The document discusses the trafficking of ivory and rhino horn from Eastern Africa to Asia. It notes that elephant populations grew after an 1989 ivory trade ban but have recently declined due to rising demand from Asia fueling increased poaching. Eastern Africa contains over 140,000 elephants, mainly in Tanzania, Kenya, South Sudan and Uganda, and serves as a source and transit point for illegally trafficked ivory. Similarly, rhino populations are very low in Eastern Africa but face threats from a growing black market trade in rhino horn fueled by demand in Vietnam.
Lion populations across western and central Africa are in steep decline or extinct. Surveys in 2010 found no lions remaining in Cote d'Ivoire, Congo, and Ghana. Other countries like Nigeria have extremely small lion populations near extinction. High rates of illegal bushmeat poaching of lions and their prey species threaten the few remaining populations. Trophy hunting is considered unsustainable in most countries due to unknown population sizes, illegal off-take, and lack of population assessments. Immediate action is needed to stabilize lion numbers and prevent regional extinction across the region.
Presented during the 17h Annual Sahelo-Saharan Interest Group Meeting organized by the NGO Sahara Conservation Fund in Senegal, from 4 to 6 May 2017. The Sahara Conservation Fund (SCF) gathers every year about a hundred people who are interested in the field of Sahelo-Saharan species conservation.
Btech Practical Project - Anti Rhino poaching online campaignJamey Plessis
The document outlines an online awareness campaign called "If You Only Knew" to help raise awareness about rhino poaching. It discusses the five remaining rhino species and background on poaching. It then profiles several organizations working to protect rhinos and their initiatives. The target market for the campaign is described as well as how social media can be used. The campaign concept involves creating an interactive rhino personality on social media to educate people about rhino life. Elements would include a viral video, masks with links to the online pages, and advertising the rhino's social media accounts.
New Rhino Conservation Project in South Africa to Understand Landowner Decisi...Crystal Schalmo
This document discusses rhino conservation efforts in South Africa. It notes that around a quarter of South Africa's rhinos live on private land, and private reserves have played an important role in increasing rhino populations. However, rising poaching rates threaten the financial incentives for private landowners to protect rhinos. The researchers have created an online system to monitor how factors like poaching influence private landowners' decisions regarding rhino conservation. They aim to gather data on trends to better understand how proposals like legalizing rhino horn trade may impact private reserves' role in conservation.
Tunde Folawiyo - Dwindling rhino populations in ZambiaTunde Folawiyo
The African continent is home to an enormous amount of species, many of which are among the most majestic in the world. Whilst millions of animals inhabit the countries of Africa, human factors and habitat destruction have caused a severe impact on a notable amount of ecosystems, rendering a variety of species endangered or extinct.
Aaron Canda Senior Thesis Final Draft (1)Aaron Canda
1) Elephant populations are declining due to poaching for ivory, which is highly valuable. 2) This paper proposes hypotheses to devalue ivory through staining tusks, increase law enforcement of poaching, and educate the public. 3) Successful conservation requires reducing ivory demand and increasing protection of elephants and their habitats.
This thesis examines the issue of rhinoceros poaching driven by demand for rhinoceros horn in traditional Chinese medicine. It provides background on the five rhinoceros species and subspecies. Two African species, the black and white rhinoceros, are most affected by poaching to supply the illegal black market trade. Rhinoceros horn is composed of keratin and grows slowly at around 6 cm per year. Traditional Chinese medicine has used rhinoceros horn for over 2000 years to treat various ailments, though there is no scientific evidence that it is effective or safe. This longstanding practice, and more recent use as a recreational drug in Vietnam, has increased demand and rhinoceros
Cheetahs are known for their incredible speed, able to reach 60 mph in 3.4 seconds. Their population has declined dramatically, with only around 7,500 adults remaining in the wild due to loss of habitat and being pursued by hunters. Conservation efforts are underway to protect the last remaining cheetah populations in Africa and Asia, where they are endangered.
Lion populations across western and central Africa are in steep decline or extinct. Surveys in 2010 found no lions remaining in Cote d'Ivoire, Congo, and Ghana. Other countries like Nigeria have extremely small lion populations near extinction. High rates of illegal bushmeat poaching of lions and their prey species threaten the few remaining populations. Trophy hunting is considered unsustainable in most countries due to unknown population sizes, illegal off-take, and lack of population assessments. Immediate action is needed to stabilize lion numbers and prevent regional extinction across the region.
Presented during the 17h Annual Sahelo-Saharan Interest Group Meeting organized by the NGO Sahara Conservation Fund in Senegal, from 4 to 6 May 2017. The Sahara Conservation Fund (SCF) gathers every year about a hundred people who are interested in the field of Sahelo-Saharan species conservation.
Btech Practical Project - Anti Rhino poaching online campaignJamey Plessis
The document outlines an online awareness campaign called "If You Only Knew" to help raise awareness about rhino poaching. It discusses the five remaining rhino species and background on poaching. It then profiles several organizations working to protect rhinos and their initiatives. The target market for the campaign is described as well as how social media can be used. The campaign concept involves creating an interactive rhino personality on social media to educate people about rhino life. Elements would include a viral video, masks with links to the online pages, and advertising the rhino's social media accounts.
New Rhino Conservation Project in South Africa to Understand Landowner Decisi...Crystal Schalmo
This document discusses rhino conservation efforts in South Africa. It notes that around a quarter of South Africa's rhinos live on private land, and private reserves have played an important role in increasing rhino populations. However, rising poaching rates threaten the financial incentives for private landowners to protect rhinos. The researchers have created an online system to monitor how factors like poaching influence private landowners' decisions regarding rhino conservation. They aim to gather data on trends to better understand how proposals like legalizing rhino horn trade may impact private reserves' role in conservation.
Tunde Folawiyo - Dwindling rhino populations in ZambiaTunde Folawiyo
The African continent is home to an enormous amount of species, many of which are among the most majestic in the world. Whilst millions of animals inhabit the countries of Africa, human factors and habitat destruction have caused a severe impact on a notable amount of ecosystems, rendering a variety of species endangered or extinct.
Aaron Canda Senior Thesis Final Draft (1)Aaron Canda
1) Elephant populations are declining due to poaching for ivory, which is highly valuable. 2) This paper proposes hypotheses to devalue ivory through staining tusks, increase law enforcement of poaching, and educate the public. 3) Successful conservation requires reducing ivory demand and increasing protection of elephants and their habitats.
This thesis examines the issue of rhinoceros poaching driven by demand for rhinoceros horn in traditional Chinese medicine. It provides background on the five rhinoceros species and subspecies. Two African species, the black and white rhinoceros, are most affected by poaching to supply the illegal black market trade. Rhinoceros horn is composed of keratin and grows slowly at around 6 cm per year. Traditional Chinese medicine has used rhinoceros horn for over 2000 years to treat various ailments, though there is no scientific evidence that it is effective or safe. This longstanding practice, and more recent use as a recreational drug in Vietnam, has increased demand and rhinoceros
Cheetahs are known for their incredible speed, able to reach 60 mph in 3.4 seconds. Their population has declined dramatically, with only around 7,500 adults remaining in the wild due to loss of habitat and being pursued by hunters. Conservation efforts are underway to protect the last remaining cheetah populations in Africa and Asia, where they are endangered.
The most disturbing trend has been the horrific increase in poaching of rhinos. South Africa has skyrocketed year on year in rhinos poaching whereas its different in the small asian country. 2011 and 2013 stats showed Zero poaching of Animals in through out Nepal.
Know more about the second biggest mammal, their remaining numbers, the possible threats directly affecting in the numbers of Rhinos.
The document summarizes small ruminant production in Ethiopia, Mali, and Northern Nigeria. It notes that the populations of goats and sheep are growing in all three countries annually at rates of 4-5%. It identifies technologies to increase productivity, including a thermostable PPR vaccine, improved feeding through better use of crop residues and introduction of improved forages, business models for fattening enterprises, and community breeding schemes. Target countries for implementation are Mali, Ethiopia, and Northern Nigeria based on existing partnerships. The proposed annual budget is $3.88 million focused on production, productivity, competitiveness, and enabling activities.
Cattle Rearing and its Contribution to the Nigerian Economy: An Econometric A...Triple A Research Journal
ABSTRACT
Scholars in their quest to study the fortunes or otherwise of the agricultural sector has dwell so much on crop farming to the neglect of livestock production. By the early 1970s, as the general standard of living improved, the demand for meat in Nigeria exceeded the domestic supply. Thus, 30 to 40 percent of the beef consumed in Nigeria was imported from Niger, Chad, and other neighboring countries. In the mid-1970s, Nigeria began importing frozen beef in response to export restrictions initiated by its neighbors. This study therefore is targeted at empirically examining the impact of cattle rearing and its contribution to the Nigerian economy. Using various econometric tools of analysis, the variables for study were tested for stationarity and all variables became stationary at first difference. In the same vein, evidence reveals that series in the model (GDP, Cattle-Prod and Agric-Exp) exhibit long-run equilibrium relationship judging from the Johansen cointegration result. Major findings from the OLS regression output reveals that cattle rearing have no significant contribution to the Nigerian economy during the period under reference. The study therefore recommends that in view of the importance of cattle rearing to the Nigerian economy, the government should first and foremost bring the age-long clashes between herdsmen and farmers to a peaceful end for improve output in the livestock sub-sector. Ranching – a method of raising livestock under range conditions – has been suggested as the best solution to the incessant Fulani herdsmen / farmers crises. Secondly, the Federal Government must as a matter of urgent importance do all that is within its reach to contain the menace of cattle rustling prevalent in the country. Finally, government should create well-equipped special reserves across the country with irrigation, dams, educational, health and recreational facilities where these herdsmen can be stationed with their cows to avoid the incessant farmers-herdsmen clashes. We must come to terms with the reality that these herdsmen also need decent living and care from government.
Keywords: Nigerian Economy, Cattle rearing, Ranching, OLS
Global health and sustainable food security: Why the livestock sectors of dev...ILRI
Presented by Jimmy Smith at the Global Animal Health Conference on Developing Global Animal Health Products to Support Food Security and Sustainability, Arlington, Virginia, 17−18 October 2013
This document discusses the threats facing Ontario wolves and calls for a provincial wolf protection plan. It summarizes the current situation where wolves have no meaningful protections and can be hunted and trapped year-round with no limits. It outlines 9 recommendations for a protection plan, including banning snaring, establishing protected habitat corridors, conducting population assessments, and promoting coexistence through education and non-lethal deterrents of livestock predation. The document provides context on the global decline of wolves and threats facing populations in Ontario.
Africa’s agricultural development promises much more than food securityILRI
Presented by Jimmy Smith, Director General, with Dolapo Enahoro, Susan MacMillan and Shirley Tarawali, University of Illinois, Champaign, 12 October 2016
Importance of livestock production from grasslands for national and local foo...ILRI
Presented by Iain A Wright, Polly Ericksen, Andrew Mude, Lance W. Robinson and Jason Sircely at the International Grassland Congress, New Delhi, 20-24 November 2015
Panthera is an organization devoted to preserving wild cats and their ecosystems. It develops strategies based on science to protect cheetahs, jaguars, leopards, lions, pumas, snow leopards and tigers. WildAid's mission is to end the illegal wildlife trade by changing consumer behavior. WildCRU was founded in 1986 and conducts original research to achieve practical conservation solutions, particularly for wild cats including lions. The document provides background on these three organizations and then summarizes a report on the crisis facing Africa's lions, whose populations have declined 43% in the past two decades due to loss of habitat and threats like retaliatory killing and bushmeat hunting.
WildAid's mission is to end the illegal wildlife trade by reducing demand through public awareness campaigns and marine protection. The illegal wildlife trade is worth over $10 billion per year and has reduced many populations, yet little is spent on reducing demand. WildAid is the only organization focused on reducing demand for wildlife products through education. Their message is that when buying stops, the killing can too. They create public service announcements and documentaries to educate consumers and reduce rhino horn demand, especially in China where their message reaches 1 billion people per week.
Dr. Peter Hammond gave a presentation on rhino poaching in South Africa. He discussed how poaching has increased dramatically from 7 rhinos poached in 2000 to over 1000 poached in 2013. This is being driven by demand for rhino horn in Asian markets, where it is believed to be a miracle drug. Rhino poaching is now a $150 billion industry and is carried out by organized criminal networks. The poachers are heavily armed and there is an ongoing deadly battle with game rangers and police. However, efforts to stop poaching are being undermined by corruption among officials and across borders in Mozambique, where poachers operate from. Unless action is taken against this organized crime, rhino populations could
This document discusses the controversy around trophy hunting in Africa. It summarizes the arguments from both sides. While proponents argue that trophy hunting generates millions for conservation and local communities, critics argue that it threatens endangered species through overhunting, poaching, and illegal wildlife trafficking. The document also notes concerns about the sustainability of trophy hunting quotas given limited wildlife population data, and the use of trophy hunting to supply black markets for rhino horn and lion bones in Asia.
National Elephant Day is observed annually on August 12th to raise awareness about protecting elephants from extinction. It focuses on bringing the world together to help elephants and inform people about the threats they face, such as poaching, habitat loss, and mistreatment. World Elephant Day was created in 2012 to educate about elephant protection and improve policies against poaching and illegal ivory trade. It is celebrated by learning about elephants and donating to conservation organizations.
This document summarizes a thesis submitted by Cheryl-Samantha Owen in partial fulfillment of a masters degree in Conservation Biology at the University of Cape Town. The thesis examines whether the supply of trophy elephants to the Botswana hunting market is sustainable. It develops a population model to simulate elephant population dynamics in northern Botswana under different hunting pressures, calf survival rates, and carrying capacity limits. The model suggests the current hunting quota is sustainable and unlikely to threaten the availability of trophy-quality elephants. Increased quotas could reduce large trophy animals but not compromise male elephants suitable for trophy hunting. However, a decrease in calf survival could greatly reduce the trophy elephant supply.
WildAid is a conservation organization that aims to reduce demand for illegal wildlife products like ivory through public awareness campaigns. Their message is that reducing consumer demand can help stop elephant poaching. A 2012 survey in China found low awareness about elephant poaching levels and an inability to distinguish legal from illegal ivory. However, most Chinese residents supported banning ivory trade to protect elephants from poaching in Africa.
Elephants have been damaging plantations by feeding on bamboo and crops. Several non-lethal options are proposed to deter elephants including growing chili peppers, nurturing bees, using elephant geo-fencing, and electric fences. Chili peppers and bees have been successfully used in Africa, where the strong smells of chili peppers and buzzing of bees scare elephants away. Geo-fencing uses radio collars and GPS to detect elephants crossing virtual fences and alert rangers. Electric fences are effective but expensive to install and maintain. Other options like ditches and barricades have had limited success due to the elephants' ability to learn and overcome obstacles. The best solutions protect both elephants and farmers' livelihoods.
This document discusses combating illegal wildlife trade and trafficking. It provides:
1. An overview of declining wildlife populations in Uganda from the 1960s to present day, with many species experiencing major declines.
2. Details on illegal wildlife trade, including ivory trafficking through Uganda and major seizures in recent years.
3. The impacts of wildlife crime including scientific/ecological impacts like loss of biodiversity, economic impacts like losing $1.5 billion from tourism, and criminal impacts like links to organized crime.
Trophy hunting of African elephants is meant to help conservation efforts by providing funds, but evidence shows it often fails to meaningfully support communities or curb poaching. While Namibia's program channels some money to communities, corruption in Zimbabwe means villagers see little benefit despite high hunting fees. The small number of jobs and minimal returns to landowners have not incentivized protecting elephants, whose populations continue to decline sharply in Tanzania, Mozambique, and Zimbabwe due to poaching. While trophy hunting could help with management if revenues were fairly distributed, in reality political elites often seize the most profitable hunting areas and revenues do not trickle down as intended.
TRAFFIC, the wildlife trade monitoring network- turning the tables on wildli...Sabri Zain
An overview of the work TRAFFIC, the wildlife trade monitoring network, does to address the challenges presented by illegal and unsustainable wildlife trade.
AN INTELLIGENT REAL-TIME WIRELESS SENSOR NETWORK TRACKING SYSTEM FOR MONITORI...ijassn
The advancement of wireless sensor networks yields a variety of wireless sensor network for wildlife tracking. One typical application for wireless sensor networks is in animal tracking and monitoring in wildlife environments. A significant number of studies have been done in tracking animals with sensor networks. However from the recent literature it is observed that there is no much study has been done on an intelligent real time sensor network that is capable to alerting the rangers an incidence of animal poaching before it happened. In this paper an intelligent wireless sensor system for tracking and monitoring rhinos and elephants is proposed.
China leads the decimation of Africa’s wildlifeIan Rainey
The Northern Ireland Tourist Board has launched their annual tourism awards to recognize outstanding achievements in the tourism industry. The awards ceremony will take place in May and will honor winners across 11 categories, including two new categories for sustainable tourism and best marketing mix. The director of the NITB encourages all tourism organizations to enter to gain recognition for their work in creating quality visitor experiences.
Special program under cites on elephants in diferent countriesAdrian Bui
The document discusses CITES programs to monitor elephants and illegal ivory trade. It describes the MIKE and ETIS programs, which monitor elephant populations, poaching levels, and illegal ivory trade. MIKE collects data on elephant carcasses to determine poaching levels, while ETIS tracks illegal ivory seizures. The programs have found increases in elephant poaching since 2008 and identified poverty, governance, and ivory demand as drivers. MIKE and ETIS data have helped combat poaching by informing enforcement actions. National Ivory Action Plans provide steps for countries to strengthen controls on domestic ivory markets and combat illegal trade.
The most disturbing trend has been the horrific increase in poaching of rhinos. South Africa has skyrocketed year on year in rhinos poaching whereas its different in the small asian country. 2011 and 2013 stats showed Zero poaching of Animals in through out Nepal.
Know more about the second biggest mammal, their remaining numbers, the possible threats directly affecting in the numbers of Rhinos.
The document summarizes small ruminant production in Ethiopia, Mali, and Northern Nigeria. It notes that the populations of goats and sheep are growing in all three countries annually at rates of 4-5%. It identifies technologies to increase productivity, including a thermostable PPR vaccine, improved feeding through better use of crop residues and introduction of improved forages, business models for fattening enterprises, and community breeding schemes. Target countries for implementation are Mali, Ethiopia, and Northern Nigeria based on existing partnerships. The proposed annual budget is $3.88 million focused on production, productivity, competitiveness, and enabling activities.
Cattle Rearing and its Contribution to the Nigerian Economy: An Econometric A...Triple A Research Journal
ABSTRACT
Scholars in their quest to study the fortunes or otherwise of the agricultural sector has dwell so much on crop farming to the neglect of livestock production. By the early 1970s, as the general standard of living improved, the demand for meat in Nigeria exceeded the domestic supply. Thus, 30 to 40 percent of the beef consumed in Nigeria was imported from Niger, Chad, and other neighboring countries. In the mid-1970s, Nigeria began importing frozen beef in response to export restrictions initiated by its neighbors. This study therefore is targeted at empirically examining the impact of cattle rearing and its contribution to the Nigerian economy. Using various econometric tools of analysis, the variables for study were tested for stationarity and all variables became stationary at first difference. In the same vein, evidence reveals that series in the model (GDP, Cattle-Prod and Agric-Exp) exhibit long-run equilibrium relationship judging from the Johansen cointegration result. Major findings from the OLS regression output reveals that cattle rearing have no significant contribution to the Nigerian economy during the period under reference. The study therefore recommends that in view of the importance of cattle rearing to the Nigerian economy, the government should first and foremost bring the age-long clashes between herdsmen and farmers to a peaceful end for improve output in the livestock sub-sector. Ranching – a method of raising livestock under range conditions – has been suggested as the best solution to the incessant Fulani herdsmen / farmers crises. Secondly, the Federal Government must as a matter of urgent importance do all that is within its reach to contain the menace of cattle rustling prevalent in the country. Finally, government should create well-equipped special reserves across the country with irrigation, dams, educational, health and recreational facilities where these herdsmen can be stationed with their cows to avoid the incessant farmers-herdsmen clashes. We must come to terms with the reality that these herdsmen also need decent living and care from government.
Keywords: Nigerian Economy, Cattle rearing, Ranching, OLS
Global health and sustainable food security: Why the livestock sectors of dev...ILRI
Presented by Jimmy Smith at the Global Animal Health Conference on Developing Global Animal Health Products to Support Food Security and Sustainability, Arlington, Virginia, 17−18 October 2013
This document discusses the threats facing Ontario wolves and calls for a provincial wolf protection plan. It summarizes the current situation where wolves have no meaningful protections and can be hunted and trapped year-round with no limits. It outlines 9 recommendations for a protection plan, including banning snaring, establishing protected habitat corridors, conducting population assessments, and promoting coexistence through education and non-lethal deterrents of livestock predation. The document provides context on the global decline of wolves and threats facing populations in Ontario.
Africa’s agricultural development promises much more than food securityILRI
Presented by Jimmy Smith, Director General, with Dolapo Enahoro, Susan MacMillan and Shirley Tarawali, University of Illinois, Champaign, 12 October 2016
Importance of livestock production from grasslands for national and local foo...ILRI
Presented by Iain A Wright, Polly Ericksen, Andrew Mude, Lance W. Robinson and Jason Sircely at the International Grassland Congress, New Delhi, 20-24 November 2015
Panthera is an organization devoted to preserving wild cats and their ecosystems. It develops strategies based on science to protect cheetahs, jaguars, leopards, lions, pumas, snow leopards and tigers. WildAid's mission is to end the illegal wildlife trade by changing consumer behavior. WildCRU was founded in 1986 and conducts original research to achieve practical conservation solutions, particularly for wild cats including lions. The document provides background on these three organizations and then summarizes a report on the crisis facing Africa's lions, whose populations have declined 43% in the past two decades due to loss of habitat and threats like retaliatory killing and bushmeat hunting.
WildAid's mission is to end the illegal wildlife trade by reducing demand through public awareness campaigns and marine protection. The illegal wildlife trade is worth over $10 billion per year and has reduced many populations, yet little is spent on reducing demand. WildAid is the only organization focused on reducing demand for wildlife products through education. Their message is that when buying stops, the killing can too. They create public service announcements and documentaries to educate consumers and reduce rhino horn demand, especially in China where their message reaches 1 billion people per week.
Dr. Peter Hammond gave a presentation on rhino poaching in South Africa. He discussed how poaching has increased dramatically from 7 rhinos poached in 2000 to over 1000 poached in 2013. This is being driven by demand for rhino horn in Asian markets, where it is believed to be a miracle drug. Rhino poaching is now a $150 billion industry and is carried out by organized criminal networks. The poachers are heavily armed and there is an ongoing deadly battle with game rangers and police. However, efforts to stop poaching are being undermined by corruption among officials and across borders in Mozambique, where poachers operate from. Unless action is taken against this organized crime, rhino populations could
This document discusses the controversy around trophy hunting in Africa. It summarizes the arguments from both sides. While proponents argue that trophy hunting generates millions for conservation and local communities, critics argue that it threatens endangered species through overhunting, poaching, and illegal wildlife trafficking. The document also notes concerns about the sustainability of trophy hunting quotas given limited wildlife population data, and the use of trophy hunting to supply black markets for rhino horn and lion bones in Asia.
National Elephant Day is observed annually on August 12th to raise awareness about protecting elephants from extinction. It focuses on bringing the world together to help elephants and inform people about the threats they face, such as poaching, habitat loss, and mistreatment. World Elephant Day was created in 2012 to educate about elephant protection and improve policies against poaching and illegal ivory trade. It is celebrated by learning about elephants and donating to conservation organizations.
This document summarizes a thesis submitted by Cheryl-Samantha Owen in partial fulfillment of a masters degree in Conservation Biology at the University of Cape Town. The thesis examines whether the supply of trophy elephants to the Botswana hunting market is sustainable. It develops a population model to simulate elephant population dynamics in northern Botswana under different hunting pressures, calf survival rates, and carrying capacity limits. The model suggests the current hunting quota is sustainable and unlikely to threaten the availability of trophy-quality elephants. Increased quotas could reduce large trophy animals but not compromise male elephants suitable for trophy hunting. However, a decrease in calf survival could greatly reduce the trophy elephant supply.
WildAid is a conservation organization that aims to reduce demand for illegal wildlife products like ivory through public awareness campaigns. Their message is that reducing consumer demand can help stop elephant poaching. A 2012 survey in China found low awareness about elephant poaching levels and an inability to distinguish legal from illegal ivory. However, most Chinese residents supported banning ivory trade to protect elephants from poaching in Africa.
Elephants have been damaging plantations by feeding on bamboo and crops. Several non-lethal options are proposed to deter elephants including growing chili peppers, nurturing bees, using elephant geo-fencing, and electric fences. Chili peppers and bees have been successfully used in Africa, where the strong smells of chili peppers and buzzing of bees scare elephants away. Geo-fencing uses radio collars and GPS to detect elephants crossing virtual fences and alert rangers. Electric fences are effective but expensive to install and maintain. Other options like ditches and barricades have had limited success due to the elephants' ability to learn and overcome obstacles. The best solutions protect both elephants and farmers' livelihoods.
This document discusses combating illegal wildlife trade and trafficking. It provides:
1. An overview of declining wildlife populations in Uganda from the 1960s to present day, with many species experiencing major declines.
2. Details on illegal wildlife trade, including ivory trafficking through Uganda and major seizures in recent years.
3. The impacts of wildlife crime including scientific/ecological impacts like loss of biodiversity, economic impacts like losing $1.5 billion from tourism, and criminal impacts like links to organized crime.
Trophy hunting of African elephants is meant to help conservation efforts by providing funds, but evidence shows it often fails to meaningfully support communities or curb poaching. While Namibia's program channels some money to communities, corruption in Zimbabwe means villagers see little benefit despite high hunting fees. The small number of jobs and minimal returns to landowners have not incentivized protecting elephants, whose populations continue to decline sharply in Tanzania, Mozambique, and Zimbabwe due to poaching. While trophy hunting could help with management if revenues were fairly distributed, in reality political elites often seize the most profitable hunting areas and revenues do not trickle down as intended.
TRAFFIC, the wildlife trade monitoring network- turning the tables on wildli...Sabri Zain
An overview of the work TRAFFIC, the wildlife trade monitoring network, does to address the challenges presented by illegal and unsustainable wildlife trade.
AN INTELLIGENT REAL-TIME WIRELESS SENSOR NETWORK TRACKING SYSTEM FOR MONITORI...ijassn
The advancement of wireless sensor networks yields a variety of wireless sensor network for wildlife tracking. One typical application for wireless sensor networks is in animal tracking and monitoring in wildlife environments. A significant number of studies have been done in tracking animals with sensor networks. However from the recent literature it is observed that there is no much study has been done on an intelligent real time sensor network that is capable to alerting the rangers an incidence of animal poaching before it happened. In this paper an intelligent wireless sensor system for tracking and monitoring rhinos and elephants is proposed.
China leads the decimation of Africa’s wildlifeIan Rainey
The Northern Ireland Tourist Board has launched their annual tourism awards to recognize outstanding achievements in the tourism industry. The awards ceremony will take place in May and will honor winners across 11 categories, including two new categories for sustainable tourism and best marketing mix. The director of the NITB encourages all tourism organizations to enter to gain recognition for their work in creating quality visitor experiences.
Special program under cites on elephants in diferent countriesAdrian Bui
The document discusses CITES programs to monitor elephants and illegal ivory trade. It describes the MIKE and ETIS programs, which monitor elephant populations, poaching levels, and illegal ivory trade. MIKE collects data on elephant carcasses to determine poaching levels, while ETIS tracks illegal ivory seizures. The programs have found increases in elephant poaching since 2008 and identified poverty, governance, and ivory demand as drivers. MIKE and ETIS data have helped combat poaching by informing enforcement actions. National Ivory Action Plans provide steps for countries to strengthen controls on domestic ivory markets and combat illegal trade.
This document provides an overview of climate change vulnerabilities and potential adaptation strategies for 20 species of African megafauna. It discusses how these species are economically and culturally important for tourism, conservation, sport hunting, and game ranching. While extensively studied, little research has examined how these species may be impacted by climate change. The document conducts an initial vulnerability assessment based on each species' exposure, sensitivity, and adaptive capacity. Key vulnerabilities include dependence on surface water, heat stress, and lack of habitat connectivity. Suggested adaptation strategies include provision of water/shade, improving habitat connectivity, captive breeding, translocation, and reintroduction.
- Charlie Mayhew gave the keynote speech at the Groenveld Conference on June 13, 2013 about the unprecedented poaching crisis in Africa threatening elephants, rhinos, and other species.
- Demand for rhino horn and ivory from Asian consumers is driving rampant poaching of these animals for profit, despite these products having no proven medicinal value. Iconic species like rhinos and elephants are at risk of extinction within a generation if trends continue.
- Tusk, the organization Mayhew represents, works on anti-poaching efforts, supports community conservation initiatives, and advocates for strong policies to curb demand and enhance enforcement against wildlife trafficking. Mayhew calls on the global community to work together to
The document discusses several strategies for conserving big cat species, including lions, tigers, leopards, and cheetahs. It recommends protecting habitats, identifying priority populations for conservation efforts, connecting reserves through land-use planning, increasing anti-poaching enforcement, and creating more reserves. Threats to big cats include loss of habitat, poaching for traditional medicine, hunting, and lack of legal protections. Several organizations work to rescue and rehabilitate big cats in Africa through research, education, and secure protected areas.
Presented by Mohammed Said, Philip Osano, Shem Kifugo, Leah Ng'an'ga, Dickson Kaelo, Gordon Ojwang, Patrick Wako, Lucy Njino and Joseph Ogutu at the BEST Project Policy Maker, Practitioner, Community User and Researcher Workshop, Nairobi, 13 August 2013
The African Wildlife Foundation demands a ban on trophy hunting of lions in Africa to help protect the declining lion population. Trophy hunting endangers wildlife by contributing to lion mortalities above sustainable levels. The population of lions in Africa has declined 42% over the last 21 years, and now every individual lion counts. Some hunters pay to shoot lions in fenced enclosures, a practice that guarantees a trophy but does little to aid conservation. The AWF urges action to ban trophy hunting and allow lions to roam freely again.
This document evaluates the Wildlife Conservation Society's (WCS) alternative livelihood project in Cross River State, Nigeria that aims to reduce bushmeat hunting by providing alternative income sources like beekeeping and snail farming. The study assessed the program's success by interviewing 57 hunters trained across 35 villages in 3 divisions - Mbe, Afi and Okwango. It found that only 10.5% of hunters at Mbe, 23.8% at Afi, and 43.8% at Okwango remained actively involved in beekeeping. Over 45% of hunters trained at each site reported still engaging in hunting, suggesting the program had limited success in reducing hunting behavior. The document recommends improving monitoring,
Similar to Trafficking ivory from east africa to asia (20)
The document summarizes the professional experience and qualifications of Bradley M Kremer as an educational innovator and curriculum specialist. It details his experience as the Director of Education at New Nordic School in Finland where he created an interdisciplinary curriculum integrating 21st century skills and sustainable development goals. It also outlines his previous roles developing science curricula and programs in international schools in Tanzania, the Democratic Republic of Congo, and the United States.
The document discusses methods for investigating ecosystems, including naming and locating the ecosystem, identifying organisms using keys and collections, using sampling strategies to measure biotic and abiotic factors over time and space, and estimating biomass and populations of organisms. It also covers calculating species richness, diversity, and evenness to compare ecosystems.
2.4 biomes zonation and succession notesBrad Kremer
The document discusses key concepts relating to biomes, zonation, and succession. It begins by defining biomes as groups of ecosystems with similar climates that can be classified into aquatic, forest, grassland, desert, or tundra. Each biome has characteristic limiting factors, productivity, and biodiversity. The document then discusses zonation, succession, and how climate change is altering biome distribution and causing shifts. It also addresses the concepts of pioneer, intermediate, and climax communities in succession and how this relates to ecosystem stability, diversity, and resilience over time.
The document discusses energy and matter flows within ecosystems. It explains that solar energy enters ecosystems and is lost through reflection and absorption as it passes through the atmosphere. Energy and matter are transferred and transformed as they move through ecosystems, linking different ecosystems together. Key terms discussed include gross primary productivity, net primary productivity, gross secondary productivity, net secondary productivity, carbon and nitrogen cycles, and human impacts on energy and matter flows.
The document outlines concepts related to ecosystems and ecology covered in the IB Environmental Systems and Societies course. It discusses key topics like communities and ecosystems, energy and nutrient flows, photosynthesis and respiration, food chains and webs, and ecological pyramids. Various models are presented to illustrate feeding relationships and the transfer of energy between trophic levels in an ecosystem.
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Trafficking ivory from east africa to asia
1. Vienna International Centre, PO Box 500, 1400 Vienna, Austria
Tel: +(43) (1) 26060-0, Fax: +(43) (1) 26060-5866, www.unodc.org
TRANSNATIONAL
ORGANIZED CRIME
IN EASTERN AFRICA:
A Threat Assessment
September 2013
United Nations publication
September 2013
2. 27
Trafficking of Ivory from Eastern Africa to Asia
The rebound in the African elephant population is one of
conservation’s great success stories. Elephant numbers
declined rapidly between 1970 and 1989, the year of the
international ban on the ivory trade, but both national and
international efforts to protect the species caused numbers
to grow dramatically in Southern and Eastern Africa since
that time. Prior to 1970, Eastern Africa was home to the
largest elephant populations on the continent, but the
region was hit hard by two decades of poaching, and only
strict conservation efforts have allowed the population to
partially recover.65
While the estimates in the figure opposite were gathered
using different methods, most experts agree that protection
of the species allowed a strong recovery. Female elephants
give birth to a single calf after a 22-month gestation period,
but due to long reproductive lives (they can give birth into
their 50s), populations can grow by as much as 7% per year.66
Unfortunately, consumer demand in Asia has apparently
spurred a new wave of poaching. In fact, wildlife authorities
say that since 2007, the elephant has experienced its most
serious conservation crisis since 1989.67
As incomes rise, so
does demand for ivory. Recently, authorities in Malaysia
made what may be one of the largest ivory seizures ever –
six tons in a single shipment, representing the ivory of
perhaps 600 elephants,68
equivalent to one-quarter of the
known elephant population of Uganda. Available evidence
suggests that current poaching rates in Eastern Africa have
65 UNEP, CITES, IUCN, TRAFFIC, Elephants in the Dust – The African
Elephant Crisis: A Rapid Response Assessment. United Nations Environment
Programme, Nairobi, 2013.
66 Foley, C. and L. Faust, ‘Rapid population growth in an elephant Loxodonta
africana population recovering from poaching in Tarangire National Park,
Tanzania’. Oryx, Volume 44, No 2, April 2010, pp 205-212.
67 Elephants in the Dust, op cit.
68 At about 1.8 tusks per elephant and an average of 5.5 kg per tusk.
exceeded natural population growth rates. Most countries
in Eastern Africa can claim fewer than 1000 elephants, so
this demand could quickly destroy some national popula-
tions.
Most elephants live in remote areas, many in forested areas,
many in countries with limited capacity to count them, and
some in areas where surveys are dangerous. Despite sophis-
ticated estimation techniques, there remains substantial
uncertainty about their numbers. Based on these estimates,
there are at least 140,000 elephants in Eastern Africa today,
or about one-third of the continental population.70
An
69 The elephant database: http://www.elephantdatabase.org/.
70 The elephant database.
Figure 14: Probable elephant populations in
Africa
Source: International Union for the Conservation of Nature69
506,462
387,521
357,929
461,091
554,973
0
100,000
200,000
300,000
400,000
500,000
600,000
700,000
800,000
1995
1998
2002
2007
2012
Numberofelephants
3. TRANSNATIONAL ORGANIZED CRIME IN EASTERN AFRICA
28
estimated 73% of these are located in the United Republic
of Tanzania, and adding in populations in Kenya, South
Sudan, and Uganda would cover 99%.71
These four coun-
tries are the source of most of the illicit ivory harvested in
the region.
If it is difficult to determine the number of elephants, it is
even more difficult to determine the number of elephants
poached. Based on reported killings in countries with the
capacity to detect them, the trend is distinctly upward.72
More telling, though, is the indicator elephant experts use:
the share of known elephant deaths that can be attributed
to poaching.
Elephants die of many causes, and many die in places where
their carcasses will never be discovered. So the absolute
number of poached elephants detected is less telling than
the share of dead elephants detected who were illegally
killed. In the past few years, that share has passed the criti-
cal 50% mark in Eastern Africa, and today is close to 60%.
On the basis of these figures, it is estimated that in 2011
alone, between 4% and 11% of the elephant population of
Eastern Africa was killed.73
Eastern Africa is important as a source of illicit ivory, but it
may be even more important as a transit area. In fact, the
majority of the recent large seizures of illicit ivory made
anywhere in the world were exported from either Kenya or
the United Republic of Tanzania, largely through the big
71 Ibid.
72 See, for example, the statement of the Office of the Prime Minister of Kenya,
‘Threat of Poaching to Kenya’s Tourism and National Economy’, issued 9
January 2013.
73 Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES),62nd
meeting of the Standing Committee, Geneva, Switzerland, 23-27 July 2012,
SC62 DOC 46.1(Rev. 1.) CITES MIKE indicates an estimate of 7% in 2011
(see p.33, Elephants in the Dust).
container ports in Mombasa and Dar es Salaam.74
Recent
seizures suggest the container port at Zanzibar is also used.
The share of large seizures that were trafficked through
these two countries appears to be growing (see Figure
below). Since ivory comes from many places and is distrib-
uted to buyers across Asia, these ports represent a vital
chokepoint in the flow.
74 CITES, SC62 DOC 46.1 (Rev. 1)
75 TRAFFIC identifies consignments in excess of 800kg of ivory as a point
where organized crime is involved, as shipments above this threshold involve
the coordination of hundreds of tusks being placed in a single consignment.
76 Ibid.
Figure 15: Probable elephant populations in
Eastern Africa in 2012
Kenya
19%
Tanzania
73%
South Sudan
5%
Uganda
2%
Others
1%
Source: International Union for the Conservation of Nature
Figure 16: Proportion of Illegally Killed
Elephants (PIKE) in Eastern Africa
Source: Monitoring the Illegal Killing of Elephants (MIKE) database
32%
19%
26%
18%
17%
23%
43%
20%
45%
58%
64%
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
Figure 17: Global breakdown of ivory seized
in very large seizures (800 kg75
) by
country or region of export, 2009-
2011
Uganda
3%
Southern
Africa
10%
West Africa
4%
Central Africa
2% Kenya
27%
Tanzania
37%
Unknown
17%
Source: Elephant Trade Information System (ETIS)76
4. Trafficking of Ivory from Eastern Africa to Asia
29
The African elephant is not currently deemed “endangered”
as a species,77
but its decimation in Eastern Africa could be
devastating. In addition to the reduction in genetic diver-
sity, its loss could seriously undermine local tourist reve-
nues, a key source of foreign exchange for many of the
countries of the region. The trade is also associated with
violence. There have been cases where armed groups have
crossed borders to raid elephant herds, and ivory has been
associated with the arms trade. Across Africa, the struggle
against poachers costs the lives of around 100 wildlife rang-
ers per year.78
77 International trade in ivory poached from African elephants became illegal in
1989 when African elephants were listed in CITES Appendix I (reserved for
species threatened with extinction and potentially affected by trade). Most
populations of elephants in Eastern Africa remain in CITES Appendix I. The
United Republic of Tanzania applied to CITES in 2007 to have its elephant
population moved to Appendix II. African elephants are currently classed
as “vulnerable” by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature.
Available at: http://www.iucnredlist.org/details/12392/0
78 Testimony of William Clark to the U.S. House of Representatives Committee
on Natural Resources, March 5, 2008.
79 Ibid. Includes only data where source was known. There were six seizures
where the region of export was unknown in both periods.
Map 3: Share of detected dead elephants that were poached in 2011
Source: MIKE database - Elephant Trade Information System (ETIS)
ETHIOPIA
KENYA
ZAMBIA
SOMALIA
SOUTH
SUDAN
UGANDA
UNITED REPUBLIC
OF TANZANIA
DEMOCRATIC
REPUBLIC
OF
THE
CONGO
MOZAMBIQUE
CENTRAL
AFRICIAN
REPUBLIC
MALAWI
BURUNDI
RWANDA
DJIBOUTI
0 500250 km
MIKE sites
Source: CITES_MIKE
Percentage of
illegally killed
elephants (2011)
Natural
mortality
%
20%
64%
94%
86%
100%
61%
61%
78%
58%
92%
80%
25%
Figure 18: Number of large (800 kg+) seizures
by region of export
Source: ETIS79
11
17
11
3
4
2
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
2000-2008 (eight
years)
2009-2011 (three
years)
Numberofseizuresasd
East Africa West/Central Africa
Southern Africa
5. TRANSNATIONAL ORGANIZED CRIME IN EASTERN AFRICA
30
What is the nature of this market?
Ivory is valued all over the world and has been used for all
sorts of utilitarian and decorative purposes across the cen-
turies. As alternate materials have emerged, the use of ivory
has become increasingly confined to items with an artistic,
ceremonial or religious value. Current demand for ivory is
strongest in Asia. This continent also has elephants, but
these are valued as beasts of burden, they are much fewer in
number, and only the males have tusks. As a result, almost
all of Asian demand for ivory is satisfied by African ele-
phants.
The Asian ivory market is comprised of diverse national
markets, where demand can wax and wane depending on
local fashion trends. In Japan, ivory is a preferred material
80 CITES, CoP16 Doc. 54.2 (Rev. 1).
81 Hawa, Raabia, “Kenya: Alarming cases of rhino poaching in Lewa, Nakuru,”
The Star, Nairobi,12 April 2012. Available at: http://allafrica.com/sto-
ries/201204140049.html
82 Koross, Kibiwott, ‘We Will Contain Poaching - KWS director Julius
Kipng’etich”, The Star, 23 April 2012. Available at: http://www.the-star.co.ke/
news/article-21389/we-will-contain-poaching-kws-director-julius-kipngetich
83 CITES, SC62 Doc. 47.2 Annex (rev. 2). See: http://www.cites.org/eng/com/
sc/62/E62-47-02-A.pdf
84 Sas-Rolfes, Michael T., “The Rhino Poaching Crisis: A Market Analysis,” Save
the Rhino Trust, February 2012. Available at: http://savetherhinotrust.org/
component/content/article/7-rhino-news/84-the-rhino-poaching-crisis-a-
market-analysis
85 CITES, CoP15 Doc. 45.1 (Rev. 1) Annex, African and Asian Rhinoceroses –
Status, Conservation and Trade, p.2. Available at: http://www.cites.org/eng/
cop/15/doc/E15-45-01A.pdf
for the traditional signature stamp (hanko). Japanese
demand for ivory stamps has declined in recent years, and
this, among other things, appears to have led to declining
national demand. In contrast, growing affluence in China,
where possession of elephant ivory remains a status symbol,
appears to have rendered China the world’s leading destina-
tion for illicit ivory.88
Unlike many threatened species parts, it is possible to own
ivory legally. Ivory has a long shelf life. It was not subject to
international controls until 1976 (when African Elephants
were listed in CITES89
Appendix II) and was not placed
under strict control until 1989 (when they were moved to
Appendix I). Large amounts of ivory were on the market
before regulations were put in place. There have also been
two major authorized sales of ivory under the current con-
trol regime: in 1999, Japan bought 59 tons;90
and in 2008,
86 ‘Mozambique: Rhino Horns and Abalone Seized At Maputo Airport’.
Allafrica.com, 31 May 2012. Available at: http://allafrica.com/sto-
ries/201206010183.html
87 Vigne L., Martin E., Okita-Ouma B., “Increased demand for rhino horn
in Yemen threatens eastern Africa’s rhinos”, Pachyderm, No. 43 July–De-
cember 2007, p.75. Available at: http://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/
pdf_files/120/1206089430.pdf
88 CITES, CoP16 Doc. 53.2.2 (Rev. 1). Available at: http://www.cites.org/eng/
cop/16/doc/E-CoP16-53-02-02.pdf
89 CITES refers to the United Nations Convention on International Trade in
Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna of 1975.
90 CITES, Amendments to Appendices I and II of the Convention adopted at
the Conference of the Parties at its 10th meeting in Harare, Zimbabwe, from
9 to 20 June 1997, p, 151. Available at: http://www.cites.org/eng/cop/10/
E10-amendments.pdf
Trafficking of rhino horn
In contrast to South Africa, where rhinos number around
20,000, Eastern Africa has very few – just over 1,000
based on the latest count – due to a history of aggressive
poaching. As a result, poaching is less frequent today (an
estimated 25 incidents in 2011),80
but its impact could
be even greater. Most rhino poaching is conducted by
organized gangs looking to fill an order, and so occurs in
waves. Stronger protection measures in the south could
prompt poaching gangs to focus on Eastern Africa, with
potentially devastating effects. In April 2012 alone, four
rhinos were poached in Kenya, all in national parks or
ranches.81
Also in 2012, a Kenyan Wildlife Service ranger
was involved in poaching a rhino from Tsavo East
National Park.82
Rhino horn is made of keratin, a substance with no
demonstrable medical benefits.83
Nonetheless, there has
been a recent boom in demand for rhino horn due to its
alleged medicinal properties. This has led to a wave of
poaching (primarily in South Africa) and smuggling
(primarily to Vietnam). Prices in Vietnam have report-
edly risen as high as US$65,000 per kilo in 2011 –
higher than the price of gold.84
Due to its value intensity, most rhino horn is trafficked
by air directly from Southern Africa, with Eastern Afri-
can airlines and hubs occasionally being used. In May
2012, seven rhino horns were recovered from the bag-
gage of a Vietnamese national at Maputo International
Airport, Mozambique, as he attempted to board a Kenya
Airways flight.86
There have been attempts to use mari-
time routes in the past. Between 2000 and 2006, 27
rhino horns were seized in the port of Mombasa.87
Rhinoceros populations in Africa
(December 2010)
Kenya, 959
Tanzania, 113
Other East
Africa, 9
Other Africa,
23,964
Source: CITES85
6. Trafficking of Ivory from Eastern Africa to Asia
31
Japan and China bought 108 tons.91
The United Republic
of Tanzania recently petitioned CITES to allow the inter-
national sale of 100 tons of its official stockpile, but subse-
quently withdrew the application.92
In short, there is a lot
of legal ivory in circulation, and more legal ivory may enter
the market in the future.
The legality of any particular piece of ivory comes down to
paperwork, and weaknesses in the paper trail can allow
illicit ivory to be sold as licit. If authorities fail to enforce
paperwork requirements, ivory from poached elephants can
be openly sold. Recent research in Guangzhou, China, one
of the largest open ivory markets in the world, found that
more than 60% of the items offered for sale were being sold
without the required ID cards certifying their licit origin.93
Unless paperwork is strictly monitored, it is vulnerable to
forgery or purchase from corrupt officials. Whole tusks in
transit can be seized, but once the ivory has entered its
destination market, it does not appear that much interdic-
tion takes place.
This shifts the burden of enforcement to the supply side.
Since the law enforcement capacity of Eastern African
countries is limited and corruption is an issue, most ivory
is seized during shipment, often on arrival in Asian ports.
The largest seizures have been made from shipping contain-
ers and, as in the recent Malaysian seizure, the volumes can
be staggering. This suggests well-resourced players and a
high degree of organization to the market. As in most illicit
markets, however, there exists a parallel stream of smaller
shipments. Unless these small scale couriers are being coor-
dinated, this is indicative of a relatively open market in
which players at all levels can participate.
How is the trafficking conducted?
For trafficking to occur, the ivory must first be sourced, and
for ivory to be sourced, an elephant must die. There are two
principal types of poaching: opportunistic and commis-
sioned. There is considerable debate as to which is most
prominent. This is an important question for policy,
because the answer will determine whether supply-side or
demand-side measures are most likely to be effective. If
most are killed opportunistically, then the slaughter is likely
to continue even when demand is low.
Opportunistic killings occur when local hunters bring
down an elephant because it poses a threat to local agricul-
ture, or for bush-meat, or solely for its ivory. Whatever the
case, once the elephant is dead, few hunters would leave
behind a commodity that has had high value for centuries.
Since many of these hunters are very poor, they would
continue to harvest ivory when given the opportunity, even
if low demand resulted in sharp price declines. Unless there
91 CITES, SC 57 Doc. 53.2, “Control of Trade in Elephant Ivory”, 57th
meeting of the Standing Committee, Geneva, Switzerland, 14-18 July 2008.
Available at: http://www.cites.org/eng/com/sc/57/E57-33-2.pdf
92 CITES Secretariat, “Tanzania withdraws its proposal to downlist African
elephant”. See: http://www.cites.org/eng/news/sundry/2012/20121226_TZ_
withdrawal.php
93 Martin, Esmond and Vigne, Lucy, The Ivory Dynasty: A Report on the Soaring
Demand for Elephant and Mammoth Ivory in Southern China, 2011.
are reasons for passing up this cash income, most will
decide to shoot if the benefits outweigh the costs, and the
costs (bullets, labour, and transport) are likely to remain
low. All that is needed is a few well-known intermediaries
or sales points, and market forces will ensure a steady
supply. But if demand rises sharply, these opportunistic
killings may not be able to provide sufficient volumes.
In the past, the market has been viewed as largely oppor-
tunistic, but recent evidence suggests this pattern may be
changing. There have been several well-documented cases
of mass elephant slaughter, where organized crime groups
poached large amounts of ivory all at once. For example, a
professional Sudanese poaching gang killed more than 200
elephants in northern Cameroon in early 2012.94
The size
of the large shipments detected suggests well-resourced and
organized groups on the receiving end, who may be proac-
tive in sourcing the ivory when demand is high, as it pres-
ently appears to be.
If most poaching was opportunistic, then the rate of killing
would be expected to be fairly consistent, barring any new
human incursions into elephant ranges. On the other hand,
if high prices produce more killing, then proactive poach-
ing expeditions are likely the cause. It is possible that popu-
lations are moving into areas where they are encountering
more elephants opportunistically, but it is unlikely that this
movement is sufficiently large to explain the recent surge in
poaching.
The demand-driven perspective has been given additional
support by the findings of DNA analysis. Studies have
found a high degree of relatedness when tusks from large
seizures have been compared, suggesting that the animals
were killed en masse and to order.95
The presence of small
tusks in large loads suggests whole families were killed
at once. Of course, both local people and brokers may
consolidate loads from a single area over time before trans-
porting them to distant markets. Even if poached oppor-
tunistically over time, the ivory in a single shipment may
come from a single area where elephants share a common
gene pool, so the data remain inconclusive.
It is highly likely that both opportunistic poaching and
commissioned poaching occur. While opportunistic poach-
ing may not be sufficient in scale to pose a long-term threat,
commissioned poaching almost certainly does. While every
link in the supply chain needs work, the largest payoff is
likely to be received by focusing on the demand side of the
market, to reduce the number of commissioned hunts.
An additional source of illicit ivory is leakage from official
stockpiles. African governments collect and store ivory
seized from traffickers, from elephants found dead by rang-
ers, and from official population control efforts. In some
countries, this is sold through regulated local markets. In
others, it is held for an eventual bulk sale. But as a high-
value commodity in poor countries with corruption prob-
94 Elephants in the Dust, op. cit., p. 35.
95 Wasser, S. K., Clark B., Laurie C., “The Ivory Trail”, Scientific American, 301
(1), 2009, pp. 68-76.
7. TRANSNATIONAL ORGANIZED CRIME IN EASTERN AFRICA
32
lems, some of this eventually finds its way onto the illicit
market. And this is why some countries have staged highly
public burnings of ivory stocks, symbolically rejecting the
legal ivory market.
Eastern African elephant populations form an important
source of illicit ivory. The recent large seizure in Malaysia
was of savannah elephant ivory, suggesting either an East-
ern African or Southern African origin. But the area most
intensively targeted is Central Africa, and most of this ivory
is shipped through Eastern Africa. In Central Africa, nine
out of 10 elephants found dead in recent years were
poached.96
Many Central African countries have unregulated domestic
ivory markets, including the Democratic Republic of the
Congo, Republic of the Congo, Central African Republic,
Chad, and Cameroon. Ivory bought at these markets may be
trafficked through road and air links to Uganda and onward
from there for processing and export. Timber is a popular
cover load for transnational smuggling within Africa.97
Once sourced, the ivory may be carved in Africa, often into
products tailored specifically for the Asian market, or trans-
96 SC62 Doc. 46.1 (Rev. 1).
97 Briefing from John Sellar, Chief, Enforcement Assistance, CITES Secretariat,
July 2011.
ported whole for carving in Asia. Traditional carving cen-
tres exist in Ethiopia and Egypt. Recent Interpol operations
found a large number of items for sale in Ethiopia that had
clearly been carved for export to the East Asian market.
Recent studies have found a growing number of carved
objects in Lagos, with vendors speaking Chinese to their
clients.98
While Eastern Africa has become the primary gateway for
African ivory being trafficked to Asia, ivory may be traf-
ficked from Eastern Africa to West Africa, for local retail
sales or onward transport. West Africa has very few remain-
ing elephants, but retail sales in the region have long been
detected, as well as some bulk shipments.99
In 2011, Nige-
rian customs officers found 51 Kenyan ivory tusks in boxes
belonging to a passenger from Mali, at Lagos International
Airport.100
But these seizures are exceptional today – most
involve shipments from Kenya and the United Republic of
Tanzania to Asia.
98 Gatehouse G., “African elephant poaching threatens wildlife future”, BBC
News, 15 January 2013, available at: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-
africa-21018429; Martin E and Vigne L, Lagos, “Nigeria: One of the largest
retail centres for illegal ivory surveyed to date”, TRAFFIC Bulletin, Vol 25
No 1 pp 35-40.
99 Courouble, M., Hurst, F. & Milliken, T., 2003. More ivory than elephants:
domestic ivory markets in three West African countries, Cambridge: TRAFFIC
International.
100 WCO Operation GAPIN, 2011.
Map 4: Large ivory seizures in Eastern Africa and Asia, 2009-2012
Kenya
East
Africa
Thailand
Viet Nam
Tanzania
China
Hong Kong
Horn
of Africa
Malaysia
Philippines
Source: TRAFFIC/ETIS
Note: These figures reflect known large-scale ivory trade flows. The same seizure may have passed through or been directed to several of the above countries and is captured accordingly. Thus, these figures do
not represent discreet values, but rather reflect the relative importance of these countries and territories in the movement of ivory between Africa and Asia.
The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations. The dotted lined represents approximately the Line of Control
in Jammu and Kashmir agreed upon by India and Pakistan. The final status of Kashmir has not yet been agreed upon by the parties.
1 tonnes
3 tonnes
7 tonnes
13 tonnes
Ivory seized per year
2009
2010
2011
2012
Country of departure
Transit country
Destination country
8. Trafficking of Ivory from Eastern Africa to Asia
33
There are two main ways ivory is trafficked to Asia: in large
consolidated shipments and in small amounts repeatedly
over time. Maritime containers appear to be the preferred
means of long-distance mass transport. Airfreight, while it
does occur,101
is much less common, perhaps due to the
greater expense, the obvious bulk of whole tusks, and better
monitoring at airports as compared to seaports.
In addition to large maritime shipments, ivory is also “ant
trafficked”. China’s recent wave of investment in Africa has
brought thousands of Chinese executives and workers to the
continent, including countries where ivory is openly sold,
often carved into items for the Asian market. It may be
transported in luggage or by post in small quantities, for
personal use or re-sale at great profit in Asian markets. The
quantities involved are generally small (although tusks cut
into suitcase-sized chunks have been detected), but, due to
their frequency, could constitute a major source of supply.102
Who is doing the trafficking?
The participants in the trafficking can be divided into
poachers, middlemen, and buyers.
Opportunistic poachers are local people who happen to live
in or near elephant ranges. The director of Kenyan Wildlife
Service (KWS) described poachers as being “a common
man or a villager who very well knows the wildlife in a
certain area.”103
And the KWS know the poachers well,
arresting 100 or more of them every year.104
Since most of the poachers are locally based, the groups are
kept small to ensure secrecy. Most local poachers own their
own firearms, so there is little need for financiers, except
perhaps for ammunition. But, because gunshots attract
attention, poachers have diversified their killing techniques
to include the use of poisons, snares, and arrows. Ivory can
be buried until stocks are sufficient to merit transportation
and sale. Successful poachers can move up to become mid-
dlemen, as they get to know the trade and accumulate suf-
ficient funds to buy the stocks of other hunters. Many of
the middlemen are former poachers, specializing in buying
small consignments and transporting them to bulk buyers
near the point of export.
But it is not all about the locals. Poachers have frequently
been detected crossing borders to attack elephant herds,
including members of non-state armed groups. In Eastern
Africa, Somali poachers are most prominent, with some
heavily armed groups crossing deep into Kenya to hunt in
ranges such as the Tsavo East National Park, which is
located between Nairobi and Mombasa, and Amboseli, a
park close to the border with Tanzania.
101 For example, 300kg of ivory was seized in Hong Kong, in transit from
Burundi to Singapore, in April 2013.
102 Bill Clark, personal communication, October 2009. According to a recent
article in the New York Times “about 900 seizures are made annually within
China, some 90 percent of them involving Chinese travelers concealing ivory
in their suitcases.” See: Levin D., “From elephants’ mouths, and illicit trail
to China”, The New York Times, 1 March 2013, available at: http://www.
nytimes.com/2013/03/02/world/asia/an-illicit-trail-of-african-ivory-to-china.
html?pagewanted=all&_r=0)
103 Koross, Kibiwott, “We Will Contain Poaching - KWS director Julius
Kipng’etich,” The Star, 23 April 2012.
104 Kenya Wildlife Service, Annual Report 2011.
Somali poachers have been crossing into Kenya since the
1980s. Some of these early poachers may have joined the
Somali diaspora in Kenya and may be directing the current
poaching by Somali groups. 105
The weaponry and disci-
pline shown by some groups suggest connections to Somali
warlords, including groups driven out of Somalia.106
But
poachers often cross borders in pursuit of their prey, so the
Somali poachers are not unique in that respect.
There have been Somali trading points along the border
with Kenya since the 1990s, and there are also some in the
Tsavo area. Somali traders in Kenya purchase both ivory
and rhino horn, and typically operate small shops (dukas).
Most deal in animal parts as a side line while operating
other businesses. One of the most notorious is said to oper-
ate a company dealing in spare car parts and tires.107
Somali traders aside, the single most important group of
middlemen involved in the procurement, processing, and
transport of ivory are Asians living in Africa. Appearing
after the 1990 ban, “the involvement of Chinese nationals
in Africa with the procurement and shipment of ivory to
Asia remains a serious and seemingly expanding issue of
concern.”108
This is indicated by the growth of mixed sei-
zures, in which both whole ivory and products carved for
the Asian market are detected.
How big is the flow?
If, as argued above, between 4% and 11% of the elephant
population of Eastern Africa was killed in 2011,109
this
would amount to between 5,600 and 15,400 elephants, or
between 56 and 154 metric tons of ivory originating in
Eastern Africa. Based on 2009 data, UNODC had previ-
ously estimated the flow of ivory out of Africa at 120 tons.
Allowing for some growth of this market, and assuming
that Eastern Africa provides a share of this flow commen-
surate with its share of the African elephant population, it
makes sense to place the value at the lower end of this
spectrum, or 56 tons.
Based on the known destination of ivory seized, about two-
thirds of the global ivory market is located in Asia. Two-
thirds of 56 tons is 37 tons. At US$850 per kilogram at
destination,110
this flow would be worth US$31.5 million
in 2011.
105 Meeting with Julian Blanc and Tom De Meulenaer, CITES MIKE - Monitor-
ing the Illegal Killing of Elephants, UNEP, Nairobi, July 2011.
106 Clark W., “Testimony of William Clark to The U.S. House Of Representa-
tives Committee On Natural Resources”, Committee on Natural Resources, 5
March 2008.
107 Briefing from Dr Esmond Bradley Martin, Nairobi, August 2011.
108 CITES, CoP14 Doc. 53.2. Available at : http://www.cites.org/eng/cop/14/
doc/E14-53-2.pdf
109 CITES COP16 Doc 53.1
110 Martin, Esmond and Vigne, Lucy, The Ivory Dynasty: A Report on the Soaring
Demand for Elephant and Mammoth Ivory in Southern China, 2011, p.4: “In
January 2011 we surveyed ivory factories and retail outlets in Guangzhou, the
largest city in southern China and an important ivory centre, and in Fuzhou,
a city famous for carving. According to a factory owner in Fuzhou, in 2010
he paid on average USD 455/kg for government-owned 1-5kg tusks with a
range of USD 303- 530/kg. Similarly, privately-owned raw ivory in 2010 was
USD 750/ kg, according to various sources. Siberian mammoth high quality
tusks were around USD 400/kg in 2010 wholesale in China.” According to
most sources, demand for ivory has increased between 2010 and 2011.