Topic 1 – systems and models
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A system consists of storages, flows (inputs and outputs), processes (transfer or transformation), and feedback mechanisms to maintain stability. Ecosystems are examples of systems that are generally self-contained communities of living things and their environment. The Earth can be considered a single, closed ecosystem (the biosphere) made up of various biomes defined by similar climates. All systems aim for equilibrium, either static, steady-state, stable, or unstable, with feedback mechanisms regulating inputs to maintain the equilibrium state.
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This document discusses energy flow and matter cycling in ecosystems. It explains that only a small portion (around 0.06%) of the sun's energy is captured by producers through photosynthesis. Primary productivity is the gain in biomass by producers, while secondary productivity is the gain by heterotrophs. Gross productivity does not account for energy losses from respiration, while net productivity does. Formulas are provided to calculate net primary productivity (NPP) and net secondary productivity (NSP). The carbon, nitrogen, and water cycles are also summarized. Maximum NPP values are listed for different biomes.
Summary of topic 2.3
This document discusses energy flow and matter cycling in ecosystems. It explains that only a small portion (around 0.06%) of the sun's energy is captured by producers through photosynthesis. Primary productivity is the gain in biomass by producers, while secondary productivity is the gain by heterotrophs. Gross productivity does not account for energy losses from respiration, while net productivity does. Formulas are provided to calculate net primary productivity (NPP) and net secondary productivity (NSP). The carbon, nitrogen, and water cycles are also summarized. Sample calculations are provided to illustrate NPP and NSP values. Biomes are compared in terms of their mean NPP.
Summary of topic 6.4
Acid rain is caused by NOx and SOx emissions from the combustion of fossil fuels which react with water vapor and oxygen in the air to form acids. These acids can fall to earth long distances from the source as wet or dry deposition, damaging lakes and forests. Lakes experience decreased biodiversity and fish mortality while forests show needle loss, inhibited growth, and increased soil acidity. Management strategies include reducing emissions through cleaner fuels and regulations, adding neutralizing agents to smokestacks, and remediating ecosystems. However, regulations are costly to implement and maintain, and international agreements are difficult to enforce.
Summary of topic 6.3
The document discusses photochemical smog and tropospheric ozone. It explains that (1) emissions from burning fossil fuels and deforestation produce pollutants like NOx and VOCs that react with sunlight to form ozone in the troposphere. (2) High temperatures and concentrations of these pollutants near the equator exacerbate ozone formation. (3) Photochemical smog results from a mixture of ozone, NOx and VOCs in cities without wind dispersing the pollutants. It causes eye, skin and respiratory irritation in humans and damage to plants. Management strategies aim to reduce vehicle use and encourage public transport to lessen emissions.
Summary of topic 6.2
The document discusses stratospheric ozone and its depletion by chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). It explains that ozone in the stratosphere absorbs ultraviolet light and protects life from its harmful effects. CFCs were used widely but break down ozone when they reach the stratosphere. This led to the discovery of the Antarctic ozone hole in 1985. Increased UV radiation can cause skin cancer, eye damage and lower crop yields. International agreements like the Montreal Protocol have phased out CFC use, reducing ozone depletion, though some developing nations still use CFCs and a black market exists.
Summary of topic 6.1
The document discusses the composition and structure of the atmosphere. It is composed primarily of nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide, and argon. The atmosphere is divided into layers based on altitude and temperature. The troposphere, located closest to the surface, is where weather occurs and contains the majority of the atmosphere's mass, water vapor, and dust. It is also where most human pollution accumulates and affects climate change through increased greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide.
Summary of topic 8.4
This document discusses human population carrying capacity and factors that influence it. It notes that while the concept of carrying capacity applies to other species, it is difficult to define for human populations due to variables like technology, resource use, and trade. The document also summarizes Malthusian and Boserup theories on population growth and food production. It introduces the concept of ecological footprint and compares footprints of different countries. Finally, it discusses environmental value systems and perspectives like ecocentrism, technocentrism, and anthropocentrism.
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Topic 1 – systems and models
- 1. Topic 1 Systems and Models
- 2. What is a System? • A system consists of: – Storages – Flows (inputs and outputs) (of energy or matter) – Processes (transfer or transformation) – Feedback mechanisms (to maintain stability)
- 3. storage Energy or matter in (INPUT) Energy or matter out (OUTPUT) TRANSFORMATION (Feedback mechanism to control input – and maintain EQUILIBRIUM)
- 4. Try to Produce a System Diagram
- 5. Ecosystems • Most of the systems we will look at are ecosystems (self contained communities of living things and their surrounding environment) • Very large ecosystems which span a fairly stable climate are biomes • Many biologists say the whole planet is a single ecosystem (eg Gaia theory). Some of them call it a CLOSED ecosytem
- 6. Open, Closed and Isolated Ecosytems • Open – matter and energy exchanged to suroundings • Closed – only energy exchanged to surroundings • Isolated – neither matter nor energy is exchanged to surroundings • Is the Earth really a closed ecosystem? • Do isolated ecosystems really exist? • Can closed ecosystems be created artificially? (eg Biosphere 2 Project)
- 7. Biomes and Biospheres • Biome – An open ecosystem in a geographically defined area with similar climatic conditions throughout – eg, desert, grassland (savannah), tropical rainforest • Biosphere – A closed ecosytem – generally made up of a range of biomes (i.e. the entire Earth)
- 8. A Climograph Meanannualtemperature(oC) Rainfall (mm/year) -15 -10 -5 -0 5 10 15 20 25 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 desert grassland Tropical rainforest
- 9. The Laws of Thermodynamics • First Law – Energy can neither be created nor destroyed, but can only be transformed • Second Law – Energy is always changed from a concentrated (useful) form, to a dispersed (less useful) form – we say that ENTROPY (disorder) always increases (this means an isolated system cannot exist – there must be an input of energy to keep entropy low)
- 10. Equilibrium • A system needs to be in equilibrium • If not, entropy will increase so much the system will destroy itself by becoming too disordered • There a 4 kinds of equilibrium: – Static – Steady State – Stable – unstable
- 11. Static Equilibrium time State of the system Note: this is not realistic – it could only occur in an isolated system
- 12. Steady State Equilibrium time State of the system
- 13. Stable Equilibrium time State of the system disturbance Weebles wobble but they don’t fall down!
- 14. Unstable Equilibrium time State of the system disturbance He’s going down!
- 15. Feedback Mechanisms • This is a way that the INPUT is affected by the OUTPUT • In a stable equilibrium, feedback returns the equilibrium to its original state • In an unstable equilibrium, feedback returns the equilibrium to a different state • Feedback can be – POSITIVE – input changes to bring the system to a new equilibrium – NEGATIVE – input changes in order to bring the system back to its original equilibrium
- 16. Negative Feedback • Your (stable) equilibrium body temperature is 37oC • Sensors in the skin detect your skin temperature is rising (you are in Cancún) • Show what happens in a system diagram
- 17. Positive Feedback • Your (stable) equilibrium body temperature is 37oC • Sensors in the skin detect your skin temperature is decreasing (you are locked in a freezer) • Your body is unable to maintain its stable equibilibrium and therefore you enter a state of hypothermia • Show what happens in a system diagram