Traffic congestion

FOUNDATION COURSE II
1
2011
NAME: BIPINVPARAB
CLASS: S.Y.BCOM DIV: C
ROLL NO: 1370

2
2011
INDEX
 Contents Page No.
Introduction 3.
Mathematical theories5.
Economic theories 7.
Classification 9.
Causes 10.
In my opinion 11.
The Effects of Traffic-
Congestion 13.
Negative impacts16.
Traffic control18.
Countermeasures21.
References23.

3
2011
Introduction
Traffic congestion is a condition on road networks that
occurs as use increases, and is characterized by slower
speeds, longer trip times, and increased vehicular queuing.
The most common example is the physical use of roads by
vehicles. When traffic demand is great enough that the
interaction between vehicles slows the speed of the traffic
stream, congestion is incurred. As demand approaches the
capacity of a road (or of the intersections along the road),
extreme traffic congestion sets in. When vehicles are fully
stopped for periods of time, this is colloquially known as a
traffic jam.

4
2011
Traffic congestion occurs when a volume of traffic or
modal split generates demand for space greater than the
available road capacity, this is point is commonly termed
saturation. There are a number of specific circumstances
which cause or aggravate congestion; most of them reduce
the capacity of a road at a given point or over a certain
length, or increase the number of vehicles required for a
given volume of people or goods. About half of U.S. traffic
congestion is recurring, and is attributed to sheer weight
of traffic; most of the rest is attributed to traffic incidents,
road works and weather events.
Traffic research still cannot fully predict under which
conditions a "traffic jam" (as opposed to heavy, but
smoothly flowing traffic) may suddenly occur. It has been
found that individual incidents (such as accidents or even
a single car braking heavily in a previously smooth flow)
may cause ripple effects (a cascading failure) which then
spread out and create a sustained traffic jam when,
otherwise, normal flow might have continued for some
time longer.

5
2011
Mathematical theories
Some traffic engineers have attempted to apply the rules of
fluid dynamics to traffic flow, likening it to the flow of a fluid
in a pipe. Congestion simulations and real-time observations
have shown that in heavy but free flowing traffic, jams can
arise spontaneously, triggered by minor events ("butterfly
effects"), such as an abrupt steering maneuver by a single
motorist. Traffic scientists liken such a situation to the sudden
freezing of super cooled fluid.[4] However, unlike a fluid,
traffic flow is often affected by signals or other events at
junctions that periodically affect the smooth flow of traffic.
Alternative mathematical theories exist, such as Boris
Kerner's three phase traffic theory.
Because of the poor correlation of theoretical models to actual
observed traffic flows, transportation planners and highway
engineers attempt to forecast traffic flow using empirical
models. Their working traffic models typically use a
combination of macro-, micro- and mesoscopic features, and
may add matrix entropy effects, by "platooning" groups of
vehicles and by randomising the flow patterns within
individual segments of the network. These models are then
typically calibrated by measuring actual traffic flows on the
links in the network, and the baseline flows are adjusted
accordingly.

6
2011
It is now claimed that equations can predict these in detail:
Phantom jams can form when there is a heavy volume of cars
on the road. In that high density of traffic, small disturbances
(a driver hitting the brake too hard, or getting too close to
another car) can quickly become amplified into a full-blown,
self-sustaining traffic jam...
A team of MIT mathematicians has developed a model that
describes how and under what conditions such jams form,
which could help road designers minimize the odds of their
formation. The researchers reported their findings May 26 in
the online edition of Physical Review E.
Key to the new study is the realization that the mathematics of
such jams, which the researchers call 'jamitons,' are strikingly
similar to the equations that describe detonation waves
produced by explosions, says Aslan Kasimov, lecturer in
MIT's Department of Mathematics. That discovery enabled
the team to solve traffic jam equations that were first
theorized in the 1950s.

7
2011
Economic theories
India's economic surge has
resulted in a massive increase in
the number of private vehicles
on its roads, overwhelming the
transport infrastructure. Shown
here is a traffic jam in Delhi
As in India, China's economic surge has resulted in a massive
increase in the number of private vehicles on its roads
overwhelming the transport infrastructure. Shown here is a
traffic jam in Beijing.

8
2011
Congested roads can be seen as an example of the tragedy of
the commons. Because roads in most places are free at the
point of usage, there is little financial incentive for drivers not
to over-use them, up to the point where traffic collapses into a
jam, when demand becomes limited by opportunity cost.
Privatization of highways and road pricing have both been
proposed as measures that may reduce congestion through
economic incentives and disincentives. Congestion can also
happen due to non-recurring highway incidents, such as a
crash or road works, which may reduce the road's capacity
below normal levels.
Economist Anthony Downs, in his books Stuck in Traffic
(1992) and Still Stuck in Traffic (2004), argues that rush hour
traffic congestion is inevitable because of the benefits of
having a relatively standard work day. In a capitalist
economy, goods can be allocated either by pricing (ability to
pay) or by queueing (first-come first-serve); congestion is an
example of the latter. Instead of the traditional solution of
making the "pipe" large enough to accommodate the total
demand for peak-hour vehicle travel (a supply-side solution),
either by widening roadways or increasing "flow pressure" via
automated highway systems, Downs advocates greater use of
road pricing to reduce congestion (a demand-side solution,
effectively rationing demand), in turn plowing the revenues
generated there from into public transportation projects. Road
pricing itself is controversial; more information is available in
the dedicated article.

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2011
Classification
Qualitative classification of traffic is often done in the form of
a six letter A-F level of service (LOS) scale defined in the
Highway Capacity Manual, a US document used (or used as a
basis for national guidelines) worldwide. These levels are
used by transportation engineers as ashorthand and to describe
traffic levels to the lay public. While this system generally
uses delay as the basis for its measurements, the particular
measurements and statistical methods vary depending on the
facility being described. For instance, while the percent time
spent following a slower-moving vehicle figures into the LOS
for a rural two-lane road, the LOS at an urban intersection
incorporates such measurements as the number of drivers
forced to wait through more than one signal cycle.

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2011
Causes: Sample 1
One of the main causes of congestion is the high number of
cars. Because of the emirate’s rapid economic growth, most
residents can afford private vehicles.
Causes: Sample 2
Another contributing factor is the lack of a public transport
infrastructure. The absence of buses, trains, or an
underground forces residents to rely on cars or taxis.
Causes: Sample 3
The road system is another cause of congestion. Although
the roads are highly developed, planners have not been able
to keep up with the rapid expansion of the population.
Frequent road works also lead to delays.

11
2011
In my opinion 3 main issues are causing traffic problems
in Mumbai,
1. Drivers not following rules and not
sufficient action taken against them.
1st e.g. at a signal one lane has a red and drivers
slowly moving ahead of the line anticipating a green
soon....well i believe cops need to fine them.....
2nd e.g. drivers breaking signals and making a run
for it from traffic cops itself......well I think every
driver in Mumbai knows doing such a thing is no
problem.....is the cop doesn’t have a bike, then even
if he takes down our car no. No action is ever
taken....well cops need to start sending them fines at
home.....like the next day the driver gets a fine at
home through mail.....that will probably stop drivers
from doing that....
So well Implementation of basic rules like ZEBRA
crossing will make a small and noticeable change for
Mumbai roads..... (Were u ever fined for not giving
way to pedestrians on a Zebra Crossing? Not me)

12
2011
2.
At a 4 lane intersection every car wants to go
first....and this leads to everyone trying to
sneak in and ultimately everyone gets stuck...
Right Of Way Rule....is the solution I believe
this is something i came across in New
Zealand.....i guess many other countries
implement it....This Implementation will take
time but its very effective in the long run
Well how this works is simple......if u see a
Car on your right....then u have to let him
go.....similarly another car will have u its
right....and he will have to let u go.....
Signs like ''GIVE WAY'' will reduce confusion
too.....

13
2011
3. Bumps on roads-
Many Cars and Rickaws slow down over these
Bumps......causing slow movement of Traffic....and
ultimately Drivers getting impatient......
Solution would be to provide each Area with a BMC
no. to make such complaints.....and Mind You, A
working TELEPHONE NO. which actually
works......i have wanted to report such complaints
several times....but I didn’t have a TELEPHONE
NO. and neither did I have time to go looking for the
no.
So BMC should put up such no's on hoardings
instead of putting up politicians promotion
hoardings.....

14
2011
The Effects of Traffic Congestion
For many commuters, daily gridlock is a fact of life.Millions
of people deal with traffic congestion on a daily basis. The
roadways leading into and out of most major cities can
become gridlocked due to an accident, road construction or
simply a high number of cars on the road. Traffic congestion
can have a number of effects on drivers, the environment,
health and the economy. Fortunately, not all of the effects are
negative.
Pollution
One of the most harmful effects of traffic congestion is its
impact on the environment. Despite the growing number of
hybrid vehicles on the road, cars stopped in traffic still
produce a large volume of harmful carbon emissions. Besides
contributing to global warming, these emissions can cause
more short-term and localized problems, such as smog and
increased respiratory problems in a community due to poor air
quality.
Economic Impact
Drivers who encounter unexpected traffic may be late for
work or other appointments, causing a loss in productivity for
businesses and in the drivers' personal lives. Traffic delays
may also slow down the shipping of cargo if delivery trucks
can't remain on schedule due to a congested route. Drivers
who know that traffic congestion is likely may decide to forgo
an activity altogether, leading to less consumer spending and
lower event attendance.

15
2011
Road Rage
Drivers who become impatient may be more likely to drive
aggressively or dangerously. This contributes to poor health
for those affected by the stress and puts other drivers in
danger. Road rage also increases the danger posed to
emergency workers or construction crew members who are
working on the congested road close to dangerous drivers.
Encouraging Mass Transit
One beneficial effect of traffic congestion is its ability to
encourage drivers to consider other transportation options. In
cities with frequent traffic congestion, individuals often
choose a subway, light rail or bus service. These options
reduce traffic on the roads, have less of an environmental
impact and reduce the stress associated with driving in heavy
traffic.

16
2011
Negative impacts
Traffic congestion
has a number of negative effects:
Wasting time of motorists and passengers ("opportunity
cost"). As a non-productive activity for most people,
congestion reduces regional economic health.
Delays, which may result in late arrival for employment,
meetings, and education, resulting in lost business,
disciplinary action or other personal losses.
Inability to forecast travel time accurately, leading to
drivers allocating more time to travel "just in case", and
less time on productive activities.

17
2011
Wasted fuel increasing air pollution and carbon dioxide
emissions owing to increased idling, acceleration and
braking. Increased fuel use may also in theory cause a
rise in fuel costs.
Wear and tear on vehicles as a result of idling in traffic
and frequent acceleration and braking, leading to more
frequent repairs and replacements.
Stressed and frustrated motorists, encouraging road rage
and reduced health of motorists
Emergencies: blocked traffic may interfere with the
passage of emergency vehicles traveling to their
destinations where they are urgently needed.
Spillover effect from congested main arteries to
secondary roads and side streets as alternative routes are
attempted ('rat running'), which may affect neighborhood
amenity and real estate prices.

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2011
Traffic control
Road traffic control
Road traffic control involves directing vehicular and
pedestrian traffic around a construction zone, accident or
other road disruption, thus ensuring the safety of emergency
response teams, construction workers and the general public.
Traffic control also includes the use of CCTV and other
means of monitoring traffic by local or State roadways
authorities to manage traffic flows and providing advice
concerning traffic congestion. This is not dealt with in this
article.
Traffic controllers (TC's) are often known as "lollipop men"
(usually this name only applies to TC's working near schools
to aid pupils in road crossing) from the appearance of their
Stop/Slow signs, known as "Stop bats". [

19
2011
Air traffic control (ATC)
Is a service provided by ground-based controllers who direct
aircraft on the ground and in the air. The primary purpose of
ATC systems worldwide is to separate aircraft to prevent
collisions, to organize and expedite the flow of traffic, and to
provide information and other support for pilots when able.[1]
In some countries, ATC may also play a security or defense
role, or be run entirely by the military .Preventing collisions is
referred to as separation, which is a term used to prevent
aircraft from coming too close to each other by use of lateral,
vertical and longitudinal separation minima; many aircraft
now have collision avoidance systems installed to act as a
backup to ATC observation and instructions. In addition to its
primary function, the ATC can provide additional services
such as providing information to pilots, weather and
navigation information.
In many countries, ATC services are provided throughout the
majority of airspace, and its services are available to all users
(private, military, and commercial). When controllers are
responsible for separating some or all aircraft, such airspace is
called "controlled airspace" in contrast to "uncontrolled
airspace" where aircraft may fly without the use of the air
traffic control system. Depending on the type of flight and the
class of airspace, ATC may issue instructions that pilots are
required to follow, or merely flight information (in some
countries known as advisories) to assist pilots operating in the
airspace. In all cases, however, the pilot in command has final
responsibility for the safety of the flight, and may deviate
from ATC instructions in an emergency.

20
2011
Sea traffic control
A sea lane or shipping lane is a regularly used route for ocean-
going and Great Lakesvessels. In the time of sailing ships they
were not only determined by the distribution of land masses
but also the prevailing winds, whose discovery was crucial for
the success of long voyages. Sea lanes are very important for
trade by sea.

21
2011
Countermeasures
It has been suggested by some commentators[who?] that the
level of congestion that society tolerates is a rational (though
not necessarily conscious)[citation needed] choice between
the costs of improving the transportation system (in
infrastructure or management) and the benefits of quicker
travel. Others [who?] link it largely to subjective lifestyle
choices, differentiating between car-owning and car-free
households.
Road infrastructure
Junction improvements.
Grade separation, using bridges (or, less often, tunnels)
freeing movements from having to stop for other
crossing movements
Ramp signaling, 'drip-feeding' merging traffic via traffic
signals onto a congested motorway-type roadway
Reducing junctions
Local-express lanes, providing through lanes that bypass
junction on-ramp and off-ramp zones
Limited-access road, roads that limit the type and
amounts of driveways along their lengths

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2011
Reversible lanes, where certain sections of highway
operate in the opposite direction on different times of the
day/ days of the week, to match asymmetric demand.
This may be controlled by Variable-message signs or by
movable physical separation
Separate lanes for specific user groups (usually with the
goal of higher people throughput with fewer vehicles)
Bus lanes as part of a busway system
HOV lanes, for vehicles with at least three (sometimes at
least two) riders, intended to encourage carpooling
Slugging, impromptu carpooling at HOV access points,
on a hitchhiking or payment basis
Market-based carpooling with pre-negotiated financial
incentives for the driver

23
2011
References
 www.Google.com
 www.Wikipedia.com
 www.IBM.com
 www.wikipedia.org_traffic_control
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Traffic congestion

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