2. Objectives
Definition of a theory
Explain relevance of theories in psychology
Describe theories in psychology
3. Definition of a theory
Framework constructed by
scientists in any field to explain
why certain events or processes
occur as they do
Framework for explaining various
events or processes
4. Ct’
A set of principles on which the
practice of an activity is based
It is a fact based framework for
describing a phenomena
5. Ct’
In psychology theories have two
components
Describe a behaviour
Make predictions about future
behaviours
6. Reasons for studying theories
in psychology
Provide a variable information
about history of an event or
behaviour
Progression of thought
Deeper understanding of current
theories
7. Ct’
In psychology, theories are used to
provide a model for understanding
human emotions and behaviours
8. Personality
Introduction to Personality
Personality - A relatively stable set
of characteristics that influences an
individual’s behavior.
Personality is how a person thinks,
feels and behaves.
This influences how the person
interacts with their environment
9. Ct’
Personality is generally stable,
although it can be influenced by
environmental factors.
Individuals personality causes them
to react to certain scenarios and
people differently
10. Characteristics of Personality
Personality is relatively stable
Individual personality is somewhat
stable over time.
For example; If a person is talkative at age
30, they will also tend to be talkative at
age 40.
11. Ct’
Personality is predictable.
When we are aware of people’s
personality, we are able to predict
how they will behave in certain
situations.
12. Ct’
Personality is consistent.
Personality must be somewhat
consistent across situations. For
example, often times if a person is
talkative at home, they tend also to
be talkative at work.
14. Personality Theories
Personality theories accomplish the
following;
study how an individual develops
their personality.
Address the origins of personality as
well as the traits that define a
personality.
15. Ct’
Look to understand why people
develop different character traits
and respond to external and
internal stimuli differently.
16. Personality Theories
Trait theory
Cognitive
Behavioural
Social learning
Motivation
Humanistic
Psychoanalytic
17. 1. Trait Theory
The trait perspective of personality
considers personality of an
individual and the number of traits
they have.
A personality trait is a stable
internal characteristic presented
through behavior, habits and
attitude
18. Ct’
The theory's focus was identifying
traits, and the theorists came up
with a list of words that can
describe this aspect.
19. Ct’
The trait personality theory
emphasizes the characteristics of
the personality and is less
concerned with the development of
the personality.
The theory concentrates on the
descriptive terms used to describe
an individual.
20. Ct’
The combination of these traits or
descriptive terms work together to
create the entire personality.
21. a. Gordon Allport’s Trait Theory
American psychologist GORDON
ALLPORT, was one of the first
psychologists to focus on the study
of personality traits.
He focused on the uniqueness of
each individual.
22. Ct’
He developed a list of 4500 trait
like words.
Allport developed three different
categories of traits, namely;
Cardinal Traits, Central traits, and
Secondary traits.
23. Categories of traits
Cardinal Trait
The trait that dominates and
shapes a person’s behavior that
they colour every aspect of one’s
behavior. These are also called
primary traits.
24. Ct’
They exert a very powerful
influence on behaviour which
becomes aspects of a person’s
identity
These personality traits are so
strong that a person’s very name
becomes synonymous with these
qualities
25. Ct’
They are the ruling
passions/obsessions, such as a need
for money, fame, perfectionism,
independence.
26. Categories of traits
Central Traits
This is general characteristic found
to some degree in every person.
These are the basic building blocks
that shape most of our behavior .
For example: honesty, kindness,
friendly, sneaky etc.
27. Ct’
Secondary Trait
These are characteristics seen only
in certain or specific circumstances
.e. g Preferences, attitudes,
situational traits are all secondary
traits. For e.g. : stage fear before
speaking at public, angry when
people try to tickle them
28. b. Raymond Catell’s Trait
Theory
Consequently, the list was still long,
and another theorist named
Raymond Cattel reduced it to 16
words.
Catell came up with the 16
Personality Factors
29. Raymond Cattell’s Trait Theory
These words were rule-
consciousness,warmth,perfectionis
m, dominance, liveliness,
reasoning, abstractedness, social
boldness, sensitivity, self-reliance,
vigilance, emotional stability,
privateness, tension apprehension,
and openness to change
30. c. Hans Eysenck’s Trait Theory
Hans Eysenck later refined the 16
words into Three human traits
namely; emotional
stability/instability,
extroversion/introversion and
Neuroticism.
31. The Trait Theory
Some theorists criticized the words
used to describe human traits.
They felt that 16 words were too
broad to analyze human personality,
and they also felt that three traits
were too shallow.
32. Ct’
Some theorists too believe that
Cattell focused on too many traits,
while Eysenck focused on too few.
To deal with the criticisms, Robert
McCrae and Paul Costa developed
the five-factor model. This model
reflected people's behavior more
considerably.
33. The Big Five Personality
Traits/Five-Factor Model of
Personality
This big five personality trait theory/
five-factor model of personality
represents five core traits that
interact to form human personality.
34. The Big Five/The Five Factor
Model
Openness to experience
Level of adventure and creativity.
Openness measures a person's
adaptability, abstract thinking, and
creativity.
35. Ct’
Its how open minded,
imaginative, creative and
insightful a person is or can be.
Open minded people tend to
prefer variety, seek new
experiences and are curious
and perceptive to their
environment
36. Ct’
High
very creative
Open to try new things
Focused on tackling new challenges
Happy to think about abstract
concepts
38. Ct’
Conscientiousness
level of thoughtfulness and
structure. Conscientiousness
focuses on an individual's
ability to meet goals, be
organized, pay attention to
details, and prepare for tasks.
39. Ct’
High
Spend time preparing
Finishes important tasks right away
Pays attention to detail
Enjoys having a set schedule
40. Ct’
Low
Fails to complete necessary or
assigned tasks
Procrastinates important tasks
Makes messes and doesn’t take care
of things
Dislikes structure and schedules
41. Ct’
Extraversion
Level of socialness and emotional
expressiveness. Extraversion
measures if a person is excitable,
easy to talk to, assertive, and
conversational.
42. Ct’
High
Enjoys being the center of
attention
Enjoys meeting new people
Likes to start conversations
Find it easy to make friends
Has a wide social circle of friends
43. Ct’
Like working in groups
Enjoy trying new things
Energetic
Prefer talking through problems
44. Ct’
Low
Dislikes being the center of attention
Feels exhausted when having to socialize
a lot
Finds it difficult to start conversation
Dislikes making small talks
Carefully thinks things through before
speaking
45. Ct’
Agreeableness
Level of cooperation and caring
for others. Agreeableness
measures the person's trust,
polite, friendly, empathy,
affection, and kindness with
others.
47. Ct’
High
Has a great deal of interest in other
people
Cares about others
Feels empathy and concern for other
people
Enjoys helping and contributing to the
happiness of other people
48. Ct’
Low
Doesn’t care about how other people
feel
Takes little interest in others
Has little interest in other people’s
problem
Insults and belittles others
Manipulates others to get what they
want
49. Ct’
Neuroticism
Personality trait associated with
negative emotions
Neuroticism personality includes
examples like moody, stressed,
sad, depressed, anxious, angry,
frustrated, jealousy, pessimism.
50. Ct’
Such personalities are said to
respond worse to stressors and
are more likely to interpret
ordinary situations, such as minor
frustrations, as appearing
hopelessly difficult
51. Ct’
High
Experiences a lot of stress
Worries about many different things
Gets upset easily
Experiences dramatic shifts in mood
Feels anxious
Struggles to bounce back after stressful events
•
52. Ct’
Low
Deals well with stress
Don’t worry too much
Emotionally stable
Rarely feels sad or depressed
53. Psychoanalytic
theory/Psychodynamic Theory
The psychoanalytic theory was
developed by Sigmund Freud.
Freud believed that an individual's
personality was a summation of
their innate instincts and their
parental influences.
He thought that these two forces
worked together to form a
complete personality.
54. The concepts of the theory
One of the key concepts in Freud's
theory is the idea that the human
psyche is divided into three parts:
the id, the ego, and the superego.
The id is the original and inborn
part of the psyche that seeks
immediate satisfaction of its desires
55. Ct’
while the ego is the rational and
conscious part of the psyche that
mediates between the id and the external
world. The superego is the part of the
psyche that represents the internalized
moral and ethical values of society.
According to Freud, conflicts between
these three parts of the psyche can lead
to psychological symptoms and disorders.
56. Ct’
Another important concept in
Freud's theory is the idea that much
of our behavior and emotions are
influenced by unconscious thoughts,
feelings, and memories that are
outside of our conscious awareness.
57. Ct’
Freud believed that these unconscious
processes can manifest in various ways,
such as through dreams, slips of the
tongue, and other forms of behavior.
Understanding these unconscious
processes is key to gaining insight into the
root causes of behaviour
58. Ct’
A third important concept in Freud's
theory is the role of early childhood
experiences in shaping adult personality
and behavior. Freud believed that ones
experiences during early childhood,
particularly experiences related to our
parents and caregivers, can have a lasting
impact on psychological development,
shaping the attitudes, beliefs, and
behaviors throughout ones lives.
59. Ct’
Understanding these early
experiences is important in
psychoanalytic therapy, as
therapists often explore early
childhood experiences to help
patients understand the root causes
of their psychological symptoms.
60. Ct’
For example, anxiety originating
from traumatic experiences in a
person's past is hidden from
consciousness, and may cause
problems during adulthood
61. Four Main Ideas of Sigmund
Freud
1. Levels of the mind
2. Structure of personality
3. Defense mechanisms
4. Psychosexual stages of
development
62. 1.Three levels of the mind
The conscious Mind- contains all of the
thoughts, memories, feelings, and wishes
of which we are aware at any given
moment.
The Subconscious Mind-consists of
anything that could potentially/easily be
brought into the conscious mind.
63. Ct’
The unconscious Mind- is a
reservoir/storage of feelings, thoughts
and memories that are outside of our
conscious awareness. The unconscious
contains contents that are unacceptable
or unpleasant, such as feelings of pain,
anxiety, or conflict.
64. Ct’
Sigmund Freud emphasized the
importance of the unconscious
mind, and a primary assumption of
Freudian theory is that the
unconscious mind governs behavior
to a greater degree than people
suspect. Indeed, the goal of
psychoanalysis is to make the
unconscious conscious.
65. 2. The Structure of Personality
Sigmund explained that personality
is composed of 3 elements; The Id,
the Ego and the Super Ego.
These three work together to
create complex human behaviors.
66. Ct’
These are not physical areas
within the brain, but rather
hypothetical
conceptualizations of
important mental functions
(Abstract)
67. Structure of Personality
The Id
The Ego
The Super Ego
These are the different components
or parts that make up an individuals
personality
These structures interact with one
another and influence ones behaviour
68. a. The Id
The Id functions with the irrational
and emotional part of the mind.
At birth, a baby’s mind is all Id.
The Id contains all the basic needs and
feelings
The Id only knows and seeks
immediate/instant
gratification/satisfaction
It operates on the pleasure principle.
69. b. The Ego
The Ego functions with the rational part
of the mind.
The ego develops out of growing
awareness that you can not always get
what you want.
The ego operates on the reality principle
The ego, is the rational master of the
personality.
The ego's goal is to satisfy the demands of
the id in a safe and socially acceptable
way.
70. The Ego continued…
Because the ego is aware of reality, it
decides when and how the id instincts
can best be satisfied.
The ego does not prevent id
satisfaction. Rather, it tries to
postpone, delay, or redirect it in order
to meet the demands of reality.
The Ego realizes the need for
compromise and so It negotiates
between the needs of the Id and the
superego
71. c. The Super-ego
The superego is the last part of the mind
to develop.
Its sometimes called the moral part of the
mind.
The superego becomes an embodiment of
parental and societal values.
It constantly strives for perfection, even
though perfection may ideally be far from
reality.
The superego operates on ideal principle
72. The interaction between the Id,
the Ego and the Superego
The id presses for satisfaction, the
ego tries to delay it, and the
superego urges morality above all.
Like the id, the superego admits no
compromise with its demands.
73. 3. Defense Mechanisms
Freud believed that internal
conflicts between the id, ego, and
superego can lead to anxiety, and
that defense mechanisms are used
by the ego to protect itself from
anxiety and conflict.
A defense mechanism is a tactic
developed by ego to protect against
anxiety.
74. Ct’
It is a mechanism, the act
or technique of coping
mechanisms that reduce
anxiety generated by
threats from unacceptable
or negative impulses.
75. Ct’
The process is usually unconscious
If you are faced with a particularly
unpleasant task your mind may
choose to forget your responsibility
in order to avoid the dreaded
assignment.
77. Defense Mechanisms
1. Repression: Repression involves pushing
unacceptable and anxiety- producing thoughts
into the unconscious.
It involves intentional forgetting.
2. Denial: Denial involves claiming and
believing that something which is actually
true is false.
If some situation is too much to handle , the
person refuses to experience it .
E.g Parents of a child who has died may
continue to deny the loss by keeping the
child’s room unchanged.
78. Ct’
3. Reaction Formation:
This involves expressing emotions that are
exactly opposite of what you feel.
E. g 1. Concealing anger/hate with
kindness.
2. Teasing/bothering someone you like
79. Ct’
4. Projection:
Involves attributing one’s own
unacceptable feelings or beliefs to
others;
Projection occurs when an individual
threatened by his own angry feelings
accuses another person of having those
feelings.
E. g, spouse cheats on wife and says that
she is also a cheater.
80. Ct’
5. Regression: This is when
someone is under a lot of stress,
and they return to behavior they
used to display in their earlier stage
of development E. g being childish
and dependent.
81. Ct’
6 Rationalization: This involves
reinterpreting behavior to make it
more acceptable and less
threatening. An attempt to find
reasons for a behaviour or decision
E. g, The person who abuses his
child may claim that he disciplines
the child, and not abuse.
82. Ct’
7. Displacement:
This refers to transferring undesirable
feelings from a threatening object/person
to a less threatening object/person. E. g,
For example, children who hate their
parents or adults who hate their bosses,
but are afraid to express their hostility
for fear of being punished, may displace
the aggression onto someone else.
83. Ct’
8. Sublimation:
Involves expressing undesirable
energy/feelings into a socially acceptable
behavior.
For example; Sexual energy or anger , can
be diverted or sublimated into artistically
creative behaviors like painting or
writing.
84. Conclusion
Conclusion:
Defense mechanism helps to reduce
anxiety & help an individual to adjust
better .
But too much of everything is bad .
Children should be guarded against too
much use of defense mechanism .
Because once they start using them it will
became a habit with them & later on they
will be using it unconsciously .
85. 4. Psychosexual stages of
development
Freud believed that personality develops through a
series of childhood stages during which the
pleasure-seeking energies of the Id become
focused on certain erogenous areas.
This psychosexual energy, or libido (sex drive),
was described as the driving force behind behavior
on each stage.
According to him from birth on, we have an
innate tendency to seek pleasure, especially
through physical stimulation and particularly
through stimulation of parts/zones of the body
that are sensitive.
86. FIXATION
If certain issues are not resolved at the
appropriate stage, fixations can occur. A
fixation is a persistent focus on an earlier
psychosexual stage.
Fixation:
- If the child need’s at one of the psychosexual
stages were either unsatisfied or over
satisfied, fixation would take place. •
- This means the child would show continued
attachment to an old stage even after moving
on to a new one as per his/her age. • This
results into problematic behavior patterns
87. Fixation
Until this conflict is resolved, the
individual will remain "stuck" in this
stage. A person who is fixated at the oral
stage, for example, may be over-
dependent on others and may seek oral
stimulation through smoking, drinking, or
eating.
88. Psychosexual Stages of
Development
There are five stages of psychosexual
development.
The oral stage
The anal stage
The phallic stage
• The latent stage
• The genital stage
89. 1. The Oral Stage
The oral stage is from birth to 18 months
The focus area of the libido is the mouth
Infants find pleasure in sucking, swallowing,
biting, chewing, etc.
According to Freud, infants who receive too
much oral gratification or satisfaction grows
into overly optimistic and hostile later
If fixated at this stage, the following
personalities may develop; lack of
confidence, sarcasm, argumentative, finger
sulking, smoking etc.
90. 2. Anal Stage
18 months – 3years
Pleasure shifts from the mouth to the
anus
During the anal stage, Freud believed that
children derive their pleasure from
holding in and excreting feces.
91. Ct’
The major event at this stage is toilet
training—the child has to learn to control
their bodily needs. Developing this
control leads to a sense of
accomplishment and independence.
If parents are too strict on toilet training,
Freud believed that an anal-retentive
personality develops in which the
individual is stringent, orderly, rigid, and
obsessive.
92. Anal Stage Cont…
If parents are not strict but too
lenient, their children may develop
an anal-expulsive personality in
which they may become messy,
unorganized and sloppy.
93. 3. Phallic Stage
3-6 years
Freud suggested that during the phallic
stage, the primary focus of the libido is
on the genitals. At this age, children also
begin to discover the differences between
males and females.
94. Ct’
When children reach this stage,
they discover their genitals and
develop a marked attachment to
the parent of the opposite sex while
becoming jealous of the same sex
parent. In boys, this is called
Oedipus complex, whilst in girls,
this is called Electra complex.
95. Ct’
Eventually, the child begins to
identify with the same-sex parent
as a means of vicariously possessing
the other parent.
96. 4. The Latency Period
6 to 12 years –puberty
In this stage, sexual feelings are inactive
The stage begins around the time that children enter
into school and become more concerned with peer
relationships, hobbies, and other interests.
Children develop social skills, values and
relationships with same sex peers and adults outside
of the family.
This sexual energy is dormant, and still present, but
it is sublimated into other areas such as intellectual
pursuits and social interactions. This stage is
important in the development of social and
communication skills and self-confidence.
97. 5. The Genital Stage
12- adulthood - Puberty to death
At this time, the sexual energy reawakens and
unfulfilled sexual desires from infancy seek
gratification. Individuals seek meaningful
relationships that usually lead to marriage.
During the final stage of psychosexual
development, the individual develops a strong
sexual interest in the opposite sex.
The goal of this stage is to establish a balance
between the various life areas.
If the other stages have been completed
successfully, the individual should now be well-
balanced, warm, and caring.
98. Ct’
To be psychologically healthy, we
must successfully complete each
stage. Mental abnormality can occur
if a stage is not completed
successfully and the person
becomes ‘fixated’ in a particular
stage. This particular theory shows
how adult personality is determined
by childhood experiences.
99. 3. The Psychosocial Theory
Erik Erikson is the one who developed
Psychosocial theory.
He believed that personality develops in a
series of stages. Erikson’s theory describes
the impact of social experience across the
whole lifespan.
Each stage builds upon the successful
completion of earlier stages. If the stage is
handled well, the person will feel a sense of
mastery. If the stage is managed poorly, the
person will emerge with a crisis or problems
in the future that serves as a turning point in
development.
100. Psychosocial stages of
development
Stage Psychosocial Crisis Basic VirtueAge
1. Trust vs. Mistrust Hope 0 - 1½
2. Autonomy vs. Shame Will1½ - 3
3. Initiative vs. Guilt Purpose3 - 5
4. Industry vs. Inferiority Competency 5 - 12
5. Identity vs. Role Confusion Fidelity 12 - 18
6. Intimacy vs. Isolation Love 18 - 40
7. Generativity vs. Stagnation Care 40 - 65
8. Ego Integrity vs. Despair Wisdom65+
101. Psychosocial stages of
Development
Stage 1: Trust vs. Mistrust
Stage 2: Autonomy vs. Shame and
Doubt
Stage 3: Initiative vs. Guilt
Stage 4: Industry vs. Inferiority
Stage 5: Identity vs. Confusion
Stage 6: Intimacy vs. Isolation
Stage 7: Generativity vs. Stagnation
Stage 8: Integrity vs. Despair
102. 1. Trust Vs Mistrust
(from birth to 18 months) – (Virtue = Hope)
During this stage, the infant is uncertain about the
world in which they live, and looks towards their
primary caregiver for stability and consistency of
care.
If the care the infant receives is consistent,
predictable and reliable, they will develop a sense
of trust which will carry with them to other
relationships, and they will be able to feel
confident and secure even when threatened.
If the care has been inconsistent, unpredictable
and unreliable, then the infant may develop a
sense of mistrust, suspicion, and anxiety.
103. 2. Autonomy Vs Shame and
Doubt
(18 months - 3 years) – (Virtue = Will)
Children at this age like to explore the world around them
and they are constantly learning about their environment.
According to Erikson, children at this stage are focused on
developing a sense of personal control over physical skills
and a sense of independence.
If children in this stage are encouraged and supported in
their increased independence, they become more confident
and secure in their own ability to survive in the world.
If children are criticized, overly controlled, or not given
the opportunity to assert themselves, they begin to feel
inadequate in their ability to survive, and may then
become overly dependent upon others, lack self-esteem,
and feel a sense of shame or doubt in their abilities.
104. 3. Initiative Versus Guilt
(3 to 5 years) – (virtue= Purpose)
This is a stage around the ages three continuing to five
where children assert themselves more frequently.
Children make friends, plan activities allowing them to
develop a sense of initiative and developing their abilities
to lead others.
If children are supported, they develop a sense of initiative
and feel secure in their ability to lead others and make
decisions
If the children are criticized or controlled they may
become followers and develop a sense of guilt and may feel
like a nuisance to others.
Success in this stage will lead to a virtue of purpose
105. 4. Industry Vs Inferiority
(5 – 12 years) (Virtue=Competence)
Children are learning to read, write, do sums etc.
The child’s peer group creates a significant source
of the child’s self esteem.
If they are encouraged for their initiative they feel
industrious and competent and confident to
achieve their goals.
If the opposite happens, they begin to feel inferior
and doubt their own abilities and not reach their
potential.
Success in this stage will lead to competence.
106. 5. Identity Vs Role Confusion
(Adolescents)
(12 – 18 years) (virtue=Fidelity)
This is a stage during adolescence i.e. age 12- 18 years.
Children begin to look at future in terms of career,
relationships, family etc. the adolescent re-examines their
identity to figure out what their who he/she is.
If successful, individuals explore possibilities for the future
and form an identity based on the outcome of their
explorations
If unsuccessful, an individual may experience a hindered
sense of self which results in confusion of self and their
role in the world.
Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of fidelity.
107. 6. Intimacy Vs Isolation (Young
adulthood)
(18 – 40 years) (virtue = Love)
This is the stage where we begin to share
ourselves more intimately with others.
Successful completion in this stage can lead
to a comfortable relationship, a sense of
commitment, safety and care etc.
Avoiding this can lead to isolation, loneliness
and sometimes depression.
Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of
love.
108. 7. Generativity Vs Stagnation
(Middle adulthood)
(40 to 65 years) (virtue = Care )
This stage occurs during middle adulthood
We establish a career, develop relationships,
begin families etc.
We give back to society by raising our
children, being productive at work, and
becoming involved in community service etc.
Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of
care.
109. 8. Integrity Vs Despair
65 years + (virtue = wisdom)
This is a stage where we become senior citizens
and we tend to slow down our productivity and
explore life as a retired person.
If we see our life as productive, successful we are
able to contemplate accomplishments and develop
integrity.
If we see our lives unhappy and are dissatisfied
with the goals we have achieved, we develop
despair, hopelessness and can become depressed.
Success in this stage leads to the virtue wisdom.
110. 4. Behavioral Theory
Behavioral approach to personality
explains that personality is a result
of interaction between the
individual and the environment.
111. Ct’
The theory studies observable and
measurable behaviors, rejecting
theories that consider internal
thoughts, moods, and feelings to
play a part in personality as these
cannot be measured.
Behavioral Theories are also known
as Behaviorism
112. Behaviorism
This theory is also called a theory of
learning which states that all
behaviors are learned through
interaction with the environment
through a process called
conditioning.
113. Ct’
Learning – the process whereby
behavior changes in response
to external and situational
contingencies
Thus, behavior is simply a
response to environmental
stimuli.
114. Types of learning
Three Major Types of Learning
Learning by association/ Classical
Conditioning
Learning by consequences/ Operant
Conditioning
Learning through modeling/
Observational Learning Components
of Conditioning
115. Ct’
Behavioral/Learning Theories Views
individual differences in personality
as the result of learning and
different environmental
experiences.
116. a. Classical conditioning
Classical conditioning is a form of
learning whereby a conditioned
stimulus becomes associated with
an unrelated unconditioned
stimulus, in order to produce a
behavioral response known as a
conditioned response.
117. Ct’
The associated stimulus is now
known as the conditioned stimulus
and the learned behavior is known
as the conditioned response.
118. Definition of some terms in
classical conditioning
Stimulus: A stimulus is an event, sensation,
or experience that causes you to react.
Neutral Stimulus:
This stimulus does not naturally cause the
subject to respond in a certain way.
Unconditioned Stimulus:
A stimulus that naturally (before pairing)
causes a particular response.
119. Components of Classical
Conditioning
The Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) :A
stimulus that naturally, and automatically
triggers a response.
The Unconditioned Response(UCR):The
unlearned response that occurs naturally
in response to the unconditioned
stimulus.
120. Ct’
The Conditioned Stimulus(CS):A
previously neutral stimulus that
when paired with an unconditioned
stimulus triggers a conditioned
response.
The Conditioned
Response(CR):Learned response to
the previously neutral stimulus.
121. The Pavlov’s Dog experiment
The “Pavlov’s Dog” Experiment In the
1890s
Russian scientist Ivan Pavlov was studying
aspects of the digestive process by
observing salivation in dogs. Then he
made the observation that dogs began to
salivate before the food arrived. For
instance, at the sight of the food tray or
sound of the assistant’s footsteps.
122. Ct’
This work/experiment became the
foundation for classical conditioning
and the behavioral approach to
psychology.
123. Classical conditioning
Ivan Pavlov’s research on classical
conditioning profoundly informed
the psychology of learning and the
field of behaviorism.
125. Principles of classical
conditioning cont…
Stimulus Generalization
After a stimulus has been
conditioned to produce a particular
response, stimuli that are similar to
the original stimulus may produce
the same response.
126. Principles of classical
Conditioning cont…
Extinction
When a previously conditioned
response decreases in frequency
and eventually disappears.
This is the decrease in the
conditioned response when the
unconditioned stimulus is no longer
presented with the conditioned
stimulus.
127. Ct’
When presented with the conditioned
stimulus alone, the individual would show
a weaker and weaker response, and
finally no response.
128. Principles of classical
conditioning cont…
Spontaneous Recovery
After a conditioned response becomes
“extinct,” the response can sometimes
reemerge after a period of time has
passed with no further conditioning.
So this term refers to the return of a
previously extinguished conditioned
response following a rest period.
129. b. Operant Condition
Operant conditioning is a method of
learning that occurs through
rewards and punishments for
behavior.
Operant conditioning (sometimes
referred to as instrumental
conditioning) is a method of
learning that occurs through
reinforcements and punishments.
130. Ct’
Through operant conditioning, an
association is made between a
behavior and a consequence for
that behavior.
131. b. Operant Conditioning
Operant conditioning is the study of
the impact of consequences on
behavior.
Operant Conditioning Consequences
of a behavior determine if the
behavior will continue.
Operant conditioning was first
described by behaviorist B.F.
Skinner,
132. B. F. Skinner’s experiment
In the Skinner’s Box, at first the
mouse would have just wondered
around in search for food and would
have accidentally pressed down on
the lever whilst exploring.
133. Ct’
It would then present him with
food, and the mouse would
associate the pressing of the lever
with the presentation of food.
Then it'll know whenever it's hungry
to press that lever because of that
conditioning it went through.
134. Components of Operant
Conditioning
Reinforcement
This is a kind of stimulus that aims
to increase the strength in behavior
due to its consequence.
Punishment
This is a any event that causes a
decrease in the behavior.
135. Humanistic theory of
personality
In humanistic psychology it is
emphasized that people have free
will and they play an active role in
determining how they behave.
Humanistic psychology also assumes
that humans have free will to make
their own decisions in life and do
not follow the deterministic laws of
science.
136. Humanistic Theory
Humanistic psychologists tend to
have an optimistic perspective of
human nature.
Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers
are theorists that subscribed to the
humanistic view.
137. Ct’
Personal responsibility and
feelings of self-acceptance
cause differences in personality
Humanistic theorists identify
personal choice and
responsibility as the basis of
mental health
138. Humanistic theories
The humanistic approach states that the
self is composed of concepts unique to
ourselves.
139. Ct’
The self-concept includes three
components:
Self worth – what we think about
ourselves. Rogers believed feelings
of self- worth developed in early
childhood and were formed from
the interaction of the child with the
mother and father.
140. Ct’
Self-image – How we see ourselves,
which is important to good
psychological health. Self-image
includes the influence of our body
image on inner personality.
Ideal self – This is the person who
we would like to be. It consists of
our goals and ambitions in life, and
is dynamic
141. a. Abraham Maslow’s Hierarchy of needs
Psychologist Abraham Maslow first
introduced the concept of hierarchy
of needs.
This hierarchy suggests that people
are motivated to fulfil basic needs
before moving on to other, more
advanced needs.
142. Ct’
People need to satisfy their most
important needs first, then when
they achieved this, they can move
onto the next important need.
144. Maslow’s Hierarchy of needs
stages
Stage 1 – The Physiological Needs
This is the stage required to sustain
life.
It includes breathing, excretion and
the desire for food, water, sex,
sleep. These are considered to be
the ‘basic’ needs of human life.
145. Ct’
Maslow’s theory suggests that if
these fundamental needs are
not satisfied the one must
surely be motivated to satisfy
them. Higher needs are not
recognized until these ‘basic’
needs have been satisfied.
146. Ct’
Stage 2 – The Safety Needs
Once physiological needs have been
met, attention and desire turns to
safety and security, in order to be
free from the threat of
psychological and physical harm.
147. Ct’
Such needs may be fulfilled by:
Living in a safe area, Financial
reserves, Job security, Good health.
According to Maslow’s theory, you
can not move up the pyramid to the
next stages if you feel threatened.
148. Ct’
Stage 3 – The Love/Belonging Needs
Once a person has met the lower
physiological and safety needs, the
higher needs can be addressed.
The love/belonging stage can also
be referred to as the ‘social needs
stage’.
149. Ct’
These are the needs related
with interaction and can
include family, friendship and
sexual intimacy.
150. Ct’
Stage 4 – The Esteem Needs
Once a person feels like they belong,
the need to be important can arise.
Esteem needs can be classified as
external or internal. Internal esteem
needs are related to self-esteem, such
as the need to respect yourself and
achieve. External esteem needs are
those such as social status, reputation
and recognition.
151. Ct’
Stage 5 – The Self-Actualization Needs
Self-actualization is the summit of
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs.
It can be defined as the quest of reaching
your full potential.
Unlike some of the lower needs, this need
is never fully satisfied due to the fact
that people can ‘grow’ and change and
continue to challenge themselves.
152. Ct’
People in this stage tend to have
needs such as: morality, creativity,
spontaneity, problem solving, lack
of prejudice, acceptance of facts,
truth, justice, wisdom and
meaning.
153. b. Person-centered theory
Carl Rogers was a humanistic
psychologist who agreed with most of
what Maslow believed, but added that
for a person to "grow", they need an
environment that provides them with
genuineness (openness and self-
disclosure), acceptance (being seen with
unconditional positive regard), and
empathy (being listened to and
understood).
154. b. Person centered-theory
Carl Rogers was a humanistic psychologist
who agreed with most of what Maslow
believed, but added that for a person to
"grow", they need an environment that
provides them with
Genuineness - congruence or realness, or
openness and self- disclosure
155. Ct’
Unconditional positive regard-
acceptance and caring, but not
approval of all behavior
Empathetic understanding –
an ability to deeply grasp the
client’s subjective world (being
listened to and understood)
156. Characteristics of a self-
actualized person
Open to experience
Aware of all experience
Deal with change in creative ways
Socially effective
Lives existentially
Lives in the here and now
Trusts self
