Poverty is general scarcity or the state of one who lacks a certain amount of material possessions or money. It is a multifaceted concept, which includes social, economic, and political elements. Poverty in Pakistan has fallen dramatically, independent bodies supported estimates of a considerable fall in the statistic by the 2007-08 fiscal year, when it was estimated that 17.2% of the total population lived below the poverty line
Improving the Measurement of Poverty
By
Rebecca M. Blank
Mark H. Greenberg
1. Introduction
2. The Problem: An Out-of-Date Measure of Poverty
3
. An Improved Measure, Based on the Recommendations of the NAS Panel
4. Making Specific Choices for the New Poverty Measure
5. Recommendations Regarding How to Implement the Approach
6. An Example of What This Might Mean for the Poverty Rate
7. Conclusion
Appendix: Detailed Calculations for the Recommended New Poverty Measure
References
Measurement and Identification of Poverty in Preparation for the ‘World we wa...iosrjce
IOSR Journal of Economics and Finance (IOSR-JEF) discourages theoretical articles that are limited to axiomatics or that discuss minor variations of familiar models. Similarly, IOSR-JEF has little interest in empirical papers that do not explain the model's theoretical foundations or that exhausts themselves in applying a new or established technique (such as cointegration) to another data set without providing very good reasons why this research is important.
What is Poverty?
• “a state or condition in which a
• person or community lacks the financial resources
• and essentials to enjoy a minimum standard of life
• and well-being that's considered acceptable in society”
• Source: Pakistan Economic Survey 2013-14
Who are consider to poor?
People living below $1.25 a day as per 2005 international dollar prices are considered poor. Poverty line are drawn locally according to some set criteria
Who are considered poor in Pakistan
• a person is earning less than Rs.1745 per person is considered as poor in Pakistan.
• (source Pakistan economic survey 2013-14 where Survey of 2010-11 transpiring the above figure)
• Example. If a family consists of 5 members and their total income is less than Rs.8725 per month, than that family is considered as poor.
How many people’s are poor in Pakistan?
• Official view: World Bank calculations indicate that there are 21.04% of the population (2008 estimates)are living below the Internationally specified poverty line i.e. $1.25.
• (source Word Development Indicator 2014)
How many people’s are poor in Pakistan
• Independent view: According to a study conducted by SDPI (Sustainable Development Policy Institute)
• 1/3rd Pakistanis are poor
• (source The Express Tribune 25 Feb. 2014)
What is difference between absolute and relative poverty
• When poverty is measured considering the money necessary to need the necessities than it is termed as absolute poverty. Whereas relative poverty in concerned the quality of life with respect to the other members of the society.
How we measure the poverty
• Headcount Index
• Poverty Gap Index
• Squared Poverty Gap (Poverty Severity)
• Index
• Sen Index
• The Sen-Shorrocks-Thon Index
• The Watts Index
• And many others measures
Causes of poverty
• Conflicts and War
• Corruption
• Bad Geography
• Colonialism
• Higher population growth rate
• Low level of Industrialization
• External dependence
• Low Human Development
• Adverse Climatic conditions
Consequences of Poverty
• Poverty causes Low growth thus low development and prospective for up-coming generations.
• High infant mortality and Death rate
• High incidence of diseases
• Increased crime rate
• High conflicts and less social cohesion
• Less capability to utilized their endowed resources
What we should do
• As we cannot live alone the handicap brother and sister without help so we should not leave alone the 1/3rd fellow brother and sister of our nation alone.
• Since they will not be able to handout in the economic progress of nation. Thus we should prepare policies which are mostly socially inclusive.
Poverty is general scarcity or the state of one who lacks a certain amount of material possessions or money. It is a multifaceted concept, which includes social, economic, and political elements. Poverty in Pakistan has fallen dramatically, independent bodies supported estimates of a considerable fall in the statistic by the 2007-08 fiscal year, when it was estimated that 17.2% of the total population lived below the poverty line
Improving the Measurement of Poverty
By
Rebecca M. Blank
Mark H. Greenberg
1. Introduction
2. The Problem: An Out-of-Date Measure of Poverty
3
. An Improved Measure, Based on the Recommendations of the NAS Panel
4. Making Specific Choices for the New Poverty Measure
5. Recommendations Regarding How to Implement the Approach
6. An Example of What This Might Mean for the Poverty Rate
7. Conclusion
Appendix: Detailed Calculations for the Recommended New Poverty Measure
References
Measurement and Identification of Poverty in Preparation for the ‘World we wa...iosrjce
IOSR Journal of Economics and Finance (IOSR-JEF) discourages theoretical articles that are limited to axiomatics or that discuss minor variations of familiar models. Similarly, IOSR-JEF has little interest in empirical papers that do not explain the model's theoretical foundations or that exhausts themselves in applying a new or established technique (such as cointegration) to another data set without providing very good reasons why this research is important.
What is Poverty?
• “a state or condition in which a
• person or community lacks the financial resources
• and essentials to enjoy a minimum standard of life
• and well-being that's considered acceptable in society”
• Source: Pakistan Economic Survey 2013-14
Who are consider to poor?
People living below $1.25 a day as per 2005 international dollar prices are considered poor. Poverty line are drawn locally according to some set criteria
Who are considered poor in Pakistan
• a person is earning less than Rs.1745 per person is considered as poor in Pakistan.
• (source Pakistan economic survey 2013-14 where Survey of 2010-11 transpiring the above figure)
• Example. If a family consists of 5 members and their total income is less than Rs.8725 per month, than that family is considered as poor.
How many people’s are poor in Pakistan?
• Official view: World Bank calculations indicate that there are 21.04% of the population (2008 estimates)are living below the Internationally specified poverty line i.e. $1.25.
• (source Word Development Indicator 2014)
How many people’s are poor in Pakistan
• Independent view: According to a study conducted by SDPI (Sustainable Development Policy Institute)
• 1/3rd Pakistanis are poor
• (source The Express Tribune 25 Feb. 2014)
What is difference between absolute and relative poverty
• When poverty is measured considering the money necessary to need the necessities than it is termed as absolute poverty. Whereas relative poverty in concerned the quality of life with respect to the other members of the society.
How we measure the poverty
• Headcount Index
• Poverty Gap Index
• Squared Poverty Gap (Poverty Severity)
• Index
• Sen Index
• The Sen-Shorrocks-Thon Index
• The Watts Index
• And many others measures
Causes of poverty
• Conflicts and War
• Corruption
• Bad Geography
• Colonialism
• Higher population growth rate
• Low level of Industrialization
• External dependence
• Low Human Development
• Adverse Climatic conditions
Consequences of Poverty
• Poverty causes Low growth thus low development and prospective for up-coming generations.
• High infant mortality and Death rate
• High incidence of diseases
• Increased crime rate
• High conflicts and less social cohesion
• Less capability to utilized their endowed resources
What we should do
• As we cannot live alone the handicap brother and sister without help so we should not leave alone the 1/3rd fellow brother and sister of our nation alone.
• Since they will not be able to handout in the economic progress of nation. Thus we should prepare policies which are mostly socially inclusive.
The study specifically aims to review the status and determinants of poverty in Ethiopia. Ethiopia is amongst the poorest countries in the world, with a very low human-development ranking, or 174th out of 188 countries. About 23 million Ethiopians live in conditions substantially below the basic poverty line and food insecurity remains a major challenge. It is mostly a rural phenomenon, as the shares of the population below the poverty line in rural areas are higher than in urban areas. Over the past fifteen years, the headcount poverty rate declined by about 93 percent from 45.5 percent in 2000 to 23.5 percent in 2016. Between 2010/11 and 2015/16 about 5.3 million people are lifted out of poverty. Poverty gap and poverty severity indices have respectively declined from 10.1 percent and 3.9 percent in 2000 to 3.7 percent and 1.4 percent in 2016. Lack of asset/skill, backward attitude of people towards work, lack of income results in reduction of expenditure pattern, poor health leads to being unproductive, absence from work, less energetic, lack of education results in lack of skill, helplessness are the major factors of poverty. The empirical findings suggest that special attention should be given to improving crop and livestock market, veterinary services, health services, agricultural technologies and creation of awareness on family planning. Interventions like capacity building, agricultural research, agricultural marketing as well as infrastructures that enhance nonfarm activities in sustainable manner need to be designed to reduce poverty prevalence in the country.
class 12
economics
Poverty
India and Assam
class 12 poverty project
class 12 poverty ppt
class 12 poverty ppt on India and Assam
class 12 Poverty project on India and Assam
MANAGEMENT OF POVERTY AND ITS INHERENT CRISES AND CONFLICTS IN NIGERIA: THE R...Oluremi Okunoye
The paper examines causes of poverty and its attendant effects in Nigeria and the role the church is expected to play in alleviating poverty in Nigeria.
This presentation is part of a lesson on measuring disparities in wealth and development found at the following link : http://mcleankids.wetpaint.com/page/Measurements+of+Regional+and+Global+Disparities
Poverty as a Concept ( in relation with the World and India )Hardik Bhaavani
Poverty in India in relation to Economics Syllabus.
Indian Economy and Poverty.
Concepts,
Characteristics,
Causes,
Measurement,
Measures for Removal of Poverty.
Conclusion.
Poverty and health- a gap still to be bridgedvckg1987
this presentation was made to clear the concept that on basis of what parameters the poverty is made in India, various classification to define poverty, its relation with health mainly hunger and malnutrition.
The study specifically aims to review the status and determinants of poverty in Ethiopia. Ethiopia is amongst the poorest countries in the world, with a very low human-development ranking, or 174th out of 188 countries. About 23 million Ethiopians live in conditions substantially below the basic poverty line and food insecurity remains a major challenge. It is mostly a rural phenomenon, as the shares of the population below the poverty line in rural areas are higher than in urban areas. Over the past fifteen years, the headcount poverty rate declined by about 93 percent from 45.5 percent in 2000 to 23.5 percent in 2016. Between 2010/11 and 2015/16 about 5.3 million people are lifted out of poverty. Poverty gap and poverty severity indices have respectively declined from 10.1 percent and 3.9 percent in 2000 to 3.7 percent and 1.4 percent in 2016. Lack of asset/skill, backward attitude of people towards work, lack of income results in reduction of expenditure pattern, poor health leads to being unproductive, absence from work, less energetic, lack of education results in lack of skill, helplessness are the major factors of poverty. The empirical findings suggest that special attention should be given to improving crop and livestock market, veterinary services, health services, agricultural technologies and creation of awareness on family planning. Interventions like capacity building, agricultural research, agricultural marketing as well as infrastructures that enhance nonfarm activities in sustainable manner need to be designed to reduce poverty prevalence in the country.
class 12
economics
Poverty
India and Assam
class 12 poverty project
class 12 poverty ppt
class 12 poverty ppt on India and Assam
class 12 Poverty project on India and Assam
MANAGEMENT OF POVERTY AND ITS INHERENT CRISES AND CONFLICTS IN NIGERIA: THE R...Oluremi Okunoye
The paper examines causes of poverty and its attendant effects in Nigeria and the role the church is expected to play in alleviating poverty in Nigeria.
This presentation is part of a lesson on measuring disparities in wealth and development found at the following link : http://mcleankids.wetpaint.com/page/Measurements+of+Regional+and+Global+Disparities
Poverty as a Concept ( in relation with the World and India )Hardik Bhaavani
Poverty in India in relation to Economics Syllabus.
Indian Economy and Poverty.
Concepts,
Characteristics,
Causes,
Measurement,
Measures for Removal of Poverty.
Conclusion.
Poverty and health- a gap still to be bridgedvckg1987
this presentation was made to clear the concept that on basis of what parameters the poverty is made in India, various classification to define poverty, its relation with health mainly hunger and malnutrition.
The relationship between unemployment and poverty has been of interest to many a scholar with interest in development economics and social sciences. This paper is an addition to the empirical attempts to re-examine the relationship between unemployment rate and poverty incidence in Nigeria using secondary data sourced from relevant institutions to obtain major Social and Economic indicators spanning within 1980-2015. The study used Trend graph analysis, Correlation coefficient analysis and Granger causality tests in its analyses. As shown from the results, there is a positive-significant correlation between unemployment and poverty in Nigeria. More so, this was corroborated by the Trend graph analysis. It also established that unemployment granger causes poverty in Nigeria as suggests from the Granger causality tests. The economic implication of this result is that poverty is an increasing function of unemployment; and the Error Correction Mechanism (ECM) pointed that short run disequilibrium in the economy can be returned to equilibrium in the long run with a poor speed of adjustment of 6 %. In the light of these findings, this study recommends that efforts should be intensified in Nigeria towards implementation of unemployment reduction policies as this will significantly reduce poverty incidence.
Youth Unemployment and Poverty in Nigeria: Effective Social Protection as a P...ijtsrd
This paper examines the problem of youth unemployment and poverty in Nigeria, with a view of highlighting the need for effective and sustainable social protection strategy in the country. Majority of Nigerians are engulfed in the ocean of poverty. The Nigerian government seem to have shown lighter effort in its contractual obligation to provide socioeconomic security to its citizens. There is drastic collapse of social security, increase in unemployment rate and consequently high rate of poverty. Youth are very important stakeholders in any society; they are regarded not only as useful resources in nation-building but also the backbone of any societal development. The primary objective of this paper is to identify the dual problem of poverty and unemployment especially among the youths as the major disease that crippled the attempt by Nigeria to achieve sustainable development and at the same time ascertain the need for the formulation and implementation of effective and sustainable social protection strategy as a means of tackling the ever increasing rate of unemployment and poverty in Nigeria. The paper recommended that, for Nigeria to tackle unemployment and poverty problem, the priority of the people shall be identified, corruption must be eliminated and informal sectors, such as agriculture, shall be incorporated into the national economic priority, not public sector or oil alone. Muazu Abdullahi Ishaq | Sulaiman Isyaku Muhammad | Aminu Abdullahi | Jamilu Abdulahmid Bello"Youth Unemployment and Poverty in Nigeria: Effective Social Protection as a Panacea" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-2 | Issue-1 , December 2017, URL: http://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd5961.pdf http://www.ijtsrd.com/humanities-and-the-arts/sociology/5961/youth-unemployment-and-poverty-in-nigeria--effective-social-protection-as-a-panacea/muazu-abdullahi-ishaq
Addressing the political economy of conditional cash transfer as a poverty re...AJHSSR Journal
This paper examines the political economy of the conditional cash transfer (CCT) Scheme in
Nigeria within the context of poverty reduction efforts over the years. The concept, dimensions and some
theoretical explanations for poverty are once again revisited. The nature and operation of condition cash transfer
is examined, with an eye on the economics and politics of this scheme. Authors observe that as a social
redistribution programme, CCT is a potent safety net that could really help to break the cycle of poverty among
the very poor in the country. However, within the Nigerian context, the paper observes that the issues of a clear
cut target, beneficiaries, lack of institution framework, including a standardized Monitoring and Evaluation
(ME) procedure, coupled with the obvious use of the CCT for political expedience all aggregate to dim the
possibility, viability and potency of the CCT‟S success in reducing poverty in Nigeria. However suggestions are
made against the background of how this programme is being operated elsewhere in the world, as to how to
improve the operation of this scheme in the overall matrix of poverty reduction in Nigeria.
The Impact of Poverty on Under 5 Children in Rural Communities of the West Af...GABRIEL JEREMIAH ORUIKOR
Background: Under 5 children mortality is a significant
public health issue in West Africa, where poverty is
prevalent. Poverty is a complex and multifaceted issue that
affects various aspects of life, including health outcomes.
The impact of poverty on under 5 children mortality has
been extensively studied in West Africa, and this review
aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of the
findings of these studies.
Methods: This review is aqualitative Narrative review in
which systematic review procedures were employed to
search, select, and extract data from overviews that meet
eligibility criteria for this study. The search yielded a total of
1,245 articles; published between 2005 and 2023 in West
Africa, including Nigeria, Ghana, Mali, and Senegal. 78
articles were selected for full-text review, out of which 30
met the inclusion criteria and included in the final analysis.
The studies used different study designs, including crosssectional, cohort, and case-control studies. The sample sizes
ranged from 100 to 10,000 participants.
Results: The findings of the studies showed that poverty has
a significant impact on under 5 children mortality in West
Africa. Children from poor households were more likely to
die before their fifth birthday compared to children from
wealthier households. Poverty also affected the health
outcomes of mothers, which in turn affected the health
outcomes of their children. The studies identified various
factors that contribute to the impact of poverty on under 5
mortality, including malnutrition, lack of access to
healthcare, poor sanitation, and inadequate housing. The
studies also highlighted the role of community-level factors,
such as social support and community participation, in
mitigating the impact of poverty on under 5 mortality.
Conclusion: Poverty affects various aspects of life,
including access to healthcare, nutrition, and basic
amenities, which in turn affects the health outcomes of
children. Community-based interventions that address the
underlying causes of poverty and improve access to
healthcare and basic amenities should be strengthened,
designed better and implemented in collaboration with
stakeholders to ensure their effectiveness and sustainability.
Further research is needed to identify effective interventions
that can improve health outcomes in impoverished
communities.
International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Invention (IJHSSI)inventionjournals
International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Invention (IJHSSI) is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of Humanities and Social Science. IJHSSI publishes research articles and reviews within the whole field Humanities and Social Science, new teaching methods, assessment, validation and the impact of new technologies and it will continue to provide information on the latest trends and developments in this ever-expanding subject. The publications of papers are selected through double peer reviewed to ensure originality, relevance, and readability. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online.
Poverty implicates a condition where people are unable to afford the minimal standards of food, clothing, healthcare, education, and also not capable to continue traditions that are important to them. Poverty reduction strategies now receive high attention across the world because of the negative impact on the individual and national prosperity. The average poverty rate of about 68.40 percent is a clear indication that a majority of Nigerian citizens sleep below the poverty line despite the presence of poverty reduction programmes. The exploratory research method was deployed for the study in an attempt to explore the impact of NEEDS as a poverty reduction strategy in Nigeria. Through statistical analysis, it was found that NEEDS has not made significant positive impact on poverty reduction in Nigeria.
Poverty Alleviation: A Challenge for the Indian Governmentbeenishshowkat
I prepared this term paper project in my third semester of Masters in Political Science. Also, I referred to a number of other philosophers works in order to create a better project. I hope this will be of great help to anyone who views it. Thanks.
International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Invention (IJHSSI)inventionjournals
International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Invention (IJHSSI) is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of Humanities and Social Science. IJHSSI publishes research articles and reviews within the whole field Humanities and Social Science, new teaching methods, assessment, validation and the impact of new technologies and it will continue to provide information on the latest trends and developments in this ever-expanding subject. The publications of papers are selected through double peer reviewed to ensure originality, relevance, and readability. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online
American Research Journal of Humanities & Social Science (ARJHSS) is a double blind peer reviewed, open access journal published by (ARJHSS).
The main objective of ARJHSS is to provide an intellectual platform for the international scholars. ARJHSS aims to promote interdisciplinary studies in Humanities & Social Science and become the leading journal in Humanities & Social Science in the world.
Business Valuation Principles for EntrepreneursBen Wann
This insightful presentation is designed to equip entrepreneurs with the essential knowledge and tools needed to accurately value their businesses. Understanding business valuation is crucial for making informed decisions, whether you're seeking investment, planning to sell, or simply want to gauge your company's worth.
Affordable Stationery Printing Services in Jaipur | Navpack n PrintNavpack & Print
Looking for professional printing services in Jaipur? Navpack n Print offers high-quality and affordable stationery printing for all your business needs. Stand out with custom stationery designs and fast turnaround times. Contact us today for a quote!
Improving profitability for small businessBen Wann
In this comprehensive presentation, we will explore strategies and practical tips for enhancing profitability in small businesses. Tailored to meet the unique challenges faced by small enterprises, this session covers various aspects that directly impact the bottom line. Attendees will learn how to optimize operational efficiency, manage expenses, and increase revenue through innovative marketing and customer engagement techniques.
Memorandum Of Association Constitution of Company.pptseri bangash
www.seribangash.com
A Memorandum of Association (MOA) is a legal document that outlines the fundamental principles and objectives upon which a company operates. It serves as the company's charter or constitution and defines the scope of its activities. Here's a detailed note on the MOA:
Contents of Memorandum of Association:
Name Clause: This clause states the name of the company, which should end with words like "Limited" or "Ltd." for a public limited company and "Private Limited" or "Pvt. Ltd." for a private limited company.
https://seribangash.com/article-of-association-is-legal-doc-of-company/
Registered Office Clause: It specifies the location where the company's registered office is situated. This office is where all official communications and notices are sent.
Objective Clause: This clause delineates the main objectives for which the company is formed. It's important to define these objectives clearly, as the company cannot undertake activities beyond those mentioned in this clause.
www.seribangash.com
Liability Clause: It outlines the extent of liability of the company's members. In the case of companies limited by shares, the liability of members is limited to the amount unpaid on their shares. For companies limited by guarantee, members' liability is limited to the amount they undertake to contribute if the company is wound up.
https://seribangash.com/promotors-is-person-conceived-formation-company/
Capital Clause: This clause specifies the authorized capital of the company, i.e., the maximum amount of share capital the company is authorized to issue. It also mentions the division of this capital into shares and their respective nominal value.
Association Clause: It simply states that the subscribers wish to form a company and agree to become members of it, in accordance with the terms of the MOA.
Importance of Memorandum of Association:
Legal Requirement: The MOA is a legal requirement for the formation of a company. It must be filed with the Registrar of Companies during the incorporation process.
Constitutional Document: It serves as the company's constitutional document, defining its scope, powers, and limitations.
Protection of Members: It protects the interests of the company's members by clearly defining the objectives and limiting their liability.
External Communication: It provides clarity to external parties, such as investors, creditors, and regulatory authorities, regarding the company's objectives and powers.
https://seribangash.com/difference-public-and-private-company-law/
Binding Authority: The company and its members are bound by the provisions of the MOA. Any action taken beyond its scope may be considered ultra vires (beyond the powers) of the company and therefore void.
Amendment of MOA:
While the MOA lays down the company's fundamental principles, it is not entirely immutable. It can be amended, but only under specific circumstances and in compliance with legal procedures. Amendments typically require shareholder
Unveiling the Secrets How Does Generative AI Work.pdfSam H
At its core, generative artificial intelligence relies on the concept of generative models, which serve as engines that churn out entirely new data resembling their training data. It is like a sculptor who has studied so many forms found in nature and then uses this knowledge to create sculptures from his imagination that have never been seen before anywhere else. If taken to cyberspace, gans work almost the same way.
Cracking the Workplace Discipline Code Main.pptxWorkforce Group
Cultivating and maintaining discipline within teams is a critical differentiator for successful organisations.
Forward-thinking leaders and business managers understand the impact that discipline has on organisational success. A disciplined workforce operates with clarity, focus, and a shared understanding of expectations, ultimately driving better results, optimising productivity, and facilitating seamless collaboration.
Although discipline is not a one-size-fits-all approach, it can help create a work environment that encourages personal growth and accountability rather than solely relying on punitive measures.
In this deck, you will learn the significance of workplace discipline for organisational success. You’ll also learn
• Four (4) workplace discipline methods you should consider
• The best and most practical approach to implementing workplace discipline.
• Three (3) key tips to maintain a disciplined workplace.
The world of search engine optimization (SEO) is buzzing with discussions after Google confirmed that around 2,500 leaked internal documents related to its Search feature are indeed authentic. The revelation has sparked significant concerns within the SEO community. The leaked documents were initially reported by SEO experts Rand Fishkin and Mike King, igniting widespread analysis and discourse. For More Info:- https://news.arihantwebtech.com/search-disrupted-googles-leaked-documents-rock-the-seo-world/
[Note: This is a partial preview. To download this presentation, visit:
https://www.oeconsulting.com.sg/training-presentations]
Sustainability has become an increasingly critical topic as the world recognizes the need to protect our planet and its resources for future generations. Sustainability means meeting our current needs without compromising the ability of future generations to meet theirs. It involves long-term planning and consideration of the consequences of our actions. The goal is to create strategies that ensure the long-term viability of People, Planet, and Profit.
Leading companies such as Nike, Toyota, and Siemens are prioritizing sustainable innovation in their business models, setting an example for others to follow. In this Sustainability training presentation, you will learn key concepts, principles, and practices of sustainability applicable across industries. This training aims to create awareness and educate employees, senior executives, consultants, and other key stakeholders, including investors, policymakers, and supply chain partners, on the importance and implementation of sustainability.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. Develop a comprehensive understanding of the fundamental principles and concepts that form the foundation of sustainability within corporate environments.
2. Explore the sustainability implementation model, focusing on effective measures and reporting strategies to track and communicate sustainability efforts.
3. Identify and define best practices and critical success factors essential for achieving sustainability goals within organizations.
CONTENTS
1. Introduction and Key Concepts of Sustainability
2. Principles and Practices of Sustainability
3. Measures and Reporting in Sustainability
4. Sustainability Implementation & Best Practices
To download the complete presentation, visit: https://www.oeconsulting.com.sg/training-presentations
Accpac to QuickBooks Conversion Navigating the Transition with Online Account...PaulBryant58
This article provides a comprehensive guide on how to
effectively manage the convert Accpac to QuickBooks , with a particular focus on utilizing online accounting services to streamline the process.
Attending a job Interview for B1 and B2 Englsih learnersErika906060
It is a sample of an interview for a business english class for pre-intermediate and intermediate english students with emphasis on the speking ability.
Premium MEAN Stack Development Solutions for Modern BusinessesSynapseIndia
Stay ahead of the curve with our premium MEAN Stack Development Solutions. Our expert developers utilize MongoDB, Express.js, AngularJS, and Node.js to create modern and responsive web applications. Trust us for cutting-edge solutions that drive your business growth and success.
Know more: https://www.synapseindia.com/technology/mean-stack-development-company.html
3.0 Project 2_ Developing My Brand Identity Kit.pptxtanyjahb
A personal brand exploration presentation summarizes an individual's unique qualities and goals, covering strengths, values, passions, and target audience. It helps individuals understand what makes them stand out, their desired image, and how they aim to achieve it.
Remote sensing and monitoring are changing the mining industry for the better. These are providing innovative solutions to long-standing challenges. Those related to exploration, extraction, and overall environmental management by mining technology companies Odisha. These technologies make use of satellite imaging, aerial photography and sensors to collect data that might be inaccessible or from hazardous locations. With the use of this technology, mining operations are becoming increasingly efficient. Let us gain more insight into the key aspects associated with remote sensing and monitoring when it comes to mining.
RMD24 | Retail media: hoe zet je dit in als je geen AH of Unilever bent? Heid...BBPMedia1
Grote partijen zijn al een tijdje onderweg met retail media. Ondertussen worden in dit domein ook de kansen zichtbaar voor andere spelers in de markt. Maar met die kansen ontstaan ook vragen: Zelf retail media worden of erop adverteren? In welke fase van de funnel past het en hoe integreer je het in een mediaplan? Wat is nu precies het verschil met marketplaces en Programmatic ads? In dit half uur beslechten we de dilemma's en krijg je antwoorden op wanneer het voor jou tijd is om de volgende stap te zetten.
1. Developing Country Studies
ISSN 2224-607X (Paper) ISSN 2225-0565 (Online)
Vol.3, No.12, 2013
www.iiste.org
The Upsurge of Poverty: Obstacle to the Achievement of the
Millenium Development Goals in Nigeria.
OGEGE Sam Omadjohwoefe (Ph.D)1
Department of Sociology, Faculty of the Social Sciences
Delta State University, Abraka, Nigeria
Email: ogegesam@gmail.com
POSTAL ADDRESS: P.O Box, 33 Abraka Delta State Nigeria
Abstract
The paper highlights the upsurge of poverty and the challenges of achieving the Millennium Development Goals
in Nigeria. A purview of the secondary data reveals that a significant proportion of Nigeria’s population is poor.
This is a shocking paradox especially when viewed against its enormous wealth. Situating the discourse within
the positive feedback and the culture of poverty framework, the paper maintains that poverty breeds poverty in
Nigeria and this metamorphosed in a force of culture which is transmitted from one generation to another. This
culture is further reinforced and sustained by bad governance, corruption, unemployment and impotent poverty
reduction programmes. Given the rising poverty profile, the Nigerian government keyed into the Millennium
Development Goals-a new global partnership to eradicate extreme poverty and its correlates by 2015. It is
disheartening to note that, with several years of implementing the Millennium Development Goals in Nigeria,
poverty still persists. This no doubt, poses a threat to the realization of the Millennium Development Goals. The
paper recommends, among others, the formulation and implementation of policies that can overcome the
institutional constraints that militate against actualization of the Millennium Development Goals of eradicating
poverty in Nigeria within the targeted time frame.
Keywords: Nigeria, Poverty, Development goals, Corruption, Bad governance.
1.
Introduction
Nigeria is endowed with abundant human and natural resources. Despite its substantial oil wealth, it remains one
of the poorest nations in the world. There is generally a dismal performance of the Nigerian economy for quite
some decades now. The task of achieving economic growth and development is rather daunting. With this
economic predicament, Nigeria is sucked into the vortex of interlocking vicious circle of unprecedented poverty.
Majority of the people in Nigeria now lack sufficient resources necessary to maintain a minimally adequate
standard of living.
Disturbed by the scourge of poverty, Nigerian governments over the years have been making several efforts in
trying to eradicate the menace. Some of the programmes with poverty eradication thrust are Agricultural
Development Projects (ADP), River Basin Development Authority, Operation Feed the Nation (OFN), Green
Revolution (GR), Family Economic Advancement Programme (FEAP), Family Support Programme (FSP),
National Poverty Eradication Programme (NAPEP), National Empowerment and Development Strategy
(NEEDS) (Oladeji & Abiola 1998, Ewhrudjakpor 2005, Omonzejie 2007). While Nigeria is still battling with
poverty eradication, a new global partnership known as the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) was
introduced to tackle the global development challenges.
The Millennium Development Goals MDGs is predicated upon the nucleus provided by the United Nations
conferences of September 2000. It is not only a synthetic and integrated package, it also represents a bold
attempt to tackle the global development stagnation via a set of tangible quantifiable targets that are central to
the actualization of sustainable development. At the core of the Millennium Development Goals is the
recognition of the relationship between sustainable poverty reduction and sustainable development (MDGs
2005).
Poverty reduction is one and first among a set of eight strategic development goals globally packaged to fast
track sustainable development in all scales especially developing nations of the world. The onerous task of
1
OGEGE, Sam Omadjohwoefe (Ph.D) is a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Sociology, Faculty of the
Social Sciences, Delta State University, Abraka, Nigeria. He obtained a B.Sc degree in Sociology, from the
University of Calabar, M.Sc Sociology from University of Ibadan and Ph.D Sociology from Delta State
University, Abraka, Nigeria. His research interests are Sociology of Development, Inter-Group Dynamics and
Environmental Issues.
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accomplishing the goals especially that of poverty reduction has captured the attention and agitated the interest
of Nigeria. This growing interest and concern is envisaged, considering the global consciousness to address
extreme poverty with its correlates of hunger, disease, inadequate shelter, high child and maternal mortality, high
illiteracy level, among others. The paper therefore highlights the rising poverty profile and the challenges of
achieving the Millennium Development Goals in Nigeria.
2.
Poverty - a Conceptual Analysis
Poverty is a generic concept which scholars lack a consensus on the definition. This is because poverty affects
various aspects of an individual including physical, morality, knowledge, and character, among others. Ayanwu
(1997) lends credence to the above. He maintains that a concise definition of poverty is elusive because different
criteria are used in conceptualizing it. Galbraith (1969) defines poverty as a condition in which when the
incomes of a people, even adequate for survival, fall radically behind that of the community and as such the
people live outside the grades or categories which the community regards as acceptable. In a similar vein, Sen
(1987) sees poverty as the lack of certain capabilities that make it difficult for them to participate with dignity.
Poverty is also seen as the inability of an individual to cater adequately for the basic needs of food, clothing and
shelter. The inability encompasses social and economic obligations; lack of gainful employment, assets, self
esteem, etc (CBN 1999). These social and economic inabilities make it difficult for the poor to attain a minimum
standard of living.
There exist two types of poverty namely: absolute and relative. Absolute poverty, also referred to as subsistence
poverty, is grounded in the idea of subsistence-the basic condition that must be met in order to sustain a
physically healthy existence. People who lack these fundamental requirements (sufficient food, shelter and
clothing) of existence are said to live in poverty. The concept of absolute poverty enjoys universal applicability.
It is held that standards for human subsistence are more or less the same for all people of an equivalent age and
physique, regardless of where they live (Addison, Hulme and Kanbur, 2008).
The universal applicability of the concept of absolute poverty is not universally acceptable. It is dismissed on the
ground that a definition of poverty must relate to the standards of a particular society at a particular time (Fields,
1997).This inevitably draws us to the concept of relative poverty. Relative poverty on the other hand, is a type of
poverty that exists when people, though may be able to afford the basic necessities of life, are still unable to
maintain an average standard of living (World Bank 1996). It should be noted that the concept of relative poverty
presents its own complexities. This is because as societies develop, understanding of relative poverty must also
change. As societies become more affluent, standards for relative poverty are gradually adjusted upwards
(Townsend, 1979).
Apart from the typology of absolute and relative poverty, it is also categorized along five dimensions of
deprivation (Oladummi, 1994):
•
Personal and physical deprivation: This has to do with deprivation that is experienced in nutrition,
health, literacy, disability and lack of self confidence.
•
Economic deprivation: This category of deprivation comprises the lack of access to property, income,
money, etc. The most vital and common manifestations of poverty is denial of access to basic
necessities of existence.
•
Social deprivation: It is a kind of deprivation that involves the barrier to full participation in social,
political and economic life. A person who is deprived in personal and economic spheres of life may be
deprived of their fundamental human rights.
•
Cultural deprivation: This deprivation occurs when people are found lacking in values, beliefs,
knowledge and information. As a result of this deprivation, victims are not able to take advantage of
economic and political opportunities.
•
Political deprivation: It involves the lack of political voice. Those who are deprived politically suffer
marginalization and are subjected to coercion through physical or economic threats.
3.
Overview of Nigeria’s Poverty Profile
As noted above, poverty has many dimensions of deprivation that range from physical, economic, cultural to
political deprivations. The causes of this deprivation are situated within economic, situational and political
factors. A combination of these deprivations is used to determine the poverty profile of a given society. In order
to have a better appreciation of the poverty situation, the data on incidence of poverty by sector and zones
(National Bureau of Statistics 2005) is represented in table 1:1. The table shows the poverty profile in Nigeria for
a period of 24 years (1980-2004).
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Table 1.1: Incidence of Poverty by Sector and Zones, 2004
1980
1985
National
Total poor
28.1
46.3
Core poor
6.2
12.1
Urban
Total poor
17.2
37.8
Core poor
6.5
14.8
Rural
Total poor
28.3
51.4
Core poor
6.5
14.8
South South
Total poor
13.2
45.7
Core poor
3.3
9.3
South East
Total poor
12.9
30.4
Core poor
2.4
9.0
South West
Total poor
13.4
38.6
Core poor
2.1
9.0
North Central Total poor
32.2
50.8
Core poor
5.7
16.4
North East
Total poor
35.6
54.9
Core poor
11.8
16.4
North West
Total poor
37.7
52.1
Core poor
8.3
14.2
Population
in
Poverty 17.7
34.7
(million)
Source: National Bureau of Statistics (2005)
1992
42.7
12.9
37.5
15.8
66.0
15.8
40.8
13.0
41.0
15.7
43.1
15.7
46.0
14.8
54.0
18.5
36.5
9.0
39.2
1996
65.6
29.3
58.2
31.6
69.3
31.6
58.2
23.4
53.5
18.2
60.0
27.5
64.7
28.0
70.1
34.4
77.2
37.3
67.1
2004
54.4
22.0
43.2
27.1
63.3
27.1
35.1
17.0
26.7
7.8
43.0
18.9
67.0
29.8
71.2
27.9
71.2
26.8
68.7
In looking at the incidence of poverty by sectors and zones, it is observed that within a period of 16 years
(between 1980 and 1996), the total poor head count rose from 27.2 percent to 65.6 percent representing an
average increase of 8.83 percent. It should be noted however, that between 1996 and 2004, there was a decline
by annual average of 2.1 percent. In spite of this fluctuation, the fact remains that over 50 percent of the total
population is officially poor.
The general trend of the poverty profile is that the population of people in poverty has been on the increase. In
other words, as population increases, the number of people trapped in poverty also increases. The number that
stood at 17.7 in 1980 increased to 68.7 in 2004. (See Table 1:1). The geographical dimension of poverty shows
that the urban poor rose from 17.2 percent in 1980 to 58.2 percent in 1996. In a period of 16 years out of the 24
years under review, the core poor in urban areas rose from 3.0 percent in 1980 to 25.2 percent in 1996 but
declined to 43.2 percent in 2004.
The rural areas recorded a corresponding figure of 6.5 percent in 1980 and increased to 31.6 percent in 1996 and
declined to 27.1 percent in 2004. In comparative terms, the decline in the core poor is higher in urban areas than
in the rural areas. Whereas the decline in urban area was 38 percent, it was only 14 percent in the rural area. This
decline is far lower than the national average of 25 percent. It should be noted also that poverty has been
consistently above the national average in the three northern geo-political zones with the north east zone
recording the highest. Also whereas, other geo-political zones recorded a decline at some time within the 16
years, it was a consistent increase of the core poor in the North central zone (see table 1.1). The poverty situation
is confirmed by surveys carried out across regions and states in 2007 and beyond (UNDP 2009).
The high poverty profile in Nigeria is better appreciated with a fair knowledge of the key correlates of poverty.
Three correlates of education, occupation of head of households and household size from 1998-2004 is presented
in table 1:2.
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Table 1.2: Dimensions of Poverty Incidence in Nigeria 1998-2004
Dimensions of Poverty Incidence: Education
1980 1985 1992 1996
2004
Contribution to Poverty in
2004
No Schooling
30.2 51.3 46.4 72.6
68.7 47.6
Primary
21.3 40.6 43.3 54.4
48.7 4.9
Secondary
7.5
27.2 30.3 52.0
44.3 30.1
Post Secondary
24.3 24.2 25.8 49.2
26.3 4.3
All Nigeria
27.2 46.3 42.7 65.6
54.4 100
Dimensions of Poverty Incidence: Occupation of Household Heads
Poverty Head Count
1980 1985 1992 1996
2004
Professional & Technical
17.3 35.6 35.7 51.8
34.2
Administration
45.0 25.3 22.3 33.5
45.3
Clerical & Related Jobs
10.0 29.1 34.4 50.1
39.2
Sales Workers
15.0 36.6 33.5 56.7
44.2
Service Industry
21.3 38.0 38.2 71.4
43.0
Agricultural & Forestry
31.5 53.5 47.9 71.0
67.0
Production & Transport
23.2 46.6 40.8 65.8
42.5
Manufacturing
& 12.4 31.7 33.2 49.4
44.2
Processing
Others
1.5
36.8 42.8 61.2
49.1
Students & Apprentices
15.6 40.5 41.8 52.4
41.6
Total
27.2 46.3 42.7 65.6
54.4
Dimensions of Poverty Incidence: Household Size
Poverty Head Count
No. of Persons
1980 1985 1992 1996
2004 Contribution to poverty in
2004
1
0.2
9.7
2.9
13.1
12.6 0.6
2-4
8.8
19.3 19.5 51.5
39.3 19.4
5-9
30.0 50.5 45.4 74.8
57.9 58.9
10-20
51.0 71.3 66.1 88.5
73.3 20.5
20+
80.9 74.9 93.3 93.6
90.7 0.6
All Nigeria
27.2 46.3 42.7 65.6
54.4 100.
Source: National Bureau of Statistics (2005)
The heads of household with a post secondary school in 2004 was 26.3 as against 68.7 without any form of
formal schooling. The implication of this in terms of contribution to poverty is that whereas head of household
with post secondary education contributes 4:3 to poverty, those without formal schooling contribute 47.6 to
poverty (see table 1:2).
The occupational distribution of the heads of household shows that over the years, the occupation of the heads of
household has been predominantly farming. Apart from 1980 and 1996 when heads of household recorded
highest 45.0 and 71.4 percents in administration and service industry respectively, those in agriculture dominated
other years under analysis. The reason for this, among others, is that agriculture is the main employer of labour.
The National Living Standard Survey of 2004 shows that heads of household whose main occupation is
agriculture have the highest likelihood of being poor.
In terms of household size, a very high proportion of the population is characterized by large family size. The
factor responsible for this is that majority of the people live in rural areas where children are perceived as assets.
Secondly, the extended family and elaborate kinship ties are a major characteristic of the Nigerian family
structure. A household with four children and above has poverty incidence that exceeds the national average.
Households of nine children and above constitute over 70 percent of poor households and over 90 percent of
poor households have a size of 20 and above.
The above disturbing statistics on the upsurge of poverty is further corroborated by the figures of the
Harmonised Nigeria Living Standard Survey (HNLSS, 2010). A distribution of the population into extremely
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poor, moderately poor and non-poor in Table 1.3, the proportion of the core poor increased from 6.2 percent in
1980 to 29.3 percent in 1996 and then came down to 22.0 percent in 2004. For the moderately poor, the picture
was quite different as the proportion recorded increased between 1980 and 1985 from 21.0 percent and 34.2
percent respectively. It went down between 1996 and 2004, from 36.3 percent to 32.4 percent. On the other
hand, the proportion of non-poor was much higher in the country in 1980 (72.8 percent) compared to 1992 (57.3
percent) and 1996 (34.4 percent). Although it rose to 43.3 percent in 2004, it dropped to 31 percent in 2010.
What can be deduced from the above is that poverty has been on the increase despite the seemingly concerted
efforts aimed at eradicating poverty by the various regimes in Nigeria.
Table 1.3: Relative Poverty: Non-Poor, Moderate Poor and the Extremely Poor, 1980 - 2010
Year
Non-Poor
Moderately Poor
Extremely Poor
1980
72.8
21.0
6.2
1985
53.7
34.2
12.1
1992
57.3
28.9
13.9
1996
34.4
36.3
29.3
2004
43.3
32.4
22.0
2010
31.0
30.3
38.7
Source: NBS, Harmonised Nigeria Living Standard Survey, (2010)
4.
The Culture of Poverty and the Dilemma of Achieving MDGs: A Theoretical Reflection
The poverty profile in Nigeria over the years has consistently assumed an evolutionary trajectory. This trend
indicates that a significant number of people in Nigeria are living below the poverty line (Ikhariale 2007). In
spite of seemingly concerted efforts by subsequent governments to reduce poverty, Nigerians are getting poorer
by the day (Okumadewa 1997, World Bank 2000, Obadan 2001, Ewhrudjakpor 2005, Maduagwu 2007).
The theoretical framework that sufficiently explains the rising poverty profile in Nigeria is the feedback theory
also known as the vicious cycle of poverty. The theory has it that poverty breeds poverty. The breeding process
occurs through time and transmits its effects in a cyclical manner with no beginning and no end to the cycle
(Moynihan 1968). The main thrust of the theory is represented in figure 1 below
Fig 1: The Cyclical Nature of Poverty
Within the positive feedback perspective, poverty is seen as a system in which each unit reinforces the other and
thus maintains the system as a whole in a cyclical manner. At the beginning of the cyclical process is family in
poverty due to low income. This gives rise to low purchasing power and the inability to save. As a result of the
above, children are born into poverty. This reflects significantly in the education and acquisition of skills. So
they have to struggle very hard to get a job. This impedes their ability to escape from poverty. Children grow up
to start a family in poverty and the circle continues. In this cyclical manner, poverty begets poverty.
The positive feedback system that perpetuates poverty is what the American anthropologist, Oscar Lewis refers
to as the culture of poverty. Lewis (1966) argued that the culture of poverty is a response of the poor to their
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marginal position in a class stratified and highly individualistic society. He further stressed that the culture of
poverty goes beyond a mere reaction to a situation. It takes the force of culture because its features are guides to
action that are internalized by the poor and constitute a design for living that is transmitted from one generation
to another through socialisation. In relating the theory to the Nigeria situation, it shows that most Nigerians are
already in the poverty trap. This is explicated by the poverty correlate of the occupation of household that is
predominately agriculture with large household sizes. This peculiar circumstance makes it not only difficult for
them to escape from poverty but they also bequeath it to their children. Thus, a culture of poverty in which
people resign to fate is being perpetuated in the Nigerian society. The culture is being reinforced and sustained
by bad leadership, corruption, unemployment and impotent poverty reduction strategies put in place by those in
charge of governance.
It is disheartening to note that with almost thirteen years of implementation of the Millennium Development
Goals and less than two years with fewer than 1000 days to the target date of 2015, the poverty profile is
consistently on the increase. Unarguably, a greater proportion of the population still lives within the poverty line.
This is characterized by widespread unemployment, insufficient income, inadequate food, lack of basic health
care, lack of shelter, lack of safe drinking water, no access to basic education, and a host of others. This portends
a fundamental challenge to the achievement of the Millennium Development Goals of eradicating poverty by
2015.
The various attempts made over the years to eradicate extreme poverty have not yielded practical outcome that
have alleviated poverty. Lack of commitment and continuity, policy inconsistency, corruption, pervasively weak
institutional support, among others, hindered the efforts of government at reducing poverty. This evidence points
to the fact that Nigeria is not prepared to and cannot win the war against poverty within the 2015 time line. In as
much as the war against poverty cannot be won, the achievement of the Millennium Development Goals on the
eradication of extreme poverty by 2015 remains a mirage.
5.
Conclusion
The discourse sufficiently reveals that there exists an evolutionary trajectory of poverty in Nigeria. A significant
proportion of the population still lives below the poverty line. The trend shows that Nigeria, over the years, has
been experiencing a rising poverty profile. This unprecedented nature of poverty becomes more disturbing when
viewed against the background of her enormous human and natural resources. Despite the fact that various
regimes have responded through numerous interventionist programmes to eradicate poverty, no desired results
have been achieved. In other words, the more Nigeria tries to tackle it, the more poverty persists.
Nigeria warmly embraced the Millennium Development Goals as another opportunity with a globally packaged
impetus to tackle the problem of poverty once and for all. In spite of the interest and seemingly ambitious efforts
towards the Millennium Development Goals of eradicating extreme poverty by 2015, nothing substantial has
been achieved. Like past interventionist programmes, strategies aimed at eradicating poverty, Nigerian leaders
are yet to create the enabling environment that will impact on the poor. This indisputably, is incompatible with
the vision of the Millennium Development Goals in Nigeria.
For Nigeria to win the war against poverty and by extension achieve the Millennium Development Goals within
the targeted time frame, it must take certain bold steps. Nigeria must formulate and implement policies that can
curb corruption. Nigeria must, as a matter of utmost concern, ensure the pursuit of inclusive growth strategies to
promote broad participation of the bloated active labour force. The returns from the inclusive growth should be
reinvested in viable pro-poor projects that would enhance the productive capacities of the vulnerable segment of
the population. Leaders must develop strong political will to promote transparency and accountability in
governance. This no doubt will help to break the constraints that militate against the achievement of the
Millennium Development Goals anchored on sustainable eradication of poverty in Nigeria.
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