The document discusses urban transportation and examines two main components: the automobile/highway system and urban mass transit. Chapter 19 describes problems caused by automobiles, including congestion, pollution, and accidents. Chapter 20 deals with commuter transportation choices such as automobile, bus, or light rail. The chapters examine congestion issues and potential policies to address congestion such as taxes, subsidies, and highway construction. Urban mass transit options and factors influencing commuter choices are also discussed.
Abstract of master's thesis on traffic congestion in GhanaHayford Adjavor
This was a study aimed at bringing the merits of road pricing implementation, and drawing from lessons in other developing countries in order to solve the traffic congestion problem in the city of Accra.
“ Para-transit vehicles are a for-hire flexible passenger transportation that does not necessarily follow fixed routes and schedules. They provide two types of services: one involving trips along a more or less defined route with stops to pick up or discharge passengers on request. The other is a demand-responsive transport which can offer a door-to-door service from any origin to any destination in a service area”
Abstract of master's thesis on traffic congestion in GhanaHayford Adjavor
This was a study aimed at bringing the merits of road pricing implementation, and drawing from lessons in other developing countries in order to solve the traffic congestion problem in the city of Accra.
“ Para-transit vehicles are a for-hire flexible passenger transportation that does not necessarily follow fixed routes and schedules. They provide two types of services: one involving trips along a more or less defined route with stops to pick up or discharge passengers on request. The other is a demand-responsive transport which can offer a door-to-door service from any origin to any destination in a service area”
The presentation provides an overall view of the urban transportation market in India. The presentation provides glimpse of development in different cities. It also tries to highlight the growth of ITS and AFCS market and the strategy of three key global players for India. You may send your feedback on jaaaspal@yahoo.com.
STATEMENT OF THE FOUNDATION FOR ECONOMIC FREEDOM (FEF) ON THE MRT-LRT FARE IN...FEF Philippines
The Foundation for Economic Freedom (FEF), a non-stock, non-profit organization composed of incumbent and former officials of government, as well as members of the business sector and the academe, takes the position that Government should cut and minimize its subsidy to the metropolitan rail system, and allow market forces to dictate the cost of riding the MRT and LRT
Why Cities Choose Smart Parking Solutions from Streetline
This white paper examines the impact of parking on the transportation ecosystem as well as the quality of life in a city. Technological solutions are offered to address parking congestion, which is estimated at 30% of city traffic. Streetline's sensors and consumer & municipal applications provide the tools a city needs to implement smarter parking strategies.
Public-Private Partnership in Urban TransportJaspal Singh
The presentation highlights the different aspects of Public Private Partnership in Urban Transport. It highlights the investment required in this sector and what are the challenges faced by private investors.
City changemaker - Istanbul + Mobility workshop - March 28th '15Ronald Lenz
CITY//CHANGEMAKER is a platform for urban innovation in emerging cities in the Mediterranean and Middle East region.
On March 28th we launched CITY//CHANGEMAKER in Istanbul. On a cloudy Saturday at 09:00 AM 30 people showed up on the doorstep of Istanbul’s first ever coworking space Yazane.
The question to solve: “How might we give Istanbul commuters the most convenient, affordable and greenest transport options through the use of smart technology?”
The presentation provides an overall view of the urban transportation market in India. The presentation provides glimpse of development in different cities. It also tries to highlight the growth of ITS and AFCS market and the strategy of three key global players for India. You may send your feedback on jaaaspal@yahoo.com.
STATEMENT OF THE FOUNDATION FOR ECONOMIC FREEDOM (FEF) ON THE MRT-LRT FARE IN...FEF Philippines
The Foundation for Economic Freedom (FEF), a non-stock, non-profit organization composed of incumbent and former officials of government, as well as members of the business sector and the academe, takes the position that Government should cut and minimize its subsidy to the metropolitan rail system, and allow market forces to dictate the cost of riding the MRT and LRT
Why Cities Choose Smart Parking Solutions from Streetline
This white paper examines the impact of parking on the transportation ecosystem as well as the quality of life in a city. Technological solutions are offered to address parking congestion, which is estimated at 30% of city traffic. Streetline's sensors and consumer & municipal applications provide the tools a city needs to implement smarter parking strategies.
Public-Private Partnership in Urban TransportJaspal Singh
The presentation highlights the different aspects of Public Private Partnership in Urban Transport. It highlights the investment required in this sector and what are the challenges faced by private investors.
City changemaker - Istanbul + Mobility workshop - March 28th '15Ronald Lenz
CITY//CHANGEMAKER is a platform for urban innovation in emerging cities in the Mediterranean and Middle East region.
On March 28th we launched CITY//CHANGEMAKER in Istanbul. On a cloudy Saturday at 09:00 AM 30 people showed up on the doorstep of Istanbul’s first ever coworking space Yazane.
The question to solve: “How might we give Istanbul commuters the most convenient, affordable and greenest transport options through the use of smart technology?”
Under-appreciated and neglected urban transport policy opportunities (and ref...Paul Barter
Presentation to 6 May 2009 event in Singapore organised by the Land Transport Authority (LTA), the Asian Development Bank (ADB) and the Centre for Liveable Cities (CLC).
Ppp for solving public transport woes in indiaAmit Jain
The public transport in most of the cities are dependent on buses, auto rikshaws, cycle rikshaws which are not able to meet the demand, prone to accidents, delays & traffic jams. The cities need to create an efficient and affordable public transport services. The private sector may be invited through PPP to develop an integrated public transport system in a city. The private sector may charge an appropriate user fee (fare) from the users and earn revenue from commercial activities like advertising, renting & leasing of commercial spaces etc to cover his capital and recurring cost.
The Impact of Mobility Pricing in Metro Vancouver Akash Behl
Transportation is a vital part of the ecosystem of any urban or non-urban area. With population escalating in Metro Vancouver, the need for efficient transport systems and effective pricing strategies is significant.
To combat the problem of traffic congestion, the Metro Vancouver Independent Mobility Pricing Commission has proposed congestion pricing.
The report touches upon the economic impact the new pricing strategy can have on the transport network of Metro Vancouver.
International Journal of Computational Engineering Research (IJCER) is dedicated to protecting personal information and will make every reasonable effort to handle collected information appropriately. All information collected, as well as related requests, will be handled as carefully and efficiently as possible in accordance with IJCER standards for integrity and objectivity.
Cities where people spend one working day a week to pay for an activity that may save only a few hours are inherently Pythonesque. The concept of effective speed allows policy-makers to appreciate the (in)effectiveness of transport options in terms of time savings, by examining the total time associated with transport, including time spent at work to pay for associated costs. Consequently, cars are not necessarily ‘faster’ than alternatives we instinctively think of as slower: public transport, cycling and even walking. Any rational person would agree we should minimise the resources devoted to the essentially unproductive intermediate activity of driving. But economic bean-counters regard this as contributing to our well-being, as it consumes resources, the primary criterion for
inclusion in Gross Domestic Product. The paper examines effective speed in Australian cities and presents results from strategic analysis for Perth, Western Australia, highlighting the consequences of 'squandering' a large and increasing part of our individual and collective time and financial resources. Increasing oil prices may soon start to force changes in economic behaviour, including travel, that
have potentially profound impacts on our real wellbeing and the form and functioning of our cities. The paper describes these consequences and outline ways in which adverse impacts can be reduced.
This paper was presented to the Australasian Transport Research Forum in 2007.
Istanbul IETT Professional Development Workshop, #3 of 6_Transit Demand Manag...VTPI
Istanbul IETT Professional Development Workshop, #3 of 6, Transit Demand Management
Presenter: Todd Litman, Victoria Transport Policy Institute
Assistant: Aysha Cohen, UCLA Institute of Transportation Studies Scholar
Presentation Date: June 15, 2015
Transit Demand Management_Istanbul IETT Workshop 3_15 June 2015VTPI
Istanbul IETT Professional Development Workshop, #3 of 6
- Presenter: Todd Litman, Victoria Transport Policy Institute
- Assistant: Aysha Cohen, UCLA Institute of Transportation Studies Scholar
- Presentation Date: June 16, 2015
These considerations mean that governments inevitably take a broader view when determining road user taxes and those strict efficiency criteria are often not adhered to.
Bangladesh is Riverine County and the water transport is cheaper than road and railway. Bangladesh can encourage river transport with tax balance between user taxes on all modes of transport systems.
how to sell pi coins in South Korea profitably.DOT TECH
Yes. You can sell your pi network coins in South Korea or any other country, by finding a verified pi merchant
What is a verified pi merchant?
Since pi network is not launched yet on any exchange, the only way you can sell pi coins is by selling to a verified pi merchant, and this is because pi network is not launched yet on any exchange and no pre-sale or ico offerings Is done on pi.
Since there is no pre-sale, the only way exchanges can get pi is by buying from miners. So a pi merchant facilitates these transactions by acting as a bridge for both transactions.
How can i find a pi vendor/merchant?
Well for those who haven't traded with a pi merchant or who don't already have one. I will leave the telegram id of my personal pi merchant who i trade pi with.
Tele gram: @Pi_vendor_247
#pi #sell #nigeria #pinetwork #picoins #sellpi #Nigerian #tradepi #pinetworkcoins #sellmypi
Even tho Pi network is not listed on any exchange yet.
Buying/Selling or investing in pi network coins is highly possible through the help of vendors. You can buy from vendors[ buy directly from the pi network miners and resell it]. I will leave the telegram contact of my personal vendor.
@Pi_vendor_247
what is the future of Pi Network currency.DOT TECH
The future of the Pi cryptocurrency is uncertain, and its success will depend on several factors. Pi is a relatively new cryptocurrency that aims to be user-friendly and accessible to a wide audience. Here are a few key considerations for its future:
Message: @Pi_vendor_247 on telegram if u want to sell PI COINS.
1. Mainnet Launch: As of my last knowledge update in January 2022, Pi was still in the testnet phase. Its success will depend on a successful transition to a mainnet, where actual transactions can take place.
2. User Adoption: Pi's success will be closely tied to user adoption. The more users who join the network and actively participate, the stronger the ecosystem can become.
3. Utility and Use Cases: For a cryptocurrency to thrive, it must offer utility and practical use cases. The Pi team has talked about various applications, including peer-to-peer transactions, smart contracts, and more. The development and implementation of these features will be essential.
4. Regulatory Environment: The regulatory environment for cryptocurrencies is evolving globally. How Pi navigates and complies with regulations in various jurisdictions will significantly impact its future.
5. Technology Development: The Pi network must continue to develop and improve its technology, security, and scalability to compete with established cryptocurrencies.
6. Community Engagement: The Pi community plays a critical role in its future. Engaged users can help build trust and grow the network.
7. Monetization and Sustainability: The Pi team's monetization strategy, such as fees, partnerships, or other revenue sources, will affect its long-term sustainability.
It's essential to approach Pi or any new cryptocurrency with caution and conduct due diligence. Cryptocurrency investments involve risks, and potential rewards can be uncertain. The success and future of Pi will depend on the collective efforts of its team, community, and the broader cryptocurrency market dynamics. It's advisable to stay updated on Pi's development and follow any updates from the official Pi Network website or announcements from the team.
What website can I sell pi coins securely.DOT TECH
Currently there are no website or exchange that allow buying or selling of pi coins..
But you can still easily sell pi coins, by reselling it to exchanges/crypto whales interested in holding thousands of pi coins before the mainnet launch.
Who is a pi merchant?
A pi merchant is someone who buys pi coins from miners and resell to these crypto whales and holders of pi..
This is because pi network is not doing any pre-sale. The only way exchanges can get pi is by buying from miners and pi merchants stands in between the miners and the exchanges.
How can I sell my pi coins?
Selling pi coins is really easy, but first you need to migrate to mainnet wallet before you can do that. I will leave the telegram contact of my personal pi merchant to trade with.
Tele-gram.
@Pi_vendor_247
Exploring Abhay Bhutada’s Views After Poonawalla Fincorp’s Collaboration With...beulahfernandes8
The financial landscape in India has witnessed a significant development with the recent collaboration between Poonawalla Fincorp and IndusInd Bank.
The launch of the co-branded credit card, the IndusInd Bank Poonawalla Fincorp eLITE RuPay Platinum Credit Card, marks a major milestone for both entities.
This strategic move aims to redefine and elevate the banking experience for customers.
how to sell pi coins on Bitmart crypto exchangeDOT TECH
Yes. Pi network coins can be exchanged but not on bitmart exchange. Because pi network is still in the enclosed mainnet. The only way pioneers are able to trade pi coins is by reselling the pi coins to pi verified merchants.
A verified merchant is someone who buys pi network coins and resell it to exchanges looking forward to hold till mainnet launch.
I will leave the telegram contact of my personal pi merchant to trade with.
@Pi_vendor_247
US Economic Outlook - Being Decided - M Capital Group August 2021.pdfpchutichetpong
The U.S. economy is continuing its impressive recovery from the COVID-19 pandemic and not slowing down despite re-occurring bumps. The U.S. savings rate reached its highest ever recorded level at 34% in April 2020 and Americans seem ready to spend. The sectors that had been hurt the most by the pandemic specifically reduced consumer spending, like retail, leisure, hospitality, and travel, are now experiencing massive growth in revenue and job openings.
Could this growth lead to a “Roaring Twenties”? As quickly as the U.S. economy contracted, experiencing a 9.1% drop in economic output relative to the business cycle in Q2 2020, the largest in recorded history, it has rebounded beyond expectations. This surprising growth seems to be fueled by the U.S. government’s aggressive fiscal and monetary policies, and an increase in consumer spending as mobility restrictions are lifted. Unemployment rates between June 2020 and June 2021 decreased by 5.2%, while the demand for labor is increasing, coupled with increasing wages to incentivize Americans to rejoin the labor force. Schools and businesses are expected to fully reopen soon. In parallel, vaccination rates across the country and the world continue to rise, with full vaccination rates of 50% and 14.8% respectively.
However, it is not completely smooth sailing from here. According to M Capital Group, the main risks that threaten the continued growth of the U.S. economy are inflation, unsettled trade relations, and another wave of Covid-19 mutations that could shut down the world again. Have we learned from the past year of COVID-19 and adapted our economy accordingly?
“In order for the U.S. economy to continue growing, whether there is another wave or not, the U.S. needs to focus on diversifying supply chains, supporting business investment, and maintaining consumer spending,” says Grace Feeley, a research analyst at M Capital Group.
While the economic indicators are positive, the risks are coming closer to manifesting and threatening such growth. The new variants spreading throughout the world, Delta, Lambda, and Gamma, are vaccine-resistant and muddy the predictions made about the economy and health of the country. These variants bring back the feeling of uncertainty that has wreaked havoc not only on the stock market but the mindset of people around the world. MCG provides unique insight on how to mitigate these risks to possibly ensure a bright economic future.
how can I sell pi coins after successfully completing KYCDOT TECH
Pi coins is not launched yet in any exchange 💱 this means it's not swappable, the current pi displaying on coin market cap is the iou version of pi. And you can learn all about that on my previous post.
RIGHT NOW THE ONLY WAY you can sell pi coins is through verified pi merchants. A pi merchant is someone who buys pi coins and resell them to exchanges and crypto whales. Looking forward to hold massive quantities of pi coins before the mainnet launch.
This is because pi network is not doing any pre-sale or ico offerings, the only way to get my coins is from buying from miners. So a merchant facilitates the transactions between the miners and these exchanges holding pi.
I and my friends has sold more than 6000 pi coins successfully with this method. I will be happy to share the contact of my personal pi merchant. The one i trade with, if you have your own merchant you can trade with them. For those who are new.
Message: @Pi_vendor_247 on telegram.
I wouldn't advise you selling all percentage of the pi coins. Leave at least a before so its a win win during open mainnet. Have a nice day pioneers ♥️
#kyc #mainnet #picoins #pi #sellpi #piwallet
#pinetwork
how to sell pi coins in all Africa Countries.DOT TECH
Yes. You can sell your pi network for other cryptocurrencies like Bitcoin, usdt , Ethereum and other currencies And this is done easily with the help from a pi merchant.
What is a pi merchant ?
Since pi is not launched yet in any exchange. The only way you can sell right now is through merchants.
A verified Pi merchant is someone who buys pi network coins from miners and resell them to investors looking forward to hold massive quantities of pi coins before mainnet launch in 2026.
I will leave the telegram contact of my personal pi merchant to trade with.
@Pi_vendor_247
how to sell pi coins effectively (from 50 - 100k pi)DOT TECH
Anywhere in the world, including Africa, America, and Europe, you can sell Pi Network Coins online and receive cash through online payment options.
Pi has not yet been launched on any exchange because we are currently using the confined Mainnet. The planned launch date for Pi is June 28, 2026.
Reselling to investors who want to hold until the mainnet launch in 2026 is currently the sole way to sell.
Consequently, right now. All you need to do is select the right pi network provider.
Who is a pi merchant?
An individual who buys coins from miners on the pi network and resells them to investors hoping to hang onto them until the mainnet is launched is known as a pi merchant.
debuts.
I'll provide you the Telegram username
@Pi_vendor_247
how to swap pi coins to foreign currency withdrawable.DOT TECH
As of my last update, Pi is still in the testing phase and is not tradable on any exchanges.
However, Pi Network has announced plans to launch its Testnet and Mainnet in the future, which may include listing Pi on exchanges.
The current method for selling pi coins involves exchanging them with a pi vendor who purchases pi coins for investment reasons.
If you want to sell your pi coins, reach out to a pi vendor and sell them to anyone looking to sell pi coins from any country around the globe.
Below is the contact information for my personal pi vendor.
Telegram: @Pi_vendor_247
Which Crypto to Buy Today for Short-Term in May-June 2024.pdf
Transportasi kota malang
1. EKONOMI PERKOTAAN
URBAN ECONOMIC TRANSPORTATION
KELOMPOK 5:
1. UMA ADI KUSUMA
2. NANIA TAMANA
3. AMALIA RAKHMAWATI
4. DWI LARASATI
5. SELENA DENNYSAL
2. One of the advantages of an urban location is its
proximity to many activities within a metropolitan
area. This part of the book examines the two main
components of the urban transportation system.
Chapter 19 describe the automobile/
highway system, focusing on three
problems caused by automobiles:
congestion, pollution, and highway
accidents.
Chapter 20 deals wiith urban mass transit,
focusing on the choice of a commuting
mode by a commuter (e.g., automobiles,
bus, or light rail) and the choice of a
transportation system by a city planner.
3. INSIDE THE CHAPTER
Autos and Highways
Congestion: Equilibrium vs Optimum Traffic Volume
Alternative to a Congestion Tax: Taxes on Auto Use
Highway Pricing and Traffic Volume in the Long Run
Congestion and Land-Use Patterns
Autos and Air Pollution
4. Examine three transportation problems caused by
automobiles.
AUTOS AND HIGHWAYS
Congestion Air Pollution
Highway
Accidents
5. Congestion during rush hours is inevitable, and a
certain level of congestion is actually efficient. Just
as it would be inefficient to eliminate all air
pollution, it would be inefficient to eliminate all
congestion.
The question is whether congestion is at optimum
level. If not, there are a number of of policies that
could decrease congestion.
6. First, including
various taxes on
auto travel,
subsidies for mass
transit, and
highway
construction.
The second
problem, air
pollution, is
controlled by the
federal goverment
through its auto
emissions policies.
The thrid
transportation
problem is auto
safety. Traffic
accidents injure
and kill people,
and also discrupt
traffic flow,
contributing to the
congestion
problem.
8. CONGESTION: EQUILIBRIUM VS
OPTIMUM TRAFFIC VOLUME
Most cities suffer from traffic congestion during the
morning and evening rush hours.
The annual cost of congestion (for extra time and
fuel consumption) in the 50 largest metropolitan
areas is about $35 billion (Small, 1997).
We’ll use a simple model to explain the congestion
phenomenon & evaluate some alternative public
policies to deal with it.
9. Consider a city with the following characteristic:
Radialhighway
There is two-
lane higway
from
suburbs to
the city
center (a
distance of
10 miles). Monetarytravel
cost
Monetary
travel cost
of auto
travel is 20
cents per
mile.
Timecost
The
opportunity
cost of
travel time is
10 cents per
minute.
10. The Demand for Urban Travel
The demand curve is a
marginal-benefit curve.
For each trafffic volume,
it shows how much the
marginal traveler is
willing to pay for the
highway trip.
Congestion Externalities and the Congestion Tax
11. The Private and Social Costs of Travel
A
Traffic
voluame
(vehicles)
B
Trip time
(minutes)
C
Increase
in Travel
Time per
Driver
(minutes)
D
Increase
in Total
Travel
Time
(minutes)
E
External
Trip Cost
($)
F
Private
Trip
Cost
($)
G
Social
Trip Cost
($)
H
Marginal
Benefit
(demand)
200 12.0 0 0 0 3.2 3.20 31.10
400 12.0 0 0 0 3.20 3.20 27.44
600 12.8 0.007 4.2 0.42 3.28 3.70 23.78
800 14.8 0.013 10.4 10.4 3.48 4.52 20.12
1000 18.0 0.019 19.0 1.90 3.80 5.70 16.46
1200 22.4 0.025 30.0 3.00 4.24 7.24 12.80
1400 28.0 0.031 43.4 4.34 4.80 9.14 9.14
1600 34.8 0.037 59.2 5.92 5.48 11.40 5.48
1800 42.8 0.043 77.4 7.74 6.28 14.02 182
2000 52.0 0.049 98.0 9.80 7.20 17.00
The relationships
between traffic
volume and travel
time.
Trip time = 12.0 +
0.001(volume - 400) +
0.000015(volume -
400)2
Column B lists the
trip time(the travel
time per driver).
Columns C&D show the
effects of the marginal
driver on the travel times
of other drivers.
Column E are based
on the assumption of
travel time is 10
cents per minute.
Columns F&G show the
private and social costs
of travel.
12. The congestion externality: The marginal driver
slows traffic and increases travel time, forcing
other dreivers to spend more time on the road.
The external trip cost equal as the monetary value
of the congestion externality.
The private trip cost is the travel cost incurred by
the individual commuter, defined as the sum of
the monetary cost($2.00) and the private time
cost.
The social trip cost is the sum of the private trip
cost(column F) and the external trip cost(column
E).
13. Equilibrium number of drivers is a driver uses the
highway if the marginal benefit of a trip(from
demand curve) exceeds the private trip cost.
Optimum number of driver optimum level is the
marginal benefit equals the marginal cost(basic
efficiency rule).
Equilibrium vs Optimum Traffic Volume
14. The government could use a congestion tax to
generate the optimum traffic volume.
A tax equal to the external trip cost would
internalize the congestion externality, generating
the optimum number of drivers.
The Policy Response: Congestion Tax
15. A key consideration in the evaluation of the
congestion tax is the disposition of the revenue it
generates.
The government doesn’t throw the tax revenue
away, but presumably use it to finance public
services or to decrease other local taxes.
To simplify the matters, suppose that the
government redestributes the tax revenue, in
equal shares, to all of the households who use the
highway before the congestion tax is imposed.
Benefits and Costs of Congestion Taxes
16. A more rigorous analysis of the benefits and costs
would show that some people in the city would be
harmed by the congestion tax policy: for some
travelers, the savings in the travel costs and the
transfer payment would not be large enough to
offset the congestion tax or the loss in consumer
surplus.
And would also show that: the winners’ benefits
exceed the losers’ costs.
17. Peak vs Off-Peak Travel
Congestion Tax during Peak and Off-Peak Periods
During the of-peak period, the
demand for travel is relatively low,
generating a low traffic volume
(Vo, compared to Vp during the
period), so the optimum
congestion tax is relatively low
18. The government collect the congestion tax with:
The high technology version of toll booths: a
vehicle-identification system (VIS).
Under the VIS, every car is eqquiped with a
transponder – an electronic device that allows
sensors along the road to idnetify the car as it
passes.
The system records trhe number of times a vehicle
uses the congested highway and sends a
congestion bill to the driver at the end of the
month
Implementing the Congestion Tax
19. A number of alternatif policies have been
proposed. A set of policies may discourage auto
use by the cost of auto travel.
ALTERNATIVE TO A CONGESTION TAX:
TAXES ON AUTO USE
Gasoline
taxes
Parking taxes
Congestion-
zone taxes
How effective are these policies compared to a
congestion tax?
20. The ways how congestion tax decreases the trafic
volume
Modal
substitution
Time of travel
Travel route
Location
choices
Tax increases the cost of auto
travel relative to carpooling and
mass transit, causing some
travelers to switch to those other
modes.
The tax is highest during the
peak travel periods, causing
some travelers to travel at
different times.
The tax is
highest on the
most
congested
routes, causing
some travelers
to switch to
alternative
routes.
The tax
increases the
unit cost of
travel (travel
cost per mile),
causing some
commuters to
decrease their
commuting
distances.
21. One alternative to the congestion tax is gasoline
tax. The simple idea is that if travel is more
expensive, traffic volume decreases.
The problem is that the gas tax increases the cost
of all automobile travel, not just travel along
congested routes during peak periods.
In contrast with the congestion tax, which changes
travel times and routes, gas tax doesn’t encourage
drivers to switch to other travel times or routes.
Gasoline tax
22. A number of cities use parking taxes to discourage
driving to central business district jobs.
Explained by Parody (1984), the surcharge
decreased traffic volume because:
Parking tax
Some
commuters
switched to
carpools and
mass transit.
Some
changed their
travel times.
23. There are three potential problems with using
parking taxes to decrease congestion.
• Taxes must be imposed only on peak-period
commuters.
1
• In contrast with congestion tax, parking tax
doesn’t depend on the distance traveled.2
• Because much of the congestion
problem is caused by cars that do not
park in congested areas, the tax doesn’t
force all peak-period traveler to pay for
the congestion they cause.
3
24. So far, congestion policies discuss about how to
decrease congestion by increasing the cost of
driving.
There are several alternative approaches.
Capacity Expansion
and Traffic Design
Subsidies for Transit
25. One response to the congestion problem is to
widen the highway to increase its carrying
capacity.
Widening the highway decreases the trip cost of
all drivers, so it increases consumer surplus.
The city could also improve the flow of traffic on
the existing highway, such as synchronized the
street lights to keep traffic flowing at a steady
speed.
Capacity Expansion and Traffic Design
26. Effects of Widening the Highway
The widening of the
highway shifts the
private trip cost to the
right. The congestion
threshold increases, and
trip cost is lower at every
traffic volume above the
original threshold
volume. The decrease in
trip cost increase traffic
volume. The benefit of
widening is increasing in
consumer surplus.
27. Another alternative to the taxation of auto travel is
the subsidization of mass transit. Because transit
and autos are substitute travel modes, so a
decrease in the cost of transit causes some
consumers to switch from autos to transit.
In other words, a transit subsidy decreases the auto
volume, narrowing the gap between the
equilibrium and optimum traffic volume.
Subsidies for Transit
28. Effects of Transit Subsidies on Auto Volume and Transit Ridership
In the optimum situation, auto drivers pay a congestion tax, so auto volume is
A* and transit ridership is T*. If there is no congestion tax, the auto volume is A’
and transit ridership is T’. A transit subsidy increases transit ridership to T” and
decreases auto volume to A”.
29. HIGHWAY PRICING AND TRAFFIC
VOLUME IN THE LONG RUN
• Derive the average total-cost curves for different highway
widths.
• Derive the long run cost curves (average and marginal).
• Pick the optimum traffic volume and road width.
• Pick the congestion tax that generates the optimum traffic
volume on the optimum road.
30. Derive The Average Total-cost Curves for Different Highway
Widths
ATC = Trip Cost + Average
Road Cost
Total cost of building
highway devide
number of trip
Two effects on ATC caused by
an incerasing traffic volume:
The roads-cost effect & The trip-
cost effect
The ATC reaches its minimum
point at a volume of V’ and V*
drivers
Under assumption of constant
return to scale in highway
building
31. Long-Run Average Cost and Marginal-Cost Curves
• LRAC shows the minimum average total cost for
each traffic volume
• Two points on LRAC: V’ drivers on C* (2 lanes) &
V* drivers on C* (4 lanes)
• Made up of the minimum point of ATC for
different width, optimum highway for each
traffic volume
• Given the assumption of constant return to
scale, LRAC= horizontal
32. LRMC indicates the marginal social
cost of an additional driver, including
the cost widening
LRMC is the as LRAC
33. Optimum Volume and Road Width
Optimum Traffic Volume:
MB = MC
D AC
V* as the optimum
traffic volume
4 lanes as the optimum
road width
How does city persuade
the optimum number of
drivers to use the highway?
Depend on the existention
of congestion tax
34. Congestion Tolls Pay for the optimum Road
The revenue from
the congestion
tax covers the
cost of bulding
the road.
If tax revenue
exceeds the total
cost of building
the road, the
roads should be
widened.
35. Untuk mengetahui efek dari eksternalitas
kepadatan dan pajak kepadatan pada
pola penggunaan lahan .
Dengan menggunakan konsep Land
Rent dan Urban Land Use patterns
untuk menjelaskan bagaimana sistem
pajak kepadatan merubah
penggunaan lahan dan ukuran kota.
CONGESTION AND LAND-USE
PATTERNS
36. Partial Equilibrium Effects
Peningkatan unit cost
of commuting
meningkatkan slope
housing price function
dan residential bid-
rent function
Partial-Equilibrium Effects of Congestion Taxes
38. Menjelaskan efek perubahan lahan terhadap
pasar tenaga kerja kota.
Pajak meningkatkan total penawaran tenaga
kerja karena meningkatkan efisiensi sistem
transportasi kota dan meningkatkan kesejahteraan
resident kota.
Karena pajak kepadatan menghasilkan
keuntungan untuk city resident, maka aktivitas
relatif kota juga meningkat, dan kemudian
meningkatkan total penawaran tenaga kerja.
General Equilibrium Effects
39. Pajak kepadatan juga meningkatkan tingkat upah
kota, karena peningkatan total penawaran
tenaga kerja yang menyebabkan excess
penawaran tenaga kerja.
Untuk mengetahui bagaimana perubahan kota
setelah adanya general equilibrium effects, bisa
dengan menggunakan komputer untuk
memperoleh 2 gambaran keadaan ekonomi
sebelum dan sesudah pajak.
40. Variable Initial City Congestion Tax City
Population $18000 $61000
Wage ($ per hour) 6.00 5.31
Commute distance (miles) 3.72 3.42
Commuting Time (hours/week) 3.73 3.41
Percent of Land use for transportation 17.9 16.2
General Equilibrium Effects on Congestion Taxes
41. Analisa congestion tax menjelaskan tentang
pentingnya peraturan untuk masalah urban.
Kota yang memberlakukan pajak kongesti
biasanya akan tumbuh.
Hal tersebut dikarenakan pajak kongesti
meningkatkan efisiensi transportasi kota dan
meningkatkan keatraktifan relatif kota tersebut.
42. Another urban transportation problem is air
pollution resulting from the emissions of motor
vehicles. In the US, Motor vehicles powerd by
petroleum products emit carbon dioxide (CO2),
one of the “greenhouse” gates that are
accumulating in the atmosphere.
Most scientists believe the buildup of these gases
will cause global temperatures to increase,
resulting in significant changes in weather patterns.
AUTOS AND AIR POLLUTION
43. Amendements to the Clean Air Act (in 1977 and
1990) included one innovative feature for the
control of stationary pollution source. In cities
where EPA standards were exceeded, new
pollution source were allowed if two conditions
were stasified.
First, the new sources had to adopt the most
effective abatement technology. Second, existing
source had to dercrease their emissions to ensure
that there was a net improvement in air quality.
44. The economic approach to air pollution starts with
a description of the externality problem. Drivers
base their travel decisions on the marginal private
cost of driving, which is less than the marginal
social. cost because autos and trucks cause air
pollution. The pollution externality by causes
people:
1. To drive cars that generate a relatively large
amount of pollution per mile driven and
2. To drive many too miles. To an economist, the
obvious response is to force people to pay for
pollution, that is to internalize the externality.
The Economic Approach: Effluent Fees
45. One approach would be to install amonitoring
device in every car. Such a device woulde be
measure the car’s emissions, allowing the
goverment to tax the car owner for the air
pollution caused by the car.
For example, if the estimated pollution cost per unit
of carbon monoxide is one cent, the monthly bill
would $2 for a vehicle that emits 200 units
permonth, and $3 for a vehicle that emits 300units.
46. An alternative approach for controling auto
pollution is to subsidize mass transit. Although both
autos and mass transit generate air pollution, the
pollution per passenger is lower on mass transit. If
there are no pollution taxes, auto travel is
underpriced relative to transit.
As explained earlier in the case of congestion
externalities, the underpricing of autos generates
an excessive traffic volume (the equlibrium auto
volume exceeds the optimum volume) and too
little transit ridership (the equilibrium transit ridership
is less the optimum ridership).
Transit Subsidies
47. One response to the underpricing of autos is to
sibsidize transit , the subtstitue good.