The document discusses the chemical compounds produced by several species of neotropical stink bugs. It notes that stink bugs produce a variety of chemical compounds, including defensive compounds, alarm pheromones, and sex pheromones. The document then reviews studies that have identified and characterized the main compounds found in the glands of various Brazilian stink bug species, which include aldehydes, alkenes, and esters. Specifically, it discusses how the blends of defensive compounds have been shown to differ both qualitatively and quantitatively between species.
Here I would like to inform you on role of pheromones in stored grain pest management ................I hope it will increase your understanding..........................................................
Communication in Insects.
Classification of Semiochemicals.
Introduction to Insect Pheromones.
Uses of Insect Pheromones.
Synthesis of Insect Pheromones.
Use of pheromones in insect pest management.
Role of semiochemicals in the control of crop pest OUAT.pptxYuvanshankarRaja2
This document discusses the role of semiochemicals in controlling crop pests. It begins with defining semiochemicals and the different types, including pheromones and allelochemicals. Various pheromones are then described, such as sex, aggregation, trail marking, and alarm pheromones. The document also discusses pest suppression strategies using semiochemicals, including monitoring, mass trapping, lure and kill, mating disruption, and push-pull strategies. Monitoring uses pheromone traps to detect pest presence and density to time control measures appropriately.
ATTRACTANTS & REPELLENTS IN PEST CONTROL.pptxOm Prakash
This document discusses insect attractants and repellents. It describes four main types of attractants - pheromones, natural food lures, oviposition lures, and poison baits. Pheromones are chemical signals released by insects that influence the behavior of other insects of the same species. There are several types of pheromones including sex, aggregation, alarm, and trail pheromones. Attractants are used for monitoring pest populations and manipulating insect behavior through techniques like mass trapping and mating disruption. The document also covers insect repellents, including physical repellents like waxes and chemical repellents such as DEET. Both attractants and repellents have advantages like
Insecticidal activities of diketopiperazines of Nomuraea rileyi entomopathoge...IJEAB
Entomopathogenic fungi are fungal organisms extensively used in various parts of the world as biopesticides against insect pests that cause important economic damage. Various secondary metabolites produced by these fungi have many potential biological activities. The present study was undertaken to evaluate the insecticidal activity of extracts and pure compounds from Nomuraea rileyi (Farlow) Samson entomopathogenic fungi against Spodoptera frugiperda Smith (Lepidoptera), Ceratitis capitata Wiedemann (Diptera) and Tribolium castaneum Herbst (Coleoptera), three insect pests that generate serious economic losses in the northwest of Argentina. Diketopiperazines were extracted from the culture free supernatant of the media with ethyl acetate. Antifeedant properties were detected in all extracts under dietary choice conditions (300 ug/ g of diet). The maximum antifeedant activity was noted in cycles (Pro-Val) (86.02) and cycle (Pro-Phe) (73.47), while the rest of the extracts and metabolites exhibited varying degrees of moderate or less toxic effects. The maximum oviposition deterrence against C. capitata (55.86%) was recorded with cycle (Pro-Phe) at a 50 µm/cm2 dose. Culture medium extracts supplemented with insect remains and all pure compounds showed repellent action against T. castaneum. The main repellency was observed in phenylacetic acid and cycle (Pro-Val) with RI values of 42 and 41% respectively. The present study would suggest the possible utilization of entomopathogenic fungal metabolites as an effective agent for controlling insect pests that cause important economic losses.
Use of Semiochemicals, Auditory stimuli and Visual f.pptmanjeetnauni
Semiochemicals are chemical substances produced by organisms such as plants and animals, such substances elicit a physiological or behavioral response in individuals of the same or another species. Semiochemicals are classified into pheromones and allelochemicals.
in vitro screening of larvicidal and insecticidal activity of methanolic extr...IJEAB
The aim of this work was to evaluate the larvicidal and insecticidal activity of the selected plants namelyArtocarpus altilis, Piper betle and Artocarpus heterophyllus. The leaves of Artocarpus altilis and Artocarpus heterophyllus and roots of Piper betle were subjected to methanolic solvent extraction for the isolation of various bioactive constituents. The evaluation of larvicidal activity was carried out using late third instar larvae of Drosophila melanogaster. The insecticidal activity of extracts was studied against adult Bruchus pisorum, Tribolium castaneum, Sitophilus oryzae and was evaluated by direct contact application method .Nucleic acids and protein contents are regarded as important biomarkers of the metabolic potential of cells, as these play the main role in regulating the different activities of cells. Piper betle and Artocarpus heterophyllusextractshad a reducing effect on the nucleic acid and protein content in the larvae in a dose dependent manner whereas Artocarpus altilis extract did not exhibit any significant larvicidal activity. Piper betle and Artocarpus heterophyllusextractsshowed good insecticidal activity whereas A.altilis extract showed poor insecticidal activity. The results of the present study clearly indicate that Piper betle and Artocarpus heterophyllus extracts can be developed as ecofriendly larvicides and were also quite effective as insecticides for providing a better and excellent alternate for the control of insects.
Here I would like to inform you on role of pheromones in stored grain pest management ................I hope it will increase your understanding..........................................................
Communication in Insects.
Classification of Semiochemicals.
Introduction to Insect Pheromones.
Uses of Insect Pheromones.
Synthesis of Insect Pheromones.
Use of pheromones in insect pest management.
Role of semiochemicals in the control of crop pest OUAT.pptxYuvanshankarRaja2
This document discusses the role of semiochemicals in controlling crop pests. It begins with defining semiochemicals and the different types, including pheromones and allelochemicals. Various pheromones are then described, such as sex, aggregation, trail marking, and alarm pheromones. The document also discusses pest suppression strategies using semiochemicals, including monitoring, mass trapping, lure and kill, mating disruption, and push-pull strategies. Monitoring uses pheromone traps to detect pest presence and density to time control measures appropriately.
ATTRACTANTS & REPELLENTS IN PEST CONTROL.pptxOm Prakash
This document discusses insect attractants and repellents. It describes four main types of attractants - pheromones, natural food lures, oviposition lures, and poison baits. Pheromones are chemical signals released by insects that influence the behavior of other insects of the same species. There are several types of pheromones including sex, aggregation, alarm, and trail pheromones. Attractants are used for monitoring pest populations and manipulating insect behavior through techniques like mass trapping and mating disruption. The document also covers insect repellents, including physical repellents like waxes and chemical repellents such as DEET. Both attractants and repellents have advantages like
Insecticidal activities of diketopiperazines of Nomuraea rileyi entomopathoge...IJEAB
Entomopathogenic fungi are fungal organisms extensively used in various parts of the world as biopesticides against insect pests that cause important economic damage. Various secondary metabolites produced by these fungi have many potential biological activities. The present study was undertaken to evaluate the insecticidal activity of extracts and pure compounds from Nomuraea rileyi (Farlow) Samson entomopathogenic fungi against Spodoptera frugiperda Smith (Lepidoptera), Ceratitis capitata Wiedemann (Diptera) and Tribolium castaneum Herbst (Coleoptera), three insect pests that generate serious economic losses in the northwest of Argentina. Diketopiperazines were extracted from the culture free supernatant of the media with ethyl acetate. Antifeedant properties were detected in all extracts under dietary choice conditions (300 ug/ g of diet). The maximum antifeedant activity was noted in cycles (Pro-Val) (86.02) and cycle (Pro-Phe) (73.47), while the rest of the extracts and metabolites exhibited varying degrees of moderate or less toxic effects. The maximum oviposition deterrence against C. capitata (55.86%) was recorded with cycle (Pro-Phe) at a 50 µm/cm2 dose. Culture medium extracts supplemented with insect remains and all pure compounds showed repellent action against T. castaneum. The main repellency was observed in phenylacetic acid and cycle (Pro-Val) with RI values of 42 and 41% respectively. The present study would suggest the possible utilization of entomopathogenic fungal metabolites as an effective agent for controlling insect pests that cause important economic losses.
Use of Semiochemicals, Auditory stimuli and Visual f.pptmanjeetnauni
Semiochemicals are chemical substances produced by organisms such as plants and animals, such substances elicit a physiological or behavioral response in individuals of the same or another species. Semiochemicals are classified into pheromones and allelochemicals.
in vitro screening of larvicidal and insecticidal activity of methanolic extr...IJEAB
The aim of this work was to evaluate the larvicidal and insecticidal activity of the selected plants namelyArtocarpus altilis, Piper betle and Artocarpus heterophyllus. The leaves of Artocarpus altilis and Artocarpus heterophyllus and roots of Piper betle were subjected to methanolic solvent extraction for the isolation of various bioactive constituents. The evaluation of larvicidal activity was carried out using late third instar larvae of Drosophila melanogaster. The insecticidal activity of extracts was studied against adult Bruchus pisorum, Tribolium castaneum, Sitophilus oryzae and was evaluated by direct contact application method .Nucleic acids and protein contents are regarded as important biomarkers of the metabolic potential of cells, as these play the main role in regulating the different activities of cells. Piper betle and Artocarpus heterophyllusextractshad a reducing effect on the nucleic acid and protein content in the larvae in a dose dependent manner whereas Artocarpus altilis extract did not exhibit any significant larvicidal activity. Piper betle and Artocarpus heterophyllusextractsshowed good insecticidal activity whereas A.altilis extract showed poor insecticidal activity. The results of the present study clearly indicate that Piper betle and Artocarpus heterophyllus extracts can be developed as ecofriendly larvicides and were also quite effective as insecticides for providing a better and excellent alternate for the control of insects.
This document discusses recent methods of pest control, including anti-feedants, insect attractants, insect repellents, genetic control, and insect growth regulators. Anti-feedants inhibit insect feeding without impairing appetite. Insect attractants use chemicals like pheromones and food lures to draw insects towards traps. Genetic control methods include sterile male release technique and inducing sterility through chemicals or radiation. Insect growth regulators interfere with insect growth and development by mimicking or blocking hormones like juvenile hormone and ecdysone. Overall, the document provides an overview of various modern biological and chemical pest control techniques.
Chemical signals and cues have been shown to play an outstanding role in intraspecific and interspecific communication systems within and outside of a bumble bee colony. In the present review we compile and critically assess the literature on the chemical ecology of bumble bees, including cuckoo bumble bees
Transgenic and chimeric organisms are genetically modified using techniques of molecular biology. Transgenic organisms contain genes from other species inserted into their chromosomes, and were first created in 1980. They can be used to improve agriculture and research. Chimeric organisms consist of genetically different tissues and were first created by fusing tomato and nightshade plants. Both transgenic and chimeric organisms are important tools in biological and medical research.
Topic Insect Pheromones, their role in communication and pest managementRavi Prakash
The document discusses insect pheromones and their role in communication and pest management. It defines pheromones as chemicals released by insects to communicate with others of the same species. Pheromones are classified into primer effect and releaser effect types. Releaser pheromones regulate behaviors like sex, aggregation, alarm, and trail laying. The document outlines how sex, aggregation, alarm, and trail pheromones work. It also discusses uses of pheromones in integrated pest management, including monitoring pest populations, mass trapping of pests, and disrupting pest mating to control populations.
This document provides an overview of insect pheromone biosynthesis and endocrine regulation. It discusses how insects have evolved to modify normal metabolic pathways through additional tissue-specific enzymes to produce pheromones. Pheromone biosynthesis pathways are described for cockroaches, beetles, flies, and moths, many of which involve modifying fatty acid biosynthesis. The major hormones regulating pheromone production are juvenile hormone in cockroaches and beetles, ecdysteroids in flies, and pheromone biosynthesis activating neuropeptide in moths. While regulation is not fully understood, juvenile hormone can increase expression of enzymes involved in biosynthesis. The document aims to compare and unify themes in pheromone biosynthesis across
This chapter reviews the use of sex pheromones and male lures in trapping economically important fruit fly species from the genera Anastrepha, Bactrocera, Ceratitis, Dacus, Rhagoletis, and Toxotrypana. It discusses research on identifying pheromones from species such as the Mexican fruit fly (Anastrepha ludens) and Caribbean fruit fly (A. suspensa), though results have been inconsistent. Male lures like methyl eugenol, cuelure, and trimedlure have proven more effective than pheromones for detection and control programs. The chapter provides an overview of the major male lures and factors influencing their
Microbiological Investigations of Selected Flies of Public Health Importance ...iosrjce
Bacteria associated with flies of public health importance in Nigeria are not well known and their
ecology is also not well understood. We aim to determine the bacteria associated with flies of waste dump site.
Three flies of public health significance were collected from a waste dump site of the Rivers State University of
Science and Technology, Port Harcourt. The three dipterous flies were Luciliasericata, Chrysomyasp and
Musca domestica..The three flies were all of medical importance.The microbial load on three species of flies
was investigated using standard plate count methods. The fly samples were collected from the Post Graduate
Entomology Laboratory was cultured to isolate and identify the microbes associated with them. The samples
were analyzed for total heterotrophic bacteria and fungi counts. The study revealed high heterotrophic bacteria
and fungi counts in all three species of the flies used, with Musca domestica having the highest count of 2.9 X
109Cfu/gram and Chrysomyasp with the least count of 3.4 x 10 5Cfu/g and fungi counts ranged from 3.1 X
103Cfu/g to 2.9 X 105Cfu/g. The bacteria isolated from these samples includes: Escherichia coli,
Pseudomonassp,, Bacillussp, Enterobactersp, Staphylococcussp,Salmonellasp, Proteussp, and Klebsiellasp,
while the fungi species isolated includes: Penicilliumsp,
Aspergillussp,Rhizopussp,Cladosporiumsp,Aspergillusflavus, Aspergillusniger, Fusariumsp and Trichoderma
sp.
Taxonomy is the methodology and principles of systematic botany and zoology and sets up arrangements of the kinds of plants and animals in hierarchies of superior and subordinate groups
IOSR Journal of Pharmacy (IOSRPHR), www.iosrphr.org, call for paper, research...iosrphr_editor
IOSR Journal of Pharmacy (IOSRPHR), www.iosrphr.org, call for paper, research paper publishing, where to publish research paper, journal publishing, how to publish research paper, Call for research paper, international journal, publishing a paper, call for paper 2012, journal of pharmacy, how to get a research paper published, publishing a paper, publishing of journal, research and review articles, Pharmacy journal, International Journal of Pharmacy, hard copy of journal, hard copy of certificates, online Submission, where to publish research paper, journal publishing, international journal, publishing a paper
The Biological Control of Pests Research Unit (BCPRU) conducts research on developing biological and environmentally-friendly pest management methods. It works on mass production and delivery of beneficial organisms, as well as classical biocontrol of invasive pests. Current research includes rearing economically important insect species, identifying compounds for invasive ant control, and using pathogens to manage invasive plants. The BCPRU is working to improve mass production methods for predatory mites and ladybird beetles to control spider mites and aphids. It is also studying the social immunity of fire ants to identify better biological control agents, and developing methods to microencapsulate the fungus Trichoderma for controlling insect pests.
This article examines the effectiveness of two species of entomopathogenic nematodes (Heterorhabditis bacteriophora HP88 and Heterorhabditis indica LPP1) at controlling partially engorged females of the tropical horse tick (Dermacentor nitens). In laboratory experiments, the nematodes were applied at different concentrations to the ticks. Both nematode species significantly reduced egg mass weight, egg production, and hatching rates at higher concentrations. H. bacteriophora HP88 and H. indica LPP1 achieved over 95% control of D. nitens females at the highest concentration tested, demonstrating their potential as biological control agents for this tick species.
Contribution to Systematic biology. KUSTKashif Obaid
Its all about general taxonomic characters and about the contribution to systematic biology...
Be ready dear KUSTIANS....
follow me and comment below in comment box to encourage me. thanks!
This document discusses potential methods for controlling lethal yellowing disease (LYD) in coconut palms, which is caused by phytoplasma bacteria and spread by insect vectors. It first provides background on LYD and describes current control challenges like the inability to culture phytoplasma. Then it discusses several potential control approaches, including:
1. Using the CRISPR/Cas9 gene editing system or entomopathogenic fungi to control the disease-causing phytoplasma bacteria or their insect vectors.
2. Breeding resistant coconut varieties, though current breeding efforts are outpaced by rising disease incidence.
3. Integrated pest management using traditional vector control plus novel techniques like manipulating symb
This document discusses crop protection and pests. It begins by defining different types of pests and outlining principles of crop protection like exclusion and maintaining pest populations below economic threshold levels. It then examines factors that affect pest development like the pest, host, and environment. The document also categorizes pests as invertebrates like insects, mites and mollusks, or vertebrates like birds and rodents. It briefly outlines the phylum Arthropoda and class Insecta. In closing, it discusses insect morphology, development, and the importance of entomology to agriculture.
This document discusses the role of chemical ecology, volatile compounds, and secondary plant substances in plant resistance to insects. It provides background on chemical ecology and how plant chemicals can affect insect behavior. Secondary plant metabolites like alkaloids, terpenoids, and phenolic compounds adversely impact insect growth, development, and metabolism. Specific examples are given of compounds that act as feeding deterrents or have toxic effects on insects. The document also discusses how plant volatile compounds can attract or repel insects.
Using pheromones to control and monitor stored grain pests is a technology applied in different countries. The present review identified the primary compounds used to prevent or monitor stored grain pests, their chemical structures, functional groups and attraction mechanisms. We discuss the aspects of historical evolution, the geographic distribution of research on stored grain pests, the methodological approaches used in developing this research, the strategies used to control and monitor these pests, and the chemical synthesis of the compounds used as pheromones. We found 109 published articles that reported data on pheromones. Aggregation and sexual pheromones were the most used for control and monitoring. The surveys were distributed across six continents; most studies were conducted in North America. Laboratory studies were the most common, followed by field studies. Management using pest monitoring was the most common. Different synthetic routes were observed when conducting the studies. These works showed the improvement of these synthetic routes to obtain pheromone constituents. This review highlighted the main aspects of using pheromones for controlling or monitoring stored grain pests.
This document discusses several newer classes of insecticides and their modes of action, including neonicotinoids, spinosyns, avermectins, oxadiazines, fiproles, pyrroles, and others. It explains that these newer insecticides were developed to address resistance issues with older chemicals and have novel modes of action that are safer for the environment. Each section provides examples of chemical names and trade names for insecticides in that class, and summarizes their specific modes of action at the neural or physiological level that results in insect paralysis or death. The document concludes that these newer compounds are more selective and effective at lower doses while being safer, but cautions that judicious integrated pest management is needed to
The document discusses the benefits of exercise for mental health. Regular physical activity can help reduce anxiety and depression and improve mood and cognitive function. Exercise causes chemical changes in the brain that may help protect against mental illness and improve symptoms.
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This document discusses recent methods of pest control, including anti-feedants, insect attractants, insect repellents, genetic control, and insect growth regulators. Anti-feedants inhibit insect feeding without impairing appetite. Insect attractants use chemicals like pheromones and food lures to draw insects towards traps. Genetic control methods include sterile male release technique and inducing sterility through chemicals or radiation. Insect growth regulators interfere with insect growth and development by mimicking or blocking hormones like juvenile hormone and ecdysone. Overall, the document provides an overview of various modern biological and chemical pest control techniques.
Chemical signals and cues have been shown to play an outstanding role in intraspecific and interspecific communication systems within and outside of a bumble bee colony. In the present review we compile and critically assess the literature on the chemical ecology of bumble bees, including cuckoo bumble bees
Transgenic and chimeric organisms are genetically modified using techniques of molecular biology. Transgenic organisms contain genes from other species inserted into their chromosomes, and were first created in 1980. They can be used to improve agriculture and research. Chimeric organisms consist of genetically different tissues and were first created by fusing tomato and nightshade plants. Both transgenic and chimeric organisms are important tools in biological and medical research.
Topic Insect Pheromones, their role in communication and pest managementRavi Prakash
The document discusses insect pheromones and their role in communication and pest management. It defines pheromones as chemicals released by insects to communicate with others of the same species. Pheromones are classified into primer effect and releaser effect types. Releaser pheromones regulate behaviors like sex, aggregation, alarm, and trail laying. The document outlines how sex, aggregation, alarm, and trail pheromones work. It also discusses uses of pheromones in integrated pest management, including monitoring pest populations, mass trapping of pests, and disrupting pest mating to control populations.
This document provides an overview of insect pheromone biosynthesis and endocrine regulation. It discusses how insects have evolved to modify normal metabolic pathways through additional tissue-specific enzymes to produce pheromones. Pheromone biosynthesis pathways are described for cockroaches, beetles, flies, and moths, many of which involve modifying fatty acid biosynthesis. The major hormones regulating pheromone production are juvenile hormone in cockroaches and beetles, ecdysteroids in flies, and pheromone biosynthesis activating neuropeptide in moths. While regulation is not fully understood, juvenile hormone can increase expression of enzymes involved in biosynthesis. The document aims to compare and unify themes in pheromone biosynthesis across
This chapter reviews the use of sex pheromones and male lures in trapping economically important fruit fly species from the genera Anastrepha, Bactrocera, Ceratitis, Dacus, Rhagoletis, and Toxotrypana. It discusses research on identifying pheromones from species such as the Mexican fruit fly (Anastrepha ludens) and Caribbean fruit fly (A. suspensa), though results have been inconsistent. Male lures like methyl eugenol, cuelure, and trimedlure have proven more effective than pheromones for detection and control programs. The chapter provides an overview of the major male lures and factors influencing their
Microbiological Investigations of Selected Flies of Public Health Importance ...iosrjce
Bacteria associated with flies of public health importance in Nigeria are not well known and their
ecology is also not well understood. We aim to determine the bacteria associated with flies of waste dump site.
Three flies of public health significance were collected from a waste dump site of the Rivers State University of
Science and Technology, Port Harcourt. The three dipterous flies were Luciliasericata, Chrysomyasp and
Musca domestica..The three flies were all of medical importance.The microbial load on three species of flies
was investigated using standard plate count methods. The fly samples were collected from the Post Graduate
Entomology Laboratory was cultured to isolate and identify the microbes associated with them. The samples
were analyzed for total heterotrophic bacteria and fungi counts. The study revealed high heterotrophic bacteria
and fungi counts in all three species of the flies used, with Musca domestica having the highest count of 2.9 X
109Cfu/gram and Chrysomyasp with the least count of 3.4 x 10 5Cfu/g and fungi counts ranged from 3.1 X
103Cfu/g to 2.9 X 105Cfu/g. The bacteria isolated from these samples includes: Escherichia coli,
Pseudomonassp,, Bacillussp, Enterobactersp, Staphylococcussp,Salmonellasp, Proteussp, and Klebsiellasp,
while the fungi species isolated includes: Penicilliumsp,
Aspergillussp,Rhizopussp,Cladosporiumsp,Aspergillusflavus, Aspergillusniger, Fusariumsp and Trichoderma
sp.
Taxonomy is the methodology and principles of systematic botany and zoology and sets up arrangements of the kinds of plants and animals in hierarchies of superior and subordinate groups
IOSR Journal of Pharmacy (IOSRPHR), www.iosrphr.org, call for paper, research...iosrphr_editor
IOSR Journal of Pharmacy (IOSRPHR), www.iosrphr.org, call for paper, research paper publishing, where to publish research paper, journal publishing, how to publish research paper, Call for research paper, international journal, publishing a paper, call for paper 2012, journal of pharmacy, how to get a research paper published, publishing a paper, publishing of journal, research and review articles, Pharmacy journal, International Journal of Pharmacy, hard copy of journal, hard copy of certificates, online Submission, where to publish research paper, journal publishing, international journal, publishing a paper
The Biological Control of Pests Research Unit (BCPRU) conducts research on developing biological and environmentally-friendly pest management methods. It works on mass production and delivery of beneficial organisms, as well as classical biocontrol of invasive pests. Current research includes rearing economically important insect species, identifying compounds for invasive ant control, and using pathogens to manage invasive plants. The BCPRU is working to improve mass production methods for predatory mites and ladybird beetles to control spider mites and aphids. It is also studying the social immunity of fire ants to identify better biological control agents, and developing methods to microencapsulate the fungus Trichoderma for controlling insect pests.
This article examines the effectiveness of two species of entomopathogenic nematodes (Heterorhabditis bacteriophora HP88 and Heterorhabditis indica LPP1) at controlling partially engorged females of the tropical horse tick (Dermacentor nitens). In laboratory experiments, the nematodes were applied at different concentrations to the ticks. Both nematode species significantly reduced egg mass weight, egg production, and hatching rates at higher concentrations. H. bacteriophora HP88 and H. indica LPP1 achieved over 95% control of D. nitens females at the highest concentration tested, demonstrating their potential as biological control agents for this tick species.
Contribution to Systematic biology. KUSTKashif Obaid
Its all about general taxonomic characters and about the contribution to systematic biology...
Be ready dear KUSTIANS....
follow me and comment below in comment box to encourage me. thanks!
This document discusses potential methods for controlling lethal yellowing disease (LYD) in coconut palms, which is caused by phytoplasma bacteria and spread by insect vectors. It first provides background on LYD and describes current control challenges like the inability to culture phytoplasma. Then it discusses several potential control approaches, including:
1. Using the CRISPR/Cas9 gene editing system or entomopathogenic fungi to control the disease-causing phytoplasma bacteria or their insect vectors.
2. Breeding resistant coconut varieties, though current breeding efforts are outpaced by rising disease incidence.
3. Integrated pest management using traditional vector control plus novel techniques like manipulating symb
This document discusses crop protection and pests. It begins by defining different types of pests and outlining principles of crop protection like exclusion and maintaining pest populations below economic threshold levels. It then examines factors that affect pest development like the pest, host, and environment. The document also categorizes pests as invertebrates like insects, mites and mollusks, or vertebrates like birds and rodents. It briefly outlines the phylum Arthropoda and class Insecta. In closing, it discusses insect morphology, development, and the importance of entomology to agriculture.
This document discusses the role of chemical ecology, volatile compounds, and secondary plant substances in plant resistance to insects. It provides background on chemical ecology and how plant chemicals can affect insect behavior. Secondary plant metabolites like alkaloids, terpenoids, and phenolic compounds adversely impact insect growth, development, and metabolism. Specific examples are given of compounds that act as feeding deterrents or have toxic effects on insects. The document also discusses how plant volatile compounds can attract or repel insects.
Using pheromones to control and monitor stored grain pests is a technology applied in different countries. The present review identified the primary compounds used to prevent or monitor stored grain pests, their chemical structures, functional groups and attraction mechanisms. We discuss the aspects of historical evolution, the geographic distribution of research on stored grain pests, the methodological approaches used in developing this research, the strategies used to control and monitor these pests, and the chemical synthesis of the compounds used as pheromones. We found 109 published articles that reported data on pheromones. Aggregation and sexual pheromones were the most used for control and monitoring. The surveys were distributed across six continents; most studies were conducted in North America. Laboratory studies were the most common, followed by field studies. Management using pest monitoring was the most common. Different synthetic routes were observed when conducting the studies. These works showed the improvement of these synthetic routes to obtain pheromone constituents. This review highlighted the main aspects of using pheromones for controlling or monitoring stored grain pests.
This document discusses several newer classes of insecticides and their modes of action, including neonicotinoids, spinosyns, avermectins, oxadiazines, fiproles, pyrroles, and others. It explains that these newer insecticides were developed to address resistance issues with older chemicals and have novel modes of action that are safer for the environment. Each section provides examples of chemical names and trade names for insecticides in that class, and summarizes their specific modes of action at the neural or physiological level that results in insect paralysis or death. The document concludes that these newer compounds are more selective and effective at lower doses while being safer, but cautions that judicious integrated pest management is needed to
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The document discusses the benefits of exercise for mental health. Regular physical activity can help reduce anxiety and depression and improve mood and cognitive function. Exercise causes chemical changes in the brain that may help protect against mental illness and improve symptoms.
This document summarizes research on the chemical ecology of animal and human pathogen vectors and how it may be impacted by climate change. It discusses using semiochemicals (naturally occurring chemicals used in communication) to manipulate vector behavior for monitoring and control. Specifically, it reviews knowledge on developing repellents based on botanicals, non-host species cues, and host-derived compounds. It also discusses exploiting host-derived attractants and attractant pheromones in a "push-pull" strategy using traps and repellents. The goal is to provide effective and environmentally-friendly tools for controlling vectors of diseases that threaten livestock and humans.
This document is a bibliography compiled by Steve E. Naranjo of the USDA-ARS listing references related to the pink bollworm, Pectinophora gossypiella. It contains over 150 references published between 1971-2007 on topics such as the natural enemies of pink bollworm, effects of insecticides and other treatments on pink bollworm populations, resistance of cotton varieties to pink bollworm, and more. The references are listed alphabetically by first author's last name.
This document lists 49 publications by Prof. Dr. Abdallah M. Al-Beltagy, including research papers, book chapters, and conference abstracts. The publications cover topics related to integrated pest management programs for controlling bollworm pests, using techniques such as pheromone traps, insecticides, cultural controls, and predator monitoring. Many of the publications examine strategies for reducing insecticide use and increasing cotton production through alternative pink bollworm control methods.
The document discusses vanillin, the primary component that gives vanilla its flavor. It describes vanillin's chemical structure as a phenolic aldehyde. While natural vanilla extract contains hundreds of compounds, artificial vanilla flavoring typically contains only synthetic vanillin. There are two main industrial processes for producing synthetic vanillin - from the natural compound eugenol or from lignin, a wood byproduct. Lignin-derived vanillin may have a richer flavor profile due to additional compounds present. Vanilla was historically used as a flavoring for chocolate by Mesoamerican peoples.
Pheromone Technology Applications In Cotton Fields In Egypt final 1.docxAbdallah Albeltagy
1. The document discusses the history and development of pheromone technology in pest management. It describes how only 20 years passed between the discovery of the first insect pheromone (Bombykol) in 1959 and its application in pest control tactics.
2. It provides context on the initial discovery and widespread use of the first chemical insecticide, DDT, in the late 1930s and 1940s. It then contrasts this with the later discovery and integration of insect pheromones into integrated pest management strategies from the 1950s onward.
3. The document emphasizes how pheromone technology can be used in various tactics as part of integrated pest management programs for monitoring and controlling insect p
This chapter discusses the potential use of infochemicals, such as pheromones and kairomones, in integrated pest management programs. Infochemicals play an important role in mediating ecological interactions between organisms and can be exploited for pest monitoring and control. The banana weevil, Cosmopolites sordidus, produces an aggregation pheromone that attracts both sexes and has been identified and synthesized. There is evidence that host plant volatiles and the synthetic pheromone have an additive effect in attracting C. sordidus. The chapter outlines how research on factors influencing the effectiveness of pheromone-baited traps and integrating traps with biological control agents could provide information
1) The study investigated the effects of (Z)-11-hexadecenyl trifluoromethyl ketone (Z11-16:TFMK), a fluorinated analogue of the sex pheromone (Z)-11-hexadecenyl acetate (Z11-16:Ac), on the behavior and sensory responses of male cabbage armyworm moths (Mamestra brassicae).
2) Electroantennogram (EAG) recordings showed that Z11-16:TFMK was less active than Z11-16:Ac in stimulating the olfactory receptors of male moths. Z11-16:TFMK also did not elicit behavioral responses when tested alone.
3) However
The document discusses the history and applications of pheromone technology in integrated pest management (IPM) strategies for cotton fields in Egypt. It notes that only 20 years passed between the discovery of the first insect pheromone in 1959 and its use in pest control applications, compared to the earlier discovery and widespread use of the first chemical insecticide, DDT, in 1939. The document emphasizes how pheromone technology can be integrated into many tactics as part of IPM for monitoring and controlling insect pests in cotton fields, providing advantages over traditional chemical insecticides.
Pheromone traps for the estimating insecticides efficacyAbdallah Albeltagy
This document discusses using pheromone traps to assess insecticide efficiency and monitor insecticide resistance in field insect populations as an alternative to conventional insecticide applications. Pheromone traps provide a simple, quick and efficient technique compared to conventional methods that require large amounts of insecticides, sampling of crop fields and materials. Specifically, the document reviews the attracticide resistance monitoring technique which uses pheromone-baited traps treated with insecticides to monitor insecticide resistance in field populations with minimal time, cost and environmental impact compared to other methods.
A new formula for estimating insecticides efficiency in cotton fieldsAbdallah Albeltagy
This document proposes a new formula for calculating the effectiveness of insecticides against cotton bollworm in Egypt, instead of the commonly used Henderson and Tilton formula from 1955. The Henderson and Tilton formula requires an untreated control area equal in size to the treated areas, which is not feasible in commercial cotton fields due to high financial costs. The proposed new formula is derived from experimental data and does not require an untreated control area - it uses initial bollworm infestation percentages before treatment to calculate reduction percentages after treatment. Applying this new formula would solve problems with estimating insecticide efficacy in protocols that require untreated control areas and provide logical data that can be useful when applied in cotton fields.
Transgenic cotton is a rare insect in cotton production. Transgenic cotton was widely adopted in the US (about 80% of cotton acreage) and China and India. So far, there is no evidence of resistance and the technology is very effective at eliminating all sprayers for pink bollworm and other caterpillars. Transgenic cotton has essentially eliminated all sprays for pink bollworm and other caterpillars. This new information sent by Dr. Karanja made me very interested in the subject of transgenic cotton, and especially transgenic cotton production in India and China.
This document discusses P.S. Callahan's theory from the 1960s-70s that insects use infrared signals for communication and navigation. While Callahan provided evidence to support the theory, it was criticized and rejected in a 1977 debate due to some dubious claims and poor presentation of interrelated hypotheses. The document argues that Popperian positivism, which demands heroic disproof of theories, led the debate to prematurely abandon the entire theory rather than attempt to refine or separate valid from invalid parts. It also questions whether a theory should be rejected if it has no known alternatives. The document examines alternative approaches like Thagard's "explanatory coherence" method for evaluating theories based on mutual consistency of concepts. It aims
pheromone traps for assessment and monitoring محطة بحوث وقاية النباتات 2019.pptxAbdallah Albeltagy
The document discusses insecticide resistance in insect pests and proposes using pheromone traps as an alternative to conventional insecticide applications. It notes that heavy insecticide use has led to many insects developing resistance. Pheromone traps could be used to monitor insect populations and insecticide resistance over time without the environmental and financial costs of widespread insecticide spraying. The document then describes research conducted in Egypt using pheromone traps and an "attracticide resistance monitoring technique" to study the efficacy of insecticides against field strains of pink bollworm and detect any resistance development. Laboratory and field studies were carried out using various insecticides and pheromone traps to monitor susceptibility over time.
This document discusses the use of pheromone technology in integrated pest management programs for cotton fields in Egypt. It provides context on the discovery of insect pheromones in 1959, 20 years after the discovery of the first chemical insecticide, DDT. The author then outlines several tactics for applying pheromone technology that were used in Egypt, including pheromone traps for monitoring and mass trapping of pests, and pheromone disruption techniques like using pink bollworm sex pheromone formulations to disrupt mating. The document emphasizes that pheromone strategies differ from insecticide strategies and were an important part of IPM programs in Egypt.
The document discusses cotton production and bollworm control. It begins with an overview of the cotton plant's growth stages and development. It then discusses cotton production calculations and average yields. The life cycle of bollworms is shown. Maps show the cotton belt in the USA and Egypt. Different control strategies and technologies for managing bollworms are mentioned.
1. Bt cotton was among the first transgenic crops developed for commercial use by transferring a gene from Bacillus thuringiensis bacteria that codes for a protein toxic to cotton bollworm pests.
2. Global adoption of Bt cotton has risen dramatically since its introduction in 1996 due to significant economic and production advantages for farmers including reduced insecticide use and increased yields and income.
3. Studies show Bt cotton reduces insecticide use by up to 94.5 million kilograms globally between 1996-2008, lowering production costs and environmental impacts while increasing farm profits by $7.5 billion over the same period.
The document discusses the motions of the Earth and night sky. It explains that the Earth rotates daily on its axis, causing the stars to appear to rotate in circles around the north and south celestial poles. It also revolves annually around the Sun. Constellations are groupings of stars that help identify seasons and were important for early farmers. Modern astronomy further divides the sky into precise constellation boundaries and designates stars with standardized names.
The binding of cosmological structures by massless topological defectsSérgio Sacani
Assuming spherical symmetry and weak field, it is shown that if one solves the Poisson equation or the Einstein field
equations sourced by a topological defect, i.e. a singularity of a very specific form, the result is a localized gravitational
field capable of driving flat rotation (i.e. Keplerian circular orbits at a constant speed for all radii) of test masses on a thin
spherical shell without any underlying mass. Moreover, a large-scale structure which exploits this solution by assembling
concentrically a number of such topological defects can establish a flat stellar or galactic rotation curve, and can also deflect
light in the same manner as an equipotential (isothermal) sphere. Thus, the need for dark matter or modified gravity theory is
mitigated, at least in part.
ESR spectroscopy in liquid food and beverages.pptxPRIYANKA PATEL
With increasing population, people need to rely on packaged food stuffs. Packaging of food materials requires the preservation of food. There are various methods for the treatment of food to preserve them and irradiation treatment of food is one of them. It is the most common and the most harmless method for the food preservation as it does not alter the necessary micronutrients of food materials. Although irradiated food doesn’t cause any harm to the human health but still the quality assessment of food is required to provide consumers with necessary information about the food. ESR spectroscopy is the most sophisticated way to investigate the quality of the food and the free radicals induced during the processing of the food. ESR spin trapping technique is useful for the detection of highly unstable radicals in the food. The antioxidant capability of liquid food and beverages in mainly performed by spin trapping technique.
EWOCS-I: The catalog of X-ray sources in Westerlund 1 from the Extended Weste...Sérgio Sacani
Context. With a mass exceeding several 104 M⊙ and a rich and dense population of massive stars, supermassive young star clusters
represent the most massive star-forming environment that is dominated by the feedback from massive stars and gravitational interactions
among stars.
Aims. In this paper we present the Extended Westerlund 1 and 2 Open Clusters Survey (EWOCS) project, which aims to investigate
the influence of the starburst environment on the formation of stars and planets, and on the evolution of both low and high mass stars.
The primary targets of this project are Westerlund 1 and 2, the closest supermassive star clusters to the Sun.
Methods. The project is based primarily on recent observations conducted with the Chandra and JWST observatories. Specifically,
the Chandra survey of Westerlund 1 consists of 36 new ACIS-I observations, nearly co-pointed, for a total exposure time of 1 Msec.
Additionally, we included 8 archival Chandra/ACIS-S observations. This paper presents the resulting catalog of X-ray sources within
and around Westerlund 1. Sources were detected by combining various existing methods, and photon extraction and source validation
were carried out using the ACIS-Extract software.
Results. The EWOCS X-ray catalog comprises 5963 validated sources out of the 9420 initially provided to ACIS-Extract, reaching a
photon flux threshold of approximately 2 × 10−8 photons cm−2
s
−1
. The X-ray sources exhibit a highly concentrated spatial distribution,
with 1075 sources located within the central 1 arcmin. We have successfully detected X-ray emissions from 126 out of the 166 known
massive stars of the cluster, and we have collected over 71 000 photons from the magnetar CXO J164710.20-455217.
When I was asked to give a companion lecture in support of ‘The Philosophy of Science’ (https://shorturl.at/4pUXz) I decided not to walk through the detail of the many methodologies in order of use. Instead, I chose to employ a long standing, and ongoing, scientific development as an exemplar. And so, I chose the ever evolving story of Thermodynamics as a scientific investigation at its best.
Conducted over a period of >200 years, Thermodynamics R&D, and application, benefitted from the highest levels of professionalism, collaboration, and technical thoroughness. New layers of application, methodology, and practice were made possible by the progressive advance of technology. In turn, this has seen measurement and modelling accuracy continually improved at a micro and macro level.
Perhaps most importantly, Thermodynamics rapidly became a primary tool in the advance of applied science/engineering/technology, spanning micro-tech, to aerospace and cosmology. I can think of no better a story to illustrate the breadth of scientific methodologies and applications at their best.
The cost of acquiring information by natural selectionCarl Bergstrom
This is a short talk that I gave at the Banff International Research Station workshop on Modeling and Theory in Population Biology. The idea is to try to understand how the burden of natural selection relates to the amount of information that selection puts into the genome.
It's based on the first part of this research paper:
The cost of information acquisition by natural selection
Ryan Seamus McGee, Olivia Kosterlitz, Artem Kaznatcheev, Benjamin Kerr, Carl T. Bergstrom
bioRxiv 2022.07.02.498577; doi: https://doi.org/10.1101/2022.07.02.498577
(June 12, 2024) Webinar: Development of PET theranostics targeting the molecu...Scintica Instrumentation
Targeting Hsp90 and its pathogen Orthologs with Tethered Inhibitors as a Diagnostic and Therapeutic Strategy for cancer and infectious diseases with Dr. Timothy Haystead.
Sexuality - Issues, Attitude and Behaviour - Applied Social Psychology - Psyc...PsychoTech Services
A proprietary approach developed by bringing together the best of learning theories from Psychology, design principles from the world of visualization, and pedagogical methods from over a decade of training experience, that enables you to: Learn better, faster!
Current Ms word generated power point presentation covers major details about the micronuclei test. It's significance and assays to conduct it. It is used to detect the micronuclei formation inside the cells of nearly every multicellular organism. It's formation takes place during chromosomal sepration at metaphase.
The debris of the ‘last major merger’ is dynamically youngSérgio Sacani
The Milky Way’s (MW) inner stellar halo contains an [Fe/H]-rich component with highly eccentric orbits, often referred to as the
‘last major merger.’ Hypotheses for the origin of this component include Gaia-Sausage/Enceladus (GSE), where the progenitor
collided with the MW proto-disc 8–11 Gyr ago, and the Virgo Radial Merger (VRM), where the progenitor collided with the
MW disc within the last 3 Gyr. These two scenarios make different predictions about observable structure in local phase space,
because the morphology of debris depends on how long it has had to phase mix. The recently identified phase-space folds in Gaia
DR3 have positive caustic velocities, making them fundamentally different than the phase-mixed chevrons found in simulations
at late times. Roughly 20 per cent of the stars in the prograde local stellar halo are associated with the observed caustics. Based
on a simple phase-mixing model, the observed number of caustics are consistent with a merger that occurred 1–2 Gyr ago.
We also compare the observed phase-space distribution to FIRE-2 Latte simulations of GSE-like mergers, using a quantitative
measurement of phase mixing (2D causticality). The observed local phase-space distribution best matches the simulated data
1–2 Gyr after collision, and certainly not later than 3 Gyr. This is further evidence that the progenitor of the ‘last major merger’
did not collide with the MW proto-disc at early times, as is thought for the GSE, but instead collided with the MW disc within
the last few Gyr, consistent with the body of work surrounding the VRM.
Authoring a personal GPT for your research and practice: How we created the Q...Leonel Morgado
Thematic analysis in qualitative research is a time-consuming and systematic task, typically done using teams. Team members must ground their activities on common understandings of the major concepts underlying the thematic analysis, and define criteria for its development. However, conceptual misunderstandings, equivocations, and lack of adherence to criteria are challenges to the quality and speed of this process. Given the distributed and uncertain nature of this process, we wondered if the tasks in thematic analysis could be supported by readily available artificial intelligence chatbots. Our early efforts point to potential benefits: not just saving time in the coding process but better adherence to criteria and grounding, by increasing triangulation between humans and artificial intelligence. This tutorial will provide a description and demonstration of the process we followed, as two academic researchers, to develop a custom ChatGPT to assist with qualitative coding in the thematic data analysis process of immersive learning accounts in a survey of the academic literature: QUAL-E Immersive Learning Thematic Analysis Helper. In the hands-on time, participants will try out QUAL-E and develop their ideas for their own qualitative coding ChatGPT. Participants that have the paid ChatGPT Plus subscription can create a draft of their assistants. The organizers will provide course materials and slide deck that participants will be able to utilize to continue development of their custom GPT. The paid subscription to ChatGPT Plus is not required to participate in this workshop, just for trying out personal GPTs during it.
Basics of crystallography, crystal systems, classes and different forms
The_chemical_volatiles_Semiochemicals_pr.pdf
1. September - October 2008 489
FORUM
The Chemical Volatiles (Semiochemicals) Produced by Neotropical Stink
Bugs (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae)
MARIA C.B. MORAES, MARTÍN PAREJA, RAÚL A. LAUMANN AND MIGUEL BORGES
Núcleo Temático Controle Biológico, Embrapa Recursos Genéticos e Biotecnologia, C. postal 2372, 70849-970, Brasília, DF
Neotropical Entomology 37(5):489-505 (2008)
Os Voláteis Químicos (Semioquímicos) Produzidos pelos Percevejos Neotropicais Hemiptera: Pentatomidae)
RESUMO - Nos últimos anos tem sido crescente a preocupação com as mudanças climáticas e com
a utilização auto-sustentável dos recursos naturais, estimulando cada vez mais os estudos para a
prospecção de novos produtos naturais visando minimizar o uso de pesticidas. Os percevejos produzem
uma variedade de compostos químicos com potencial para o seu manejo. A composição química dos
compostos defensivos dos percevejos Chinavia impicticornis (Stål), C. ubica (Rolston), Dichelops
melacanthus (Dallas), Euschistus heros (F.), Piezodorus guildinii (Westwod), Thyanta perditor
(Westwood) e Tibraca limbativentris (Stål) foi avaliada. Os principais compostos nas glândulas dos
percevejos foram: 2-alcenais, principalmente o isômero E, hidrocarbonetos alifáticos saturados; e 4
oxo-(E)-2-alcenal. O primeiro feromônio sexual de percevejo identificado no Brasil foi do Nezara
viridula L., que consiste na mistura dos isômeros cis e trans epóxi-bisabolenos; na sequência, o
percevejo praga da soja E.. heros também teve seu feromônio sexual identificado. Os machos desta
espécie produzem três ésteres: 2,6,10-trimetildecanoato de metila, 2,6,10 trimetildodecanoato de metila
e 2E,4Z decadienoato de metila. Recentemente, mais três espécies de percevejos neotropicais tiveram
a composição da mistura feromonal elucidada. Machos de T. perditor produzem o éster, 2E,4Z,6Z-
decatrienoato de metila. O percevejo P. guildinii tem como feromônio sexual o E-sesquifelandreno, e
o percevejo praga do arroz T. limbativentris tem também como feromônio sexual um sesquiterpenóide,
o zingiberenol. Nessa revisão serão abordados os avanços obtidos no estudo do comportamento e
identificação de feromônios sexuais e de alarme de várias espécies do complexo de percevejos praga
da agricultura brasileira. A aplicação desses conhecimentos é discutida.
PALAVRAS-CHAVE: Feromônio, aleloquímico, agregação, comportamento, soja
ABSTRACT - In recent years the growing concern about environmental changes and how we are using
the natural resources have triggered a search for natural products as alternatives to synthetic pesticides.
The stink bugs produce a wide variety of chemical compounds (semiochemicals) that show potential
to manage these insects. The stink bugs Chinavia impicticornis (Stål), C. ubica (Rolston), Dichelops
melacanthus (Dallas), Euschistus heros (F.), Piezodorus guildinii (Westwood), Thyanta perditor
(Westwood) and Tibraca limbativentris (Stål) had their blends of defensive compounds evaluated both
qualitative and quantitatively. The main compounds identified on the glands of Brazilian stink bugs
are: 2-alkenals, mainly the E isomer; saturated aliphatic hydrocarbons; and 4 oxo-(E)-2-alkenals. The
first sex attractant determined from a stink bug was obtained from Nezara viridula L., and consists on
a mix of two isomers cis - and trans bisabolene-epoxides. Later the soybean stink bug E. heros was
also studied and its sex attractant was identified as three esters methyl : 2,6,10-trimethyldecanoate,
methyl 2,6,10-trimethyldodecanoate, and methyl E2, Z4-decadienoate. Recently, three new Brazilian
sting bugs were studied and had their sex attractant elucidated. Males of T. perditor produce the ester,
methyl 2E,4Z,6Z-decatrienoate. Whereas, the stink bug, P. guildinii has as sexual pheromone, the
sesquiterpene E-sesquiphellandrene, and the stink bug T. limbativentris produces as sex attractant the
zingiberenol. In this review we discuss the advances obtained on the behaviour and identification of
sex and defensive compound of stink bugs from Brazilian crops and the application of this knowledge
to manage the stink bugs.
KEY WORDS: Pheromone, allelochemical, aggregation, behaviour, soybean
2. 490 Moraes et al. - The Chemical Volatiles (Semiochemicals) Produced by Neotropical Stink Bugs...
In recent years there has been a growing concern about
environmental changes, and about how we are using the
resources available in natural habitats. These concerns
have triggered a search for natural products as a source of
medicines, cosmetics, fuel, nutrients for humans and animals,
and, especially, as alternatives to synthetic pesticides. In turn
this has led to an awareness of the importance of studying
natural products, and of conserving the natural habitats that
remain largely unexplored in the tropics and subtropics.
Brazil, nowadays, is one of the largest producers and
exporters of soybean and other crops in the world (CONAB
2007). However, millions of tonnes of grains and products are
lost every year due to damage by pests, mainly due to various
Pentatomidae (stink bugs) and Lepidoptera (Panizzi 1997).
The stink bugs produce a wide variety of chemical
compounds that show potential to manage these insects.
Among these compounds are the pheromones, which can be
classified as either sexual, alarm or aggregation pheromones
(Aldrich 1988). Stink-bug management by the use of
semiochemicals is an alternative that has shown potential
for application in soybean and others crops (Aldrich 1988;
Borges et al. 1998a, b).
Semiochemicals mediate interactions of insects with
other organisms and they can be used to directly monitor
populations, mass trap pests or interfere with reproduction by
sexual confusion. Indirect applications include manipulation
of the natural enemies, such as parasitic wasps, for instance,
that use both sex pheromones and defensive compounds
during their foraging behaviour (Vinson 1985, Borges et al.
1998a, Bruni et al. 2000, Fiaboe et al. 2003).
In this review we report on identifications of the main
semiochemicals from Brazilian stink bugs populations,
illustrating the diversity of the compounds, the currents
methods used for extraction and identification and the
possibilities of using these compounds in pest control.
Defensive Compounds, Aggregation Pheromones
and Alarm Pheromones
Pentatomids produce a mixture of chemical compounds
that serve as both alarm pheromones and defence against
predators, so it is important to understand the difference
between defensive compounds and alarm pheromones. In the
literature semiochemicals can be separated into pheromones
and allelochemicals (Dicke & Sabelis 1988). Pheromones
are chemical compounds that mediate interactions between
individuals of the same species, and allelochemicals are
chemical compounds that mediate interactions between
individuals of different species. Within the allelochemicals
there are three classes, depending on the interaction between
the organisms involved: if the chemical mediates an
interaction that provides a selective advantage to the emitter
(e.g. an irritant that deters a predator), it is referred to as an
allomone; if the selective advantage is to the receiver (e.g.
when a predator uses a pentatomid smell to locate its prey)
it is referred to as a kairomone; if both organisms receive
selective advantage (e.g. herbivore damaged plant elicit
volatiles that attracts an insect that kills an herbivore), it
is referred to as a synomone. It is important to note that
these definitions are context-dependent (Dicke & Sabelis
1988). Thus a compound can be involved in one interaction
as an allomone, while in an interaction with a different
organism it may be a kairomone. Here we use the term
defensive compound to refer to semiochemicals produced
by pentatomids that serve as allomones, or to those whose
biological importance is still unknown. We use the term
alarm pheromone for compounds that were shown to induce
defensive behaviour (mainly dispersal and increased activity)
in individuals of the same species.
The Pentatomidae are well known for producing blends
of odoriferous compounds that serve mainly to directly deter
predation, warn relatives of impending danger and alarm
pheromones. The stink bugs produce these compounds in
two different types of glands depending on their life stage
(Aldrich 1988): the adults produce these compounds in the
metathoracic scent glands (MTG), while nymphs produce
them in the dorsal abdominal scent glands (DGAs), these
glands can be retained in some Pentatomid adults as
functional glands (Aldrich 1988, Aldrich et al. 1995).
The most commonly used method for extracting
compounds produced in the MTG and DAGs is direct
extraction of gland contents. The adult insects can be pinned
through the thorax with the dorsal side up, the edges of the
abdominal cuticle and the cuticle at the junction between
the thorax and abdomen are cut with dissection scissors.
The viscera are then removed, revealing the big orange
metathoracic gland (MTG).The gland is pierced with a flame-
stretched glass capillary, causing the contents to rise through
the capillary.The contents can be then emptied into solvent by
immersing the tip of the capillary into the solvent and briefly
passing charcoal-filtered air through the capillary (Pareja et
al. 2007). The standard method of extraction of defensive
compounds from the DAG of nymphs is by immersing the
exuviae of nymphs in solvent shortly after moulting. This
methodology was developed by Borges & Aldrich (1992)
and, provided the exuviae are collected soon after moulting,
a single moult of a fifth-instar nymph is enough to obtain
analysable quantities of defensive compounds. For earlier
instars several exuviae are sometimes needed. This method
works because the DAG contents are shed along with the
exuviae when the nymphs moult. Collection of volatiles by
aeration is also a common method used, but is less likely to
adequately sample minor constituents.
The semiochemicals obtained, in general, are analysed
by gas-chromatography (GC) and GC coupled to mass
spectrometry (GC-MS) for quantitative and qualitative
analysis. These methodologies are not specific to
Pentatomidae, and can be found in recent reviews and books
on analysis of semiochemicals (Millar & Haynes 2000, Vilela
& Dela Lucia 2001).
There are several studies detailing the qualitative
differences in the blends produced by nymphs and adults
(Lusby & Kochansky 1986, Aldrich & Yonke 1975, Borges
& Aldrich 1992, Farine et al. 1992, Blatt et al. 1998), and
between males and females (Aldrich et al. 1993a, Ho et
al. 2003). More recently Pareja et al. (2007) conducted
a study showing qualitative and quantitative differences
of the defensive compounds on five different species of
Pentatomidae found in Brazil.
3. September - October 2008 Neotropical Entomology 37(5) 491
The stink bugs Chinavia impicticornis (Stål), Chinavia
ubica (Rolston), Dichelops melacanthus (Dallas), Euschistus
heros (F.) and Piezodorus guildinii (Westwood) have had their
blends of defensive compounds evaluated both qualitative
and quantitatively (Table 1). All these studies showed that
the blends of defensive compounds are species-specific.
Table 1. Defensive compounds and alarm pheromones identified on Neotropical estink bugs captured in Brazil: Ci -
Chinavia impicticornis; Cu - Chinavia ubica; Dm - Dichelops melacanthus; Eh - Euschistus heros; Nv - Nezara viridula;
Pg - Piezodorus guildinii; Tl - Tibraca limbativentris; Tp - Thyanta perditor. List based on studies fromAldrich et al. (1978),
Lockwood & Story (1987), Borges & Aldrich (1992), Zarbin et al. (2000), Fucarino et al. ( 2004), Moraes et al. (2005),
Borges et al. (2006) and Pareja et al. (2007).
Continue
Compound Structure Masss spectra Species
Aldehydes
Hexanal
82(M+
, 20), 72(26), 67(17), 56(90),
44(100)
Ci, Pg, Nv
(E)-2-Hexenal
98(M+
, 14), 83(46), 69(72),
41(100), 55(70)
Ci, Cu, Dm, Eh,
Nv, Pg
(Z)-2-Octenal
126(1) 112(6), 97(19),
83(100),70(81),55(77),41(68)
Dm, Eh
(E)-2-Octenal
108 (1), 97 (11), 83 (47), 82
(27),70 (82), 69 (42), 57 (56), 55
(88), 41 (100)
Ci, Cu, Dm, Eh,
Nv, Pg, Tl, Tp
Nonanal
124(>1), 98 (31), 95(22), 83(33),
70(50), 57 (100) 41(90)
Ci, Pg, Tl, Tp
(E)-2-Nonenal
41(100),70(100),43(98),55(92),83(
73),96(38),111(25)
Cu, Dm
Decanal
128(3), 112(20), 110(15), 96(21),
95(23), 82(46), 70(58), 43(100),
57(95)
Tl
(Z)-2-Decenal
136 (2), 121(2), 110(20), 97(9),
83(82), 70(100), 55(51), 41(48)
Ci, Cu, Nv
(E)-2-Decenal
154(M+
, <1), 121(4), 136 (4),
110(12), 98(18), 83(46), 70(90),
55(72), 43(100), 41(88)
Ci, Cu, Dm, Eh,
Nv, Tp
(E,Z)-2,4-Decadienal
152(M+
, 5) 123(5), 108(4), 95(15),
81(100), 67(24), 55(16), 41(31)
Ci, Cu, Dm, Eh
(E,E)-2,4-Decadienal
152(M+
, 2), 81(100), 95(15),
73(27), 67(22), 55(10), 41(21)
Ci, Cu, Eh
Tridecanal
180(M+
, 2), 154(5), 124(28),
110(14), 109(24), 96(47), 82(73),
67(58), 57(100), 43(77)
Cu
Tetradecanal
194(M+
, 1), 184(1), 168(3), 152(1),
138(5), 124(7), 110(13), 96(43),
82(74), 68(55), 57(99), 43(100)
Cu, Dm, Eh, Pg
Esters
Hexyl acetate
101(2), 84(18), 73(17), 69(22)
61(25), 56(52), 43(100)
Ci
(E)-2-Hexenyl acetate
142(M+
, <1), 113(1), 100(16),
43(100), 82(26), 71(7), 67(40),
55(15)
Ci, Cu, Eh, Nv
(E)-2-Hexenyl butyrate
100(2), 83(10), 82(24), 71(100),
67(20), 43(47), 55(30)
Cu, Eh, Nv
(E)-2-Octenyl-acetate
128(M+
, 6), 110(9), 95(7), 81(20),
68(20), 67(21), 54(30), 43(100)
Ci, Cu, Dm, Eh
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
5. September - October 2008 Neotropical Entomology 37(5) 493
On the other hand, different species may have exactly the
same compounds in the blend, but these compounds are in
different ratios.
This specificity can potentially play an important role in
intra-specific communication and may help to understand the
phylogeny of some pentatomid groups, and to understand the
evolution of insect defence. For example the sister species,
C. impicticornis and C. ubica are more similar to each other
than the species E. heros, P. guildinii and D. melacanthus
(Fig. 1) (Pareja et al. 2007).
The defensive compounds have simple chemical
structures when compared with the sex pheromones produced
by these insects, making their identification straight forward.
Although some chromatographic and spectrometric data are
not yet available (as for some of the 4-oxo-(E)-2-alkenals),
we present spectra obtained for these compounds (Table 1).
The main compounds identified from the glands of
Brazilian stink bugs are: 2-alkenals (aldehydes with an
unsaturation at the second-third carbons), mainly the E-isomer
with very small quantities of the Z- isomer; saturated aliphatic
hydrocarbons; and 4-oxo-(E)-2-alkenals (C6
, C8
and C10
).
Esters, alcohols and unsaturated hydrocarbons are present
as well, but in lower quantities and in some species, such as
for the males of P. guildinii, various sesquiterpenes occur
(Borges et al. 2007a).The 4-oxo-alkenals are present in higher
quantities in nymphs of the pentatomids when compared with
Table 1. Continuation.
Compound Structure Masss spectra Species
4-Oxo-(E)-2-decenal
55(100),43(97),98(80),70(70),83(6
2),139(53),41(60),125(22),111(17)
Ci, Eh, Nv
Ketones
4-Hydroxy-4-methyl-
pentanone
43,59(53),101(16),83(3),
69(<1)
Ci, Cu, Dm, Eh,
Pg
6-Methyl-5-hepten-2-one
126(M+
, 4), 111(12), 108 (35),
93(14), 69 (38), 58 (17), 55(38), 43
(100), 41(55)
Tl
O
O
OH
O
O
26
15
36
22
12
33
25
21
11
29
37
28
7
32
27
2
9
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
0
1
2
3
4
5
-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6
CV1
CV2
Pg
Eh
Dm
Ci
Cu
26
15
36
22
12
33
25
21
11
29
37
28
7
32
27
2
9
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
0
1
2
-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6
Eh
Dm
Ci
Cu
Fig. 1. Canonical variates analysis (CVA) biplot forA) the analysis differentiating between species. The points are the individual
scores for each replicate, calculated from the CVAequation that maximises differences between treatments along the two dimensions
defined by the two canonical variates (CV1 and CV2). The lines are the loadings for each of the variates (compounds), and the
length of the line represents the relative magnitude of the importance of each compound in differentiating between treatments
in the two dimensions. For A) only the first two canonical variates (representing 85% of the variability) are presented out of the
four possible canonical variates. 2. 4-Hydroxy-4-methyl-pentanone; 7. Decane; 9. (E)-2-Hexenyl acetate; 11. (Z)-2-Octenal; 12.
(E)-2-Octenal; 14. Undecane; 15. Linalool; 21. (Z)-2-Decenal; 22. (E)-2-Decenal; 23. 1-Tridecene; 25. Tridecane; 26. (E,E)-2,4-
Decadienal; 27. 4-Oxo-(E)-2-decenal; 28. Unknown 2; 29. Tetradecene; 32. Unknown 3; 33. Pentadecene; 36. Tetradecanal; 37.
Tridecan-1-ol.
6. 494 Moraes et al. - The Chemical Volatiles (Semiochemicals) Produced by Neotropical Stink Bugs...
MTG of adult insects (Aldrich 1988). These compounds were
responsible for separating nymphal blends from adult blends
of Neotropical pentatomids (Pareja et al. 2007).
The biological role of most of these defensive compounds
still needs to be studied. Three of the compounds that were
identified in higher concentrations in Brazilian species,
namely (E)-2-octenal, (E)-2-decenal and (E)-2-hexenal,
were reported initially as defensive compounds (Gilby &
Waterhouse 1967) and later as alarm pheromones (Lockwood
& Story 1987, Pavis 1994). In addition, some of these
compounds are used as kairomones by natural enemies.
For example, the egg parasitoid Telenomus podisi uses
(E)-2-hexenal as a cue to find its preferred host, E. heros.
This compound has been tested in bioassays using a Y-tube
olfactometer and in the field (Peres 2004; Laumann et al.,
unpublished). However (E)-2-hexenal is a common plant
volatile, and is produced in large amounts by soybean, a major
host plant for E. heros (Moraes et al. 2008a). Thus it is not
yet possible to determine whether the parasitoid responds to
this compound as a cue directly associated to their host or as
a means of finding the habitat of their host. These aldehydes
have also been shown to have important anti-microbial
action, in particular against the entomopathogenic fungus
Metarhizium anisopliae (Borges et al. 1993). These blends
could therefore be important in determining susceptibility
of these insects to pathogens, a consideration of likely
importance in biological control efforts.
The esters, although in lower concentrations than
the aldehydes have also been shown to have biological
importance, mainly as an alarm pheromone in N. viridula
(Lockwood & Story 1987).
The aliphatic hydrocarbons are present in large quantities,
and in most species tridecane is one of the principal
compounds found in gland or aeration extracts (Aldrich et al.
1989, 1994; Moraes et al. 2005a; Borges et al. 2007a; Pareja
et al. 2007). However, in Edessa rufomarginata (Howard
& Wiemer 1983) and Edessa meditabunda (Moraes et al,
unpublished data) undecane is the most abundant aliphatic
hydrocarbon. Lockwood & Story (1985) found that tridecane
has an action as both an aggregation and an alarm pheromone
for N. viridula, in a dose-dependent manner, though recently,
Fucarino et al. (2004) did not find any biological activity
for tridecane in N. viridula. Lockwood & Story (1985) only
found effects at very high (alarm) and very low (aggregation)
concentrations. It is difficult to determine whether these
concentrations are biologically relevant, or those used by
Fucarino et al. (2004) are more realistic, since very high
amounts (up to 1 mg) of tridecane can be present in the MTG
at any given time. However the aggregation effect at very
low concentrations showed that these insects can detect the
compound in small amounts and this is likely to be a true
aggregation effect. Aldrich (1988) proposed that one of the
functions of the aliphatic hydrocarbons is to serve as solvents
that modulate the evaporation of the other compounds, and
this can explain the high quantities of these compounds found
in extracts of the stink bugs.
The 4-oxo-(E)-2-alkenals are compounds that have
only been reported in the true bugs (Suborder Heteroptera).
Borges & Aldrich (1992) identified significant quantities
4-oxo-(E)-2-alkenals in different instars of pentatomid
mainly (E)-4-oxo-decenal on the first-instar nymphs, and
the authors have postulated that this compound could play
a role as an aggregation pheromone. Later Fucarino et al.
(2004) showed that 4-oxo-(E)-2-decenal elicits aggregation
behaviour in first-instar nymphs of N. viridula, as had been
proposed by Borges & Aldrich (1992). However, there is
no further information on the biological activity of these
compounds, since they are unique to these species, and
therefore difficult to obtain. Compounds with very similar
mass spectra to, and eluting just after 4-oxo-(E)-2-hexenal
have been detected in Pentatomidae (Pareja et al. 2007) and
others Heteroptera (Drijfhout et al. 2002). However, it is not
yet clear whether these are produced by the insects or are
breakdown or rearrangements of 4-oxo-(E)-2-hexenal.
Sex Pheromones
The Pentatomidae show a fantastic variety in the chemical
structure of the few sex pheromones identified so far. In
contrast to the Lepidoptera, the Pentatomidae do not show
a structural pattern of the compounds following families or
subfamilies. For Lepidoptera it is possible to classify the
pheromones into either type I (75%), which are long, straight
chain (C10
-C18
) alcohols and their derivatives, mainly acetates
and aldehydes; type II (15%), which are polyunsaturated
hydrocarbons and their epoxy derivatives with a longer
straight chain (C 17
– C23
); or miscellaneous (10%) (Ando et
al. 2004). However, for some species of Pentatomidae it is
possible to observe a characteristic structural pattern at the
genus level.
So far all the studies with stink bugs have detected the
male as the producer of the sex pheromone (McBrien &
Millar 1999, Moraes et al. 2005a, Borges et al. 2006, Borges
et al. 2007a). On the other hand, females are responsible for
emitting substrate-borne vibratory signals that attract males
during initial courtship and males respond to this by emitting
a song that would bring together the partners for matting
purpose (ýokl et al. 2000, Moraes et al. 2005b).
Species of Nezara Group
The Nezara group includes more of 100 species within
eight genera, and they are cosmopolitan with higher diversity
in Afrotropical and Neotropical regions. Schwertner (2005)
conducedanewcladisticstudyofthisgroupconsideringChinavia
avalidgenusthatincludesAfrotropical,NearticandNeotropical
species formerly classified as Acrosternum. Following this new
classification, allAcrosternumfrom the regions cited above will
be refereed as Chinavia in this text (Table 3).
Of the species within the genera Nezara and Chinavia
studied from different geographic areas in the world, the
major components identified were: trans-(Z)-bisabolene
epoxide (trans-Z-EBA) ((Z)-(1cS,3cR,4cS)(-)-2-(3c,4c-epoxy-
4c-methylcyclohexyl)-6-methyhepta-2,5-diene) and the
corresponding cis-isomer (cis-Z-EBA) (Fig. 2) (Baker et al.
1987; Aldrich et al. 1987,1993 b; McBrien et al. 2001). The
trans and cis designations refer to the position between the
epoxide and the pendant group on the ring. These studies
7. September - October 2008 Neotropical Entomology 37(5) 495
showed that the specificity is guaranteed by the different
ratios of the two components produced by the different
species (Fig. 2) (Aldrich et al. 1989, 1993b; McBrien et al.
2001; MCB Moraes, RALaumann & M Borges, unpublished
data). Miklas et al. (2000) using solid phase micro-extraction
(SPME) methodology with N. viridula from different parts
of the world reported that there is a great variability in the
quantities of the sex pheromones produced between males
of the same species, but the ratio of cis to trans-Z-EBA is
constant within each strain of N. viridula.
Only two species in the genus Nezara, N. antennata and
N. viridula, had their sex pheromones identified, but nine N.
viridula populations were studied from different geographical
areas. All of these populations showed the trans isomer in
higher quantities than the cis isomer. In contrast to the Nezara
species, the Chinavia species presented higher quantities of
the isomer cis-Z-EBA. The exceptions are C. pennsylvanica,
which produces nearly equal amounts of the isomers, and C.
impicticornis, which only produces the trans isomer (MCB
Moraes, RALaumann & M Borges, unpublished data). Thus
C. impicticornis has a ratio between the components more
similar to the blend identified for Nezara spp. than other
Fig. 2. Percentage of trans and cis-bisabolene-epoxide (trans and cis Z-BAE) produced by males of Nezara and Chinavia spp.
from different geographic areas around the world.
O
O
trans-(Z)-Bisabolene-epoxide (trans-Z-EBA)
cis-(Z)-Bisabolene-epoxide (cis-Z-EBA)
0
20
40
60
80
100
Cis-Z-BASE
Percentage
of
trans
and
cis
Z-BAE
0
20
40
60
80
100
Trans-Z-BASE
N.
viridula
(Italy)
N.
viridula
(Australia)
N.
viridula
(Brasilia,
Br)
N.
viridula
(Londrina,
Br)
N.
viridula
(Wakayama,
Japan)
N.
antennata
(Kyoto,
Japan)
N.
viridula
(Kyushu,
Japan)
N.
viridula
(Mississippi,
EUA)
N.
viridula
(Maui,
Hawaii)
N.
viridula
(California,
EUA)
C.
hilare
(Georgia,
EUA)
C.
hilare
(California,
EUA)
C.
pennsylvanicum
(Maryland,
EUA)
C.
aseadum
(Brasilia,
Br)
C.
ubica
(Brasilia,
Br)
C.
impiciticornis
(Brasilia,
Br)
8. 496 Moraes et al. - The Chemical Volatiles (Semiochemicals) Produced by Neotropical Stink Bugs...
Chinavia species.
The function of the ratio of trans to cis-Z-EBA is still
unclear. Aldrich et al. (1989) reported that in laboratory
experiments males of N. viridula from Japan mated with
females of N. viridula from the USA (Mississippi), and
the offspring were fertile and produced a ratio of trans to
cis-Z-EBA of 1.53, which is intermediate between the two
parental blends.
Bioassays in the laboratory carried out with N. viridula
from Brasilia, Brazil, showed that females were attracted
only to synthetic EBA when both isomers are present in the
correct ratio (Borges 1995). The absolute configuration was
identified as being (1´S,3´
R,4´S) (1) (Baker et al. 1987), and
later Borges (1995) reported that females did not show the
same level of response (attraction) to the racemic mixture
as to the (1´S,3´R,4´S) enantiomer. A similar result was
obtained by McBrien et al. (2001) working with Chinavia
hilaris Say. Females of C. hilaris responded only to the
pheromonal mixture containing both cis and trans-Z-EBAin
the same ratio released by the males, additionally the absolute
configuration identified for this species was the same as found
by Baker et al. (1987).
There is a third component that is produced only by
males of Chinavia and Nezara species, which is the (Z)-Į-
bisabolene (Aldrich et al. 1989, 1993b; McBrien et al. 2001).
However, bioassays conducted with (Z)-Į-bisabolene with
C. hilaris did not provide any evidence that this compound
has biological activity, and there was no evidence regarding
its biological activity in other studies (Aldrich et al. 1993b,
Borges 1997). McBrien et al. (2001) proposed that because
of its great structural resemblance [including the (4S)
configuration] with the EBA, the bisabolene could be a
precursor to the pheromone components.
Euschistus heros
The pheromone components of E. heros were identified by
Borges &Aldrich (1994) andAldrichet al. (1994) and consists
of three components: methyl 2,6,10-trimethyldecanoate,
methyl 2,6,10-trimethyldodecanoate, and methyl 2E,4Z-
decadienoate (Table 2, compounds 1, 2 and 3). Zhang et
al. (2003) confirmed the ratio proposed among the three
components by Borges et al. (1998a), as being: 53% (2E,4Z)-
methyl decadienoate, 3% 2,4,6- methyl trimethyldodecanoate
and 44% methyl 2,6, 10-trimethyltridecanoate.The biological
activity of the three components was confirmed in a laboratory
bioassay and showed that methyl 2,6,10-trimethyltridecanoate
was the main component to attract females (Borges et al.
1998a). Costa et al. (2000) carried out a set of experiments
that showed that the racemic mixture of methyl 2,4,6-
trimethyltridecanoate was efficiently attractive to females
in laboratory bioassays. Methyl 2,6,10-trimethyltridecanoate
has eight possible stereoisomers. The absolute configuration
of methyl 2,6,10-trimethyltridecanoate was inferred by
means of bioassays using the eight stereoisomers separately,
which were synthesized by Mori & Murata (1994). Costa
et al. (2000) reported that females respond better to isomer
2S,6R,10S than the other isomers when compared with a
solvent (Fig. 3). In addition, they showed that one of the
isomers (2R,6S,10S) did not attract the insects, and most of
the insects responded to the solvent when this isomer was
used as a stimulus (Fig. 3) suggesting a possible repellent
action. However, the presence of this component in the
racemic mixture did not have an antagonist effect. Borges
et al. (1998b), using the racemic mixture of methyl 2,4,6-
trimethyltridecanoate, captured E. heros in field traps.
In the field, experiments were carried out in a soybean
crop by placing lures with 10 —g of racemic mixture of methyl
2,6,10-trimethyltridecanoate in traps (Borges et al. 1998b).
Traps containing the racemic mixture caught a higher number
of E. heros, along with another pentatomid, P. guildinii,
when compared with a trap containing only the septum with
solvent (Borges et al. 1998b). The racemic mixture in a lure
formulation attracted E. heros in field conditions with a
potential to be used in population monitoring (Borges et al.
1998b, 2007b, Laumann et al., 2007a).
Recently, Moraes et al. (2008b) carried out a simple study
of E. heros that revealed the importance of understanding
the physiology and the behaviour of stink bugs in order to
identify the correct sex pheromone blend. When the insects
were aerated with food (Phaseolus vulgaris pods), males of
E. heros released all three components in the ratio reported
by Zhang et al. (2003) during seven consecutive days. On the
other hand, when the insects were kept in aeration without
food, after 48h they stopped releasing the main component of
the sex pheromone (methyl 2S,6R,10S-trimethyltridecanoate),
and they released in higher quantities the first component of
the blend, methyl (2E,4Z)-decadienoate.
Thyanta perditor
Males of T. perditor produce the ester methyl 2E,4Z,6Z-
decatrienoate ((E2,Z4,Z6)-10: COOMe) as the main sex
pheromone component (Moraes et al. 2005a) (Table 2,
compound 10). The same component was also identified
in pheromone blend of the two neartic species Thyanta
pallidovirens Stål and Thyanta custator acerra McAfee
(Millar et al. 1997, McBrien et al. 2002) (Table 2, compound
7, 8 and 9). As in Nezara and Chinavia spp., Thyanta spp.
have very similar blends, which suggests that closely
related species of stink bugs share the same or similar
blends as sex pheromones, with specificity possibly being
due to different ratios of the compounds in the blend. GC
analysis of the extracts of males showed a male-specific
compound with a large and irregularly shaped peak,
suggesting a thermally unstable compound (Fig. 4). Mass
spectrometry analysis followed by high performance liquid
chromatography (HPLC) suggested the presence of three
conjugated unsaturations in the molecule, and a straight
10-carbon chain. The presence of fragments at m/z 105 and
74 suggested a McLafferty rearrangement of a methyl ester,
and along with the molecular weight of 180, it appeared the
compound was the same as identified for the other Thyanta
species. Comparison of the GC retention time, peak shape
and mass spectra of the unknown compound with standards
of the (2E,4E,6E)-,(2E,4Z,6E)-,(2E,4E,6Z)-.and (2E,4Z,6Z)
isomers of methyl (2,4,6)-decatrienoate, confirmed that
the compound produced by T. perditor is the ester methyl
10. 498 Moraes et al. - The Chemical Volatiles (Semiochemicals) Produced by Neotropical Stink Bugs...
2E,4Z,6Z-decatrienoate. Bioassays in the laboratory showed
that 4 —g of the methyl 2E,4Z,6Z-decatrienoate was attractive
to females of T. perditor (Moraes et al. 2005a). Traps baited
with 1 mg (E2,Z4,Z6)-10: COOMe, protected and non-
protected from sunlight, were more efficient in capturing T.
perditor than traps baited with the isomer (E2,E4,Z6)-10:
COOMe, the pheromone of a Neartic pentatomid species,
Plautia stali (Scott), and control traps. Additionally, traps
baited with the sex pheromone captured a significantly higher
number of insects than the sampling cloth technique, as well
as some tachinid parasitoids of stink bugs. Results from field
tests showed that the (E2,Z4,Z6)-10: COOMe has a great
potential in monitoring populations of T. perditor, and this
technique is more easily performed than the traditional cloth
sampling (Laumann et al., unpublished).
Piezodorus guildinii
The Neotropical redbanded stink bug, P. guildinii is
one species of the complex of stink bugs that are serious
pests of soybean in Central and South America, especially
in Brazil (Panizzi & Rossi 1991). The first pheromone
study of the genus Piezodorus was carried out by Leal et
al. (1998), working with P. hybneri, a species distributed in
Thailand, Korea, Taiwan, Japan and some regions of India
andAustralia (Shepard et al. 1983, Singh et al. 1989), which
reportedly produces three compounds: E-sesquiphellandrene,
(R)-15-hexadecanolide and methyl (Z)-8-hexadecenoate
(Table 2, compounds 4, 5 and 7) in the proportion of 10:
4: 1. Laboratory bioassays revealed that this blend is an
aggregation pheromone, attracting both sexes.
Recently, Borges et al. (2007a) identified a new
compound specific to males when gas chromatograms of
extracts of volatiles collected from sexually mature virgin
males and females were compared. This compound was
not found in aerations of sexually immature females or
males, and its retention time and mass spectra matched the
sesquiterpene E-sesquiphellandrene. This identification was
confirmed using an authentic standard, and the absolute
configuration was determined as (R)-E-sesquiphellandrene
(Borges et al. 2007a). The quantitative analysis of 10 extracts
obtained from volatile collection of 20 males resulted in a
mean liberation of sexual pheromone of approximately 40
ng/24h. The bioassays showed that females of P. guildinii
responded preferentially to (7R)-E-sesquiphellandrene, but
the authors did not test the attraction power of the compound
in the field, and the females also showed response to isomer
(7S)-E-sesquiphellandrene.
Tibraca limbativentris
The Brazilian rice stalk stink bug T. limbativentris
has three sesquiterpenoid isomers that were identified as
compounds specific to males, called 1´S zingiberenol, with a
chemical structure of (1RS, 4RS, 1´S)-4-(1´,5´-dimethylhex-
4-enyl)-1-methylcyclohex-2-en-1-ol (Borges et al. 2006)
(Table 2, compound 12). Because zingiberenol has three
chiral centers (positions 1´,1 and 4), there are eight isomers
(four enantiomeric pairs of diastereomers). The non-selective
synthesis produced two groups of isomers: zingiberenol I,
containing the four isomers of (1RS. 4RS, 1´R)-4-(1´,5´-
dimethylhex-4-enyl)-1-methylcyclohex-2-en-1-ol; and
zingiberenol II, containing the four isomers of (1RS. 4RS,
1´S)-4-(1´,5´-dimethylhex-4-enyl)-1-methylcyclohex-2-en-
1-ol ). Females of T. limbativentris responded to zingiberenol
II better than to zingibrenol I, suggesting that males produce
the isomer 1´S zingiberenol (1RS. 4RS, 1´S)-4-(1´,5´-
dimethylhex-4-enyl)-1-methylcyclohex-2-en-1-ol) (Borges
et al. 2006).
Conclusions and Future Directions
Within the Heteroptera there are about 38,000 described
Fig. 3. Mean number of female E. heros responding to the
eight stereoisomers of methyl 2,6,10-trimethyltridecanoate.
Fig. 4. Gas chromatograms of volatiles collected from live
male (top) and female (bottom, inverted) T. perditor: 1, Į-pinene;
2, ȕ-pinene;3, Į-ocimene; 4, (E)-2-octenal; 5, (E)-2-octen-1-ol;
6, undecane; 7, nonanal; 8, dodecane; 9, (E)-2-decenal; 10,
tridecane; 11, distorted peak from thermal decomposition of
methyl (2E,4Z,6Z)-decatrienoate; 12, pentadecane.
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Hexane
Methyl-2,6,10 - Trimethyltridecanoate
Females
(mean
+/-
SE)
2R,6R,10R
2R,6S,10S
2R,6R,
10S
2R,6S,10R
2R,6S,10S
2S,6S,10R
2S,6R,10S
2S,6R,10R
O
O
6 8 10 12 14
11
12
10
9
7
8
5
4
6
3
2
1
Retention time / min.
O
O
11. September - October 2008 Neotropical Entomology 37(5) 499
species, and an estimated minimum of 25,000 undescribed
species (Panizzi et al. 2000). Of the described species less
than 1% have some type of semiochemical identified, usually
only the defensive compounds (Table 3).
From the small sample of species presented here, it is
clear that a fascinating diversity and complexity of chemical
compounds are produced by these insects. The specificity
provided by the stereochemistry of the sex attractant
pheromones indicate a complex evolutionary scenario
for chemical communication and behavioral ecology of
pentatomid bugs and has biochemical implications. The
enzymes responsible for biosynthesis of these compounds
must be stereospecific, and the identification of the enzymes
involved will provide information on stereo-specific
catalysis, and may suggest precursors for development of
stereo-specific methods of synthesis.
The defensive compounds produced by these insects are
not as chemically interesting as the sex pheromones, but
their biological roles are proving very important. Borges et
al. (1993) showed that (E)-2-decenal and (E)-2-hexenal, both
present in the allomones of several Brazilian pentatomids,
have anti-microbial properties, inhibiting the germination
and development of the entomopathogen M. anisopliae.
Thus the presence or absence of these compounds could
be very important in mediating the success of biological
control efforts using pathogenic fungi. In aerations of T.
limbativentris these components were not detected (Borges et
al. 2006), nor were they found in preliminary MTG extracts
(M.C.B. Moraes, unpublished data). Interestingly, in the
field this species appears to suffer higher infection by M.
anisopliae than E. heros, N. viridula or P. guildinii (Sosa-
Gómez & Moscardi 1998, Da Silva Martins et al. 2004),
species in which these compounds have been detected (Zarbin
et al. 2000, Fucarino et al. 2004, Pareja et al. 2007). In future
studies it could be interesting to look at how variation in
MTG compounds affects mortality by fungi, both within
and between species.
Defensive compounds also mediate interactions of the
stink bugs with many different natural enemies. For certain
species it has been shown that the egg parasitoids Trissolcus
basalis Wollaston and Telenomus podisi Ashmead use
compounds present in defensive blends to orient towards their
hosts (Borges &Aldrich 1994; Borges et al. 1997, 2003; Conti
et al. 2004). Furthermore, T. basalis can distinguish between
male and female blends of Nezara viridula (Colazza et al.
1999)andthiscouldbeinfluencedbythedifferentcomposition
of stink bugs MTG of males and females (Pareja et al. 2007).
Additionally, some defensive compounds such as aldehydes
can attract spiders and kelptoparasitic flies (Milichiidae and
Chloropidae) (Aldrich & Barros 1995) and (E)-2-decenal
isolated from MTG of N. viridula, stimulates oviposition in
the egg parasitoid, T. basalis (Mattiacci et al. 1993).
The diversity of pentatomid semiochemicals makes them
an ideal system for studying the evolution of insect defence
and of sex pheromone specificity. Blends of defensive
compounds are species-specific, even though many of the
compounds are shared between species (Pareja et al. 2007).
Males and females also differ in their blends, and differ from
nymphs. Nymphs are commonly gregarious, and this could be
correlated with some of the chemical differences. Males are
likely to be more exposed to natural enemies than females,
since they produce the sex attractant pheromone and vibratory
signals to attract the female (Moraes et al. 2005b) that can be
exploited by natural enemies (Laumann et al. 2007b). Future
work could determine whether this difference in exposure
has had an effect on the defensive blends of males, and in
resulting alarm behaviour. The pattern of differentiation
of sex pheromones can also provide information on the
ecological conditions that generate pheromone specificity.
In particular the group of genera comprising Nezara and
Chinavia could provide interesting insights into pheromone
specificity, since their pheromones consist of isomers of
Z-EBAin different ratios. For example C. ubica has a similar
blend to the North American Chinavia species, while C.
Table 3. Number of species from different genera of Pentatomidae studied whose semiochemicals have been investigated.
BR indicates the Brazilian species studied, “*” indicate the species which their sex pheromones were studied and laboratory
bioassays or field tests were carried out to test the sex pheromone. “1
” new classification of Acrosternum from the regions
cited in this text is referred as Chinavia.
Continue
Genus Species studied References
Aelia A. fieberi (Scott) Tsuyuki et al. 1965
Apodiphus A. amygdali (Germar) Everton et al. 1974
Aspongopus Aspongopus sp. Prestwich 1976
Banasa B. calva (Say), B. dimidiata (Say) Aldrich et al. 2007
Biprorulus B. bibax (Breddin)
MacLeod et al. 1975; Oliver et al. 1992; James et
al. 1996, 1994
Brochymena B. quadripustulata (F.), Brochymena sp. Blum 1961, Leskey & Hogmire 2005
Caura C. rufiventris (Germar) Prestwich 1976
Chlorochroa C. ligata (Say)*
, C. sayi (Stål)*
, C. uhleri (Stål)*
Ho & Millar 2001a, b, c
Chinavia
C. ubica (Rolston) BR*
, C. impicitcornis (Stål)BR*
, C.
aseada (Rolston) BR*1
, C. hilais (Say)*1
, C. marginata
(Palesot & Bearvois)*1
, C. pennsylvanica (DeGeer)*1
Aldrich et al. 1993b, McBrien et al. 2001
12. 500 Moraes et al. - The Chemical Volatiles (Semiochemicals) Produced by Neotropical Stink Bugs...
Table 3. Continuation.
Genus Species studied References
Coridius C. janus (F.) Gunawardena & Herath 1991
Cosmopepla C. bimaculata (Thomas) Krall et al. 1999
Cyclopelta C. siccifolia (Westwood) Sagar et al. 2000
Delegorguella D. lautus (Stål) Prestwich 1976
Dichelops D. melachantus (Dallas)BR
Marques et al. 2007, Pareja et al. 2007
Dolycoris D. baccarum (L.) Schildknecht 1964
Edessa E. rufomarginata (DeGeer) Howard & Wiemer 1983, Howard 1987
Eocanthecona E. furcellata (Wolff) Ho et al. 2003
Erthesina E. fullo (Thunberg) Kou et al. 1989
Eurogaster Eurogaster sp. Schildknecht 1964
Eurydema
E. oleraceum (L.)*
, E. pulchrum (Westwood), E. rugosa
(Motschulsky), E. ventrale (Kolenati)* Ishiwatari 1974, 1976; Aldrich et al. 1995a, 1996b
Euschistus
E. conspersus (Uhler)*
, E.heros (F.) BR*
, E. ictericus (L.),
E. obscurus, (Palisot & Beavois), E. politus (Uhler),
E. servus (Say), E. tristigmus (Say)
Aldrich et al 1991,1994, 1995, 2007; Borges et al.
1994, Krupke 2001, Leskey, 2005
Eysarcoris E. parvus (Uhler)*
Men et al. 1999
Graphosoma G. rubrolineatum (Westwood) Tsuyuki et al. 1965
Halyomorpha H. halys (Stål) Lee et al. 2002, Khrimian 2005, Aldrich et al. 2007
Lincus L. malevolus (Roleston), L. spurcus (Roleston) Nagnan et al. 1994
Mecidea M. major (Sailer), M. minor (Ruckes) Keaster et al. 1996
Murgantia M. histrionica (Hahn) *
Aldrich et al. 1996
Nezara
N. antennata (Scott)*
, N. viridula (L.) BR*
,
N. viridula smaragdula (F.)
Waterhouse et al. 1961, Tsuyuki et al. 1965, Baker
et al, 1987, Lockwood & Story 1987, Aldrich et al.
1989, Brezot et al. 1994, Borges 1995
Oebalus O. pugnax (F.) Blum et al. 1960, Keaster et al. 1996
Oechalia O. schellenbergii (Guérin-Meneville)*
Aldrich et al. 1996a
Oplomus O. severus (Breddin)*
Aldrich et al. 1986a
Palomena P. viridissima (Poda) Schildknecht et al. 1964
Perillus P. bioculatus (F.) Aldrich et al. 1986a; Weissbecker et al. 1999, 2000
Piezodorus
P. guildinii (Westwood) BR*
, P. hybneri (Gmelin)*
,
P. teretipes (Stål)
Gilchrist et al. 1966; Leal et al. 1998; Borges et al.
1999, 2007a; Zarbin et al. 2000; Endo et al. 2003;
Endo et al, 2006, Huh et al. 2006
Plautia P. stali (Scott) Sugie et al. 1996
Podisus
P. acutissimus (Stål), P. fretus (Olsen), P. maculiventris
(Say), P. nigrispinus (Dallas)
Aldrich 1978, 1984a, b; Aldrich et al. 1986b;
Keaster et al. 1996; Sant' Ana & Dickens 1998
Poecilometis P. strigatus (Westwood) Waterhouse et al. 1961
Rhoecocoris R.. sulciventris (Stål)
Park & Sutherland 1961, Waterhouse et al. 1961,
MacLeod et al. 1975
Scotinophara S. lurida (Burmeister) Tsuyuki et al. 1965
Stiretrus S. anchorago (F.) Aldrich et al. 1986a, Kochansky et al. 1989
Thyanta
T. accera (McAtee)*
, T. custator accera (McAtee)*
,
T. pallidovirens (Stål)*
, T. perditor (F.) BR
Keaster et al. 1996, Millar 1997, McBrien et al.
2002, Moraes et al. 2005a, Aldrich et al. 2007
Tibraca T. limbativentris (Stål) BR
* Borges et al. 2006
Veterna V. patula (Distant) Prestwich 1976
Vitellus V. insularis (Stål) Smith 1974
13. September - October 2008 Neotropical Entomology 37(5) 501
impicticornis shows a complete absence of the cis isomer.
Understanding the mechanisms generating these differences
is likely to be a rich area of evolutionary research, perhaps
leading to new hypothesis on Pentatomidae phylogeny.
Twomajordifficultiesinthestudyofinsectsemiochemicals
is the unequivocal determination of behavioural activity, and
the development of simple, low-cost synthetic procedures
that make the use of semiochemicals economically viable
and practical. Purification and structural elucidation are
no longer the limiting factors with the improvement of
analytical equipment. However it must be noted that insects
can be much more sensitive to chemical substances than our
analytical equipment. This is most clearly seen in the study
of insect response to plant volatiles, where insects can detect
changes that are invisible to us, even with the most advanced
techniques (van Dam & Poppy 2008).
Determination of biological activity requires rigorous
testing of different behavioural circumstances to understand
whether the chemical compound of interest is mediating
the interaction being studied. Despite new methodologies
to monitor behaviour (i.e. computational automatized
systems of capture and analyses of insect behaviour), simple
bioassays are often critical to highlight the importance
of semiochemical. In addition, it is important to consider
how feeding conditions can affect the resulting pheromone
blend and activity (Moraes et al. 2008b). Determination of
biological activity is complicated by the difficulty of rearing
many species in the laboratory, and the resulting changes
in behaviour and general biology, even under strict rearing
conditions. We can never be certain that insects reared in
the laboratory will behave in the same manner as the wild
insects. However, use of field-collected insects is also not
ideal, since we do not know each individual´s semiochemical
history, plus insect behaviour studies in the field are hard
to conduct. Thus, by necessity, the only solution is to use
a combination of chemical, laboratory and field studies for
correct determination of biological activity. This highlights
the importance of the interaction between biologists, chemists
and biochemists in the study of chemical ecology.
Acknowledgments
We would like to thank Dr. Antônio Ricardo Panizzi for
kindly inviting this review. We are grateful to Dr. Jeffrey R.
Aldrich from the USDA-ARS - Invasive Insects Biocontrol
& Behavior Laboratory, Beltsville, MD, USA, for many
discussions and comments provided during the preparation
of the manuscript. Financial support by the Conselho
Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico
(CNPq), Fundação de Apoio à Pesquisa do DF (FAPDF),
International Foundation for Science (IFS) and EMBRAPA
(Empresa Brasileira de Pesquisa Agropecuária) is gratefully
acknowledged.
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Received 29/II/08. Accepted 15/IX/08.