laws of illumination, electrical methods of producing light, and different light sources such as incandescent, fluorescent, sodium vapor, mercury vapor, and halogen lamps. Key points covered include the inverse square law, definitions of luminous flux, lumens, candlepower, efficiency, and different lamp types such as fluorescent, sodium vapor, mercury vapor and their working principles. The document also discusses units and measurement of light, sensitivity of the human eye, and applications of different lighting types.
This document discusses various topics related to illumination and refrigeration systems. It begins with definitions of key lighting terms like luminous flux, luminous intensity, lumen, candela power, illumination, and brightness. It then covers the laws of illumination including the inverse square law and Lambert's cosine law. The document also discusses topics like polar curves, lamp efficiency, utilization factor, and types of glare. The second half summarizes refrigeration systems for applications like ice making and air conditioning. It provides details on domestic refrigerators, window air conditioners, and water coolers.
Light is electromagnetic radiation that affects sight. It exhibits properties of rectilinear propagation, reflection, and refraction. Visible light has wavelengths from 400-700 nm. Luminous flux is the radiant power affecting sight, measured in lumens. Shadows are formed when an object blocks light rays from a source. Illumination is the luminous flux per unit area, measured in lux, and follows the inverse square law with distance from the light source.
This document provides an overview of electrical power utilization and lighting. It discusses the nature of light and how different light sources work, including incandescent lamps, arc lamps, and discharge lamps like fluorescent lamps. Key terms related to illumination such as luminous flux, luminance, inverse square law, and Lambert's cosine law are defined. The document also describes the construction and properties of common light sources like incandescent lamps, arc lamps, and high-pressure mercury vapor lamps.
This document provides an overview of electrical lighting and illumination concepts. It discusses the different types of artificial light sources including incandescent lamps, arc lamps, and discharge lamps like fluorescent lamps. Key concepts covered include luminous flux, luminous intensity, illumination, brightness, inverse square law, and Lambert's cosine law. The document also describes the construction and working principles of different light sources as well as terms used in illumination engineering.
This document provides information on various types of artificial lighting sources powered by electricity. It discusses incandescent lamps, which produce light through filament heating. Arc lamps are described as producing light through an electric arc between electrodes. Discharge lamps like fluorescent lamps produce light through gas discharge and come in various types like mercury vapor lamps. The document also defines various lighting terms and concepts like illumination, luminous flux, luminance, inverse square law, and Lambert's cosine law. It provides details on the construction and working of different lamp types as well as their relative advantages.
The document provides information on lighting and light properties. It begins by defining luminous flux as the total quantity of light energy emitted per second from a luminous body, measured in lumens. It then defines luminous intensity as the luminous flux emitted per unit solid angle, measured in candela. Finally, it describes illumination as the amount of light falling on a surface, measured in lux which is equal to one lumen per square meter.
This document provides an overview of illumination and acoustics concepts from a course syllabus. It defines key lighting terms like luminous intensity, luminous flux, illuminance, and luminance. It explains that luminous intensity is measured in candelas and represents the strength of a light source, while luminous flux is measured in lumens and represents the total light emitted by a source. Illuminance, measured in lux, represents the amount of light falling on a surface per unit area. Luminance refers to the brightness of a surface and is measured in candelas per square meter. The document also discusses light measurement techniques, recommended light levels, and relationships between photometric units.
This document discusses illumination and lighting design. It begins by outlining the objectives of studying illumination for architects, including providing proper ambient lighting, safety, and energy efficiency. It then defines key lighting terms like illuminance, luminous intensity, and luminance. The document covers the inverse square law and Lambert's cosine law governing light distribution. It describes the history of lighting technologies from candles to modern LEDs. It also discusses light sources like fluorescent lamps and the types of lighting schemes and lamps used in various applications.
This document provides an overview of electrical lighting and illumination terms. It discusses:
1. The advantages of electrical lighting over mechanical lighting, including cleanliness, easy control, economy, reliability, and steady output.
2. Key illumination terms - like luminous flux, luminous intensity, lumen, candlepower, illumination, space height ratio, and utilization factor.
3. The two laws of illumination - Inverse square law and Lambert's cosine law - which describe how illumination decreases with distance from the light source and is affected by the angle between the light rays and surface.
4. Different types of electrical lamps for lighting - incandescent, fluorescent, mercury vapor, halogen, sodium vapor,
The document provides information about light and lighting concepts. It defines key terms like luminous flux as the total quantity of light energy emitted per second, and luminous intensity as luminous flux per unit solid angle. It also defines the unit of illumination as lux, which is lumens per square meter. Finally, it discusses different types of lighting schemes like direct, indirect, and accent lighting and their purposes.
This document discusses key concepts in photometry and illumination. It defines luminous flux, luminous intensity, illuminance, and luminance. It explains that luminous flux is a measure of total light power, luminous intensity measures the directionality of light, illuminance is the amount of light falling on a surface, and luminance measures the brightness of a surface. It also discusses the inverse square law and cosine law governing illuminance and how filters can selectively transmit wavelengths of light.
1) Good lighting design is important for creating the right mood and allowing people to perform activities in homes. Lighting must be tailored to the different spaces and uses within a home.
2) Light is a form of electromagnetic radiation that makes vision possible. Key factors that affect light include its wavelength, sources like incandescence and luminescence, and how it behaves through reflection, refraction, and interactions with materials.
3) Proper lighting design considers factors like illuminance, luminance, lighting types like general, accent, decorative, and task lighting, and how light impacts vision and psychology within a space. A variety of artificial light sources exist that must be selected appropriately.
The document provides information about light and its characteristics. It discusses that light is a form of electromagnetic radiation that can be perceived by the human eye. It travels in waves and its wavelength determines properties like color. The document then describes characteristics of light such as its speed changing between mediums while frequency remains the same. It also discusses terminology related to light like luminance, luminaires, and illuminance. The properties of light covered include reflection, refraction, dispersion, interference and polarization.
Batteries -Introduction – Types of Batteries – discharging and charging of battery - characteristics of battery –battery rating- various tests on battery- – Primary battery: silver button cell- Secondary battery :Ni-Cd battery-modern battery: lithium ion battery-maintenance of batteries-choices of batteries for electric vehicle applications.
Fuel Cells: Introduction- importance and classification of fuel cells - description, principle, components, applications of fuel cells: H2-O2 fuel cell, alkaline fuel cell, molten carbonate fuel cell and direct methanol fuel cells.
Advanced control scheme of doubly fed induction generator for wind turbine us...IJECEIAES
This paper describes a speed control device for generating electrical energy on an electricity network based on the doubly fed induction generator (DFIG) used for wind power conversion systems. At first, a double-fed induction generator model was constructed. A control law is formulated to govern the flow of energy between the stator of a DFIG and the energy network using three types of controllers: proportional integral (PI), sliding mode controller (SMC) and second order sliding mode controller (SOSMC). Their different results in terms of power reference tracking, reaction to unexpected speed fluctuations, sensitivity to perturbations, and resilience against machine parameter alterations are compared. MATLAB/Simulink was used to conduct the simulations for the preceding study. Multiple simulations have shown very satisfying results, and the investigations demonstrate the efficacy and power-enhancing capabilities of the suggested control system.
Literature Review Basics and Understanding Reference Management.pptxDr Ramhari Poudyal
Three-day training on academic research focuses on analytical tools at United Technical College, supported by the University Grant Commission, Nepal. 24-26 May 2024
CHINA’S GEO-ECONOMIC OUTREACH IN CENTRAL ASIAN COUNTRIES AND FUTURE PROSPECTjpsjournal1
The rivalry between prominent international actors for dominance over Central Asia's hydrocarbon
reserves and the ancient silk trade route, along with China's diplomatic endeavours in the area, has been
referred to as the "New Great Game." This research centres on the power struggle, considering
geopolitical, geostrategic, and geoeconomic variables. Topics including trade, political hegemony, oil
politics, and conventional and nontraditional security are all explored and explained by the researcher.
Using Mackinder's Heartland, Spykman Rimland, and Hegemonic Stability theories, examines China's role
in Central Asia. This study adheres to the empirical epistemological method and has taken care of
objectivity. This study analyze primary and secondary research documents critically to elaborate role of
china’s geo economic outreach in central Asian countries and its future prospect. China is thriving in trade,
pipeline politics, and winning states, according to this study, thanks to important instruments like the
Shanghai Cooperation Organisation and the Belt and Road Economic Initiative. According to this study,
China is seeing significant success in commerce, pipeline politics, and gaining influence on other
governments. This success may be attributed to the effective utilisation of key tools such as the Shanghai
Cooperation Organisation and the Belt and Road Economic Initiative.
International Conference on NLP, Artificial Intelligence, Machine Learning an...gerogepatton
International Conference on NLP, Artificial Intelligence, Machine Learning and Applications (NLAIM 2024) offers a premier global platform for exchanging insights and findings in the theory, methodology, and applications of NLP, Artificial Intelligence, Machine Learning, and their applications. The conference seeks substantial contributions across all key domains of NLP, Artificial Intelligence, Machine Learning, and their practical applications, aiming to foster both theoretical advancements and real-world implementations. With a focus on facilitating collaboration between researchers and practitioners from academia and industry, the conference serves as a nexus for sharing the latest developments in the field.
Electric vehicle and photovoltaic advanced roles in enhancing the financial p...IJECEIAES
Climate change's impact on the planet forced the United Nations and governments to promote green energies and electric transportation. The deployments of photovoltaic (PV) and electric vehicle (EV) systems gained stronger momentum due to their numerous advantages over fossil fuel types. The advantages go beyond sustainability to reach financial support and stability. The work in this paper introduces the hybrid system between PV and EV to support industrial and commercial plants. This paper covers the theoretical framework of the proposed hybrid system including the required equation to complete the cost analysis when PV and EV are present. In addition, the proposed design diagram which sets the priorities and requirements of the system is presented. The proposed approach allows setup to advance their power stability, especially during power outages. The presented information supports researchers and plant owners to complete the necessary analysis while promoting the deployment of clean energy. The result of a case study that represents a dairy milk farmer supports the theoretical works and highlights its advanced benefits to existing plants. The short return on investment of the proposed approach supports the paper's novelty approach for the sustainable electrical system. In addition, the proposed system allows for an isolated power setup without the need for a transmission line which enhances the safety of the electrical network
Embedded machine learning-based road conditions and driving behavior monitoringIJECEIAES
Car accident rates have increased in recent years, resulting in losses in human lives, properties, and other financial costs. An embedded machine learning-based system is developed to address this critical issue. The system can monitor road conditions, detect driving patterns, and identify aggressive driving behaviors. The system is based on neural networks trained on a comprehensive dataset of driving events, driving styles, and road conditions. The system effectively detects potential risks and helps mitigate the frequency and impact of accidents. The primary goal is to ensure the safety of drivers and vehicles. Collecting data involved gathering information on three key road events: normal street and normal drive, speed bumps, circular yellow speed bumps, and three aggressive driving actions: sudden start, sudden stop, and sudden entry. The gathered data is processed and analyzed using a machine learning system designed for limited power and memory devices. The developed system resulted in 91.9% accuracy, 93.6% precision, and 92% recall. The achieved inference time on an Arduino Nano 33 BLE Sense with a 32-bit CPU running at 64 MHz is 34 ms and requires 2.6 kB peak RAM and 139.9 kB program flash memory, making it suitable for resource-constrained embedded systems.
Using recycled concrete aggregates (RCA) for pavements is crucial to achieving sustainability. Implementing RCA for new pavement can minimize carbon footprint, conserve natural resources, reduce harmful emissions, and lower life cycle costs. Compared to natural aggregate (NA), RCA pavement has fewer comprehensive studies and sustainability assessments.
Understanding Inductive Bias in Machine LearningSUTEJAS
This presentation explores the concept of inductive bias in machine learning. It explains how algorithms come with built-in assumptions and preferences that guide the learning process. You'll learn about the different types of inductive bias and how they can impact the performance and generalizability of machine learning models.
The presentation also covers the positive and negative aspects of inductive bias, along with strategies for mitigating potential drawbacks. We'll explore examples of how bias manifests in algorithms like neural networks and decision trees.
By understanding inductive bias, you can gain valuable insights into how machine learning models work and make informed decisions when building and deploying them.
Redefining brain tumor segmentation: a cutting-edge convolutional neural netw...IJECEIAES
Medical image analysis has witnessed significant advancements with deep learning techniques. In the domain of brain tumor segmentation, the ability to
precisely delineate tumor boundaries from magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
scans holds profound implications for diagnosis. This study presents an ensemble convolutional neural network (CNN) with transfer learning, integrating
the state-of-the-art Deeplabv3+ architecture with the ResNet18 backbone. The
model is rigorously trained and evaluated, exhibiting remarkable performance
metrics, including an impressive global accuracy of 99.286%, a high-class accuracy of 82.191%, a mean intersection over union (IoU) of 79.900%, a weighted
IoU of 98.620%, and a Boundary F1 (BF) score of 83.303%. Notably, a detailed comparative analysis with existing methods showcases the superiority of
our proposed model. These findings underscore the model’s competence in precise brain tumor localization, underscoring its potential to revolutionize medical
image analysis and enhance healthcare outcomes. This research paves the way
for future exploration and optimization of advanced CNN models in medical
imaging, emphasizing addressing false positives and resource efficiency.
New techniques for characterising damage in rock slopes.pdf
Uee unit 4
1. IV/I UTILIZATION OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY
PAGE: 1 E.E.E
UNIT-4
ILLUMINATION FUNDAMENTALS
Introduction:
Light is the prime factor in the human life as well as activities of human
beings ultimately depend upon the light. Where there is no natural light, use of artificial
light is made. Artificial lighting produced electrically, on account of its cleanness, ease
of control, reliability, steady out put, as well as its low it is playing an increasingly
important part in modern every day life. The science of illumination engineering is,
therefore, becoming of major importance.
Nature of light:
Light is a form of radiant energy. Various forms of incandescent bodied are
the sources of light and the light emitted by such bodies depend upon the temperature of
bodies. Heat energy is radiated into the medium by a body which is hotter than the
medium surrounding it. The heat of the body, as seen, can be classified as red hot or
white-hot. While the body is red-hot the wave length of radiated energy will be
sufficiently large and the energy available is in the form of heat. When the temperature
increases the body changes from red-hot to white-hot state, the wave length of the
energy radiated becomes smaller and smaller and enter into the range of the wave
length of the light.
Colour: The sensation of colour is due to the difference in the wave lengths of the
light radiations. Visible light can have wave lengths of the light between 4,000A and
7,500A and the colour varies in the way as shown in the figure.
Relative sensitivity:
The sensitivity of the eye to the lights of different wave lengths varies
from person to person and according to the age. The average relative sensitivity is
shown in the fallowing figure. The high have greatest sensitivity for wave lengths of
about 5,500A: that is yellow-green can be seen under such poor conditions of
illumination when blue or red can not be see under dim illumination, the sensitive curve
shifts as shown by the shaded region in the fallowing figure. Therefore, violate
disappears first and red remains visible. Yellow disappears last as the illumination
becomes very dim. As each colour disappears, it becomes a grey shade and finally
black. The sensitivity of eye to yellow-green radiation is taken as unity or 100% and the
sensitivity to other wave lengths is expressed as a fraction or percentage of it. The
relative sensitivity at a wave length is written k and is known as relative luminosity
factor.
www.jntuworldupdates.org
www.smartzworld.com www.specworld.in
2. IV/I UTILIZATION OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY
PAGE: 2 E.E.E
Illumination:
Illumination differs from light every much, though generally these terms are
used more or less synonymously. Strictly speaking light is the cause and illumination is
the result of that light on surfaces on which it falls. Thus the illumination makes the
surface look more or less bright with certain colour and it is this brightness and colour
which the eye sees and interrupts as something useful or pleasant or other wise.
Light may be produced by passing electric current through filaments as in
the incandescent lamps, through arcs between carbon or metal rods, or through suitable
gases as in neon and other gas tubes. In some forms of lamps the light is due to
fluorescence excited by radiation arising from the passage electric current through
mercury vapour.
Some bodies reflect light in some measure, and when illuminated from an
original source they become secondary source of light. The good example is the moon,
which illuminates earth by means of the reflected light originating in the sun.
Terms used in illumination:
The modern lighting schemes and the selection of fittings and type of lamps
require knowledge of the terms and quantities in general use for such purposes.
Therefore, the fallowing definitions are given in simple form to facilitate easy
identification and reference.
Light: It is defined as the radiation energy from a hot body which produces the visual
sensation upon the human eye. It is usually denoted by Q, expressed in lumen-hours and
is analogous to watt-hour.
Luminous flux: it is defined as the total quantity of light energy emitted per second form
a luminous body. It is represented by symbol F and is measured in lumens. The concept
of luminous flux helps us to specify the output and efficiency of a given light source.
Luminous intensity: luminous intensity in any given direction is the luminous flux
emitted by the source per unit solid angle, measured in the direction in which the
intensity is required. It is denoted by symbol I and is measured in candela(cd) or
lumens/steradian.
If F is the luminous flux radiated out by source within a solid angle of steradian
in any particular direction then I = lumens/steradian or candela (cd).
Lumen: the lumen is the unit of luminous flux and is defined as the amount of luminous
flux given out in a space represented by one unit of solid angle by a source having an
intensity of one candle power in all directions.
Lumens = candle power solid angle = cp
Total lumens given out by source of one candela are 4π lumens.
Candle power: Candle power is the light radiating capacity of a source in a given
direction and is defined as the number of lumens given out by the source in a unit solid
angle in a given direction. It is denoted by a symbol C.P.
www.jntuworldupdates.org
www.smartzworld.com www.specworld.in
3. IV/I UTILIZATION OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY
PAGE: 3 E.E.E
C.P. =
Illumination: When the light falls upon any surface, the phenomenon is called the
illumination. It is defined as the number of lumens, falling on the surface, per unit area. It
is denoted by symbol E and is measured in lumens per square meter or meter-candle or
lux.
If a flux of F lumens fails on a surface of area A, then the illumination of that surface
is E = lumens/m2
or lux
Lux or meter candle: It is the unit of illumination and is defined as the luminous flux
falling per square meter on the surface which is every where perpendicular to the rays of
light from a source of one candle power and one meter away from it.
Foot candle: It is also the unit of illumination and is defined as the luminous flux falling
per square foot on the surface which is every where perpendicular to the rays of light
from a source of one candle power and one foot away from it.
1 foot-candle = 1 lumen/ft2
=10.76 meter candle or lux
Candle: It is the unit of luminous intensity. It is defined as th of the luminous
intensity per cm2
of a black body radiator at the temperature of solidification of platinum
(2,0430
K).
Mean horizontal candle power: (M.H.C.P) It is defined as the mean of candle powers
in all directions in the horizontal plane containing the source of light.
Mean spherical candle power: ( M.S.C.P) It is defined as the mean of the candle
powers in all directions and in all planes from the source of light.
Mean hemi-spherical candle power: (M.H.S.C.P) It is defined as the mean of candle
powers in all directions above or below the horizontal plane passing through the source of
light.
Reduction factor: Reduction factor of a source of light is the ratio of its mean spherical
candle power to its mean horizontal candle power.
i.e reduction factor =
Lamp efficiency: It is defined as the ratio of the luminous flux to the power input. It is
expressed in lumens per watt.
Specific consumption: It is defined as the ratio of the power input to the average candle
power. It is expressed in watt per candela.
Brightness or luminance: When the eye receives a great deal of light from an object we
say it is bright, and brightness is an important quantity in illumination. It is all the same
whether the light is produced by the object or reflected from it.
Brightness is defined as the luminous intensity per unit projected
area of either a surface source of light or a reflecting surface and is denoted by L.
www.jntuworldupdates.org
www.smartzworld.com www.specworld.in
4. IV/I UTILIZATION OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY
PAGE: 4 E.E.E
If a surface area A has an effective luminous intensity of I
candelas in a direction θ to the normal, than the brightness ( luminance) of that surface is
L = candela/m2
or nits
Nit is defined as the candela per square meter. Bigger unit of brightness ( luminance)
is Stilb which is defined as candelas per square cm. lambert is also the unit of brightness
which is lumens/cm2
. Foot lambert is lumens/ ft2
.
Glare:- The size of the opening of the pupil in the human eye is controlled by its iris. If
the eye is exposed to a very bright source of light the iris automatically contacts in oreder
to produce the amount of light admitted and prevent damaged to retina this reduces the
sensitivity, so that other objects within the field of vision can be only inperfectly seen. In
other words glare maybe defined as brighteness with in the field of vision of such a
character as the cause annoyance discomfort interference with vision.
Space height ratio:- it is defined as the ratio of distance between adjacent lamps and
height of their mountains.
Space height ratio=
Utilization factor or co-efficient of utilization:- It is defined as the ratio of total lumens
reaching the working plane to total lumens given out by the lamp.
Utilization factor or co-efficient of utilization=
Maintenance factor: Due to accumulation of dust, dirt and smoke on the lamps, they
emit less light than that they emit when they are new ones and similarly the walls and
ceilings e.t.c. after being covered with dust, dirt and smoke do not reflect the same output
of light, which is reflected when they are new.
The retio of illumination under normal working conditions to the
illumination when the things are perfectly clean is known as maintenance factor.
Maintenance factor =
Depreciation factor: this is merely reverse of the maintenance factor and is defined as
the ratio of the initial metre-candles to the ultimate maintained metre-candles on the
working plane. Its value is more than unity.
Waste light factor: Whenever a surface is illuminated by a number of sources of light,
there is always a certain amount of waste of light on account of over-lapping and falling
of light outside at the edges of the surface. The effect is taken into account by multiplying
the theoretical value of lumens required by 1.2 for rectangular areas and 1.5 for irregular
areas and objects such as statues, monuments etc.
Absorption factor: In the places where atmosphere is full of smoke fumes, such as in
foundries, there is a possibility of absorption of light. The ratio of total lumens available
after absorption to the total lumens emitted by the source of light is called the absorption
factor. Its value varies from unity for clean atmosphere to 0.5 for foundries.
www.jntuworldupdates.org
www.smartzworld.com www.specworld.in
5. IV/I UTILIZATION OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY
PAGE: 5 E.E.E
Beam factor: the ratio of lumens in the beam of a projector to the lumens given out by
lamps is called the beam factor. This factor takes into the account the absorption of light
by reflector and front glass of the projector lamp. Its value varies from 0.3 to 0.6.
Reflection factor: When a ray of light impinges on a surface it is reflected from the
surface at an angle of incidence, as shown in the fallowing figure. A certain portion of
incident light is absorbed by the surface. The ratio of reflected light to the incident light is
called the reflection factor. It’s value always less than unity.
Solid angle: Plane angle is subtended at a point in a plane by two converging straight
lines and its magnitude is given by
=
The largest angle subtended at a point is 2 radians.
Solid angle is the angle generated by the surface passing through the point in space
and the periphery of the area. Solid angle is denoted by ω, expressed in steradians and is
given by the ratio of the area of the surface to the square of the distance between the area
and the point.
i.e =
The largest solid angle subtended at a point is that due to a sphere
at its centre. If r is the radius of any sphere, its surface area is 4 r2
and the distance of
its surface area from the centre is r, therefore, solid angle subtended at its centre by its
surface, = = steradians
Steradian: It is the unit of solid angle and is defined as the solid angle that subtends a
surface on the sphere equivalent to the square of the radius.
Laws of illumination:- There are two laws of illumination
1. Law of inverse squares
www.jntuworldupdates.org
www.smartzworld.com www.specworld.in
6. IV/I UTILIZATION OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY
PAGE: 6 E.E.E
2. lamberts cosine law
1. Law of inverse squares:- If a source of light which emits light equally in all directions
be placed at the center of the hallow sphere, the light will fall uniformly on the inner
surface of the sphere that is to say, each square mm of the surface will receive the same
amount of light. If the sphere be replaced by one of the larger radius, the same total
amount of light is spread over a larger area proportional to the square of the radius. The
amount which falls upon any square mm of such a surface will therefore diminishes as
the radius increases, and will be inversely proportional to the square of the distance
A similar relation holds if we have to deal with a beam of light in
the form of a cone or pyramid as shown in the fig. if we consider parallel surfaces which
cut the pyramid at different distances from the source, the areas of these surfaces are
proportional to the square of these distances, and therefore the amount of light which falls
on the one unit of the area of these surfaces is inversely proportional to the square of the
distances from the source. This relation is referred to as the law of inverse squares.
Mathematically it can be proved as follows:
Polar curves :-
All over discussions so far were based on the assumption that
luminous intensity or the candle power from a source is uniformly distributed over the
surrounding surface. But none of the practical type of lamp gives light uniformly
distributed in all directions because of its unsymmetrical shapes. It is often necessary to
know the distribution of light in various directions to as certain how the candle power of
light source varies in different directions. The luminous intensity in all directions can be
represented by polar curves. If the luminous intensity is a horizontal plane passing
through the lamp is plotted against angular position, a curve known as horizontal polar
curve is obtained. If the luminous intensity in a vertical plane is plotted against the
angular position, a curve known as vertical polar curve is obtained. The typical polar
curves for an ordinary filament lamp are shown in the following fig:
www.jntuworldupdates.org
www.smartzworld.com www.specworld.in
7. IV/I UTILIZATION OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY
PAGE: 7 E.E.E
The polar curves are used to determine the mean horizontal candle power ( m.h.c.p.)
and mean spherical candle power (m.s.c.p.). these are also used to determine the actual
illumination of a surface by employing the candle power in that particular direction as
read from the vertical polar curve in the illumination calculations.
The mean horizontal candle power of a lamp can be determined
from the horizontal polar curve taking the mean value of the candle power in a horizontal
direction.
Mean spherical candle power can be determined from the vertical polar curve by
Rousseau’s construction.
Rousseau’s construction: The construction is illustrated in the fallowing figure. A semi
circle of any convenient radius is drawn with the pole of the polar diagram as centre. The
line CD is drawn equal and parallel to the vertical diameter YY1
. Now from this line CD
ordinate equal to corresponding radius on the polar curve are set up such as BD = OK,
GH= Of and so on. The curve obtained by joining the ends of these ordinates is known as
Rousseau’s curve. The mean ordinate of this curve gives the m.s.c.p. of the lamp having
polar curve given as in the fallowing figure.
The mean ordinate of the curve =
The area under the curve can eighter be determined on the graph paper or found by
Simpson’s rule.
www.jntuworldupdates.org
www.smartzworld.com www.specworld.in
8. IV/I UTILIZATION OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY
PAGE: 8 E.E.E
Photometry: -
The candle power of a source in any given direction is measured
by comparison with a standard or substandard source employing photometer bench and
some form of photometer. The experiment is performed in dark room with dead black
walls and ceiling in order to eliminate the errors due to reflected light.
The photometer bench consists essentially of two steel rods which
carry the stands or saddles for holding the two sources, the carriage for the photometer
head and for any other operators employed in making measurements. One of the bar
carries a bar strip, graduated in centimeters and milli-meters the carriages which slides
upon the bench have expect that carrying the photometer head, a circular table which can
be rotated in a horizontal plane and clamped in any position. The circular table is
provided with a scale graduated in degrees round its edge so that the angle of rotation of
lamp from the direction of the axis of bench can be measured. The bench should be rigid
so that the source is being compared may be free from vibrations and carriage holding the
photometer head should be capable of moving smoothly and with every little effort. The
photometer head acts as a screen for comparison of illumination of the standard source
and the source under test. There are different types of photometers, which can be used for
the purpose. Some of them are described here.
The principle of the most methods of measurement is based upon
the inverse square law.
www.jntuworldupdates.org
www.smartzworld.com www.specworld.in
9. IV/I UTILIZATION OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY
PAGE: 9 E.E.E
The standard source, whose candle power is known (say S) and the
source under test whose candle power is to be determined, are set on the bench at a
distance apart with some type of screen in line with, and between, them as shown in the
above figure. The photometer head or screen id moved in between the two fixed sources
until the illumination on the both sides of the screen is same. If the distance of the
standard source S and source under test T from photometer head are l1 and l2 respectively
then according to inverse square law.
=
Candle power of source under test = S
Integrating sphere:-
It is a source of apparatus which is now commonly employed for
measurements of mean spherical candle power. In this method the sphere is used to
measure the total flux radiated by the lamp, which when divided by 4π gives as m.s.c.p.
Since in this method the flux radiated in all directions is taken into account, so this
method is better than that described in which it was assumed that the candle power
distribution is same in all vertical planes, an assumption which may not always be
justifiable.
The integrating sphere consists of a hallow sphere whose diameter
is large compared to the lamp to be tested having a smooth inner surface with a uniform
coating of white paint. If the lamp is hung inside the sphere, the light is so diffused an
uniform illumination is produced over the whole surface. A small window of translucent
glass provided at one side of the sphere is illuminated by reflecting light from the inner
surface of the sphere. The small screen is inserted in between the lamp and window in
order to prevent the light from the lamp reaching the window directly.
Source of light:- According to the principle of operation of light
source maybe grouped as follows:
1. Arc lamps: - Electric discharge through air gives intense light. This principle is
utilized in arc lamps.
2. High temperature: - Oil and gas lamps and incandescent filament type lamps, which
emit light when heated to high temperature.
3. Gaseous discharge lamps: - Under certain conditions it is possible to pass electric
current through a gas or metal vapour, which is accompanied by visible radiation.
Sodium and mercury vapour lamps operate on this principle.
4. Fluorescent type lamps:- Certain materials, when exposed to ultra violet rays, the
absorbed energy into the radiation of longer wave length lying within the visible range.
This principle is employed in fluorescent lamps.
www.jntuworldupdates.org
www.smartzworld.com www.specworld.in